:-  K-VM 


auurnERN  bKANCh, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

iLOS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


HISTORY   OF    THE   WORLD 

Volume  II 


THE 

HISTORY  OF  THE  WOULD 

A  SURVEY  OF  MAN'S  RECORD 

EDITED    BY 

DR.  H.  F.  HELMOLT 

WITH     AN     INTRODUCTORY    ESSAY     BY    THE 

Right  Hon.  JAMES    BRYCE,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

COMPLETE    IN  EIGHT    VOLUMES 

VOLUME   II 
EASTERN   ASIA   AND   OCEANIA  — THE   INDIAN   OCEAN 

WITH  PLATES  AND  MAPS 


7a--  ••• 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,    MEAD    AND    COMPANY 

1904 

59(J76 


Copyrifiht,  1903 

Bv     DllDU.     MeAI>    and    CuMl'AXV 


• :  .• :  «. 


USIVEKSITV      rilESS    •    JOHN      WILSON 
AM>     SOS     •      CAMllltlOUK,     U.S.A. 


PREFACE 


v; 


'-1  ^  '7"'^LUME  II  of  the  "History  of  the  Work!,"  which  is  now  giveu  to  the 
public,  is  the  fifth  in  the  order  of  publication,  ^\'ilh  Volumes  I  and  III 
it  presents  now,  for  the  first  time  since  the  inception  of  this  work,  a  con- 
tinuous narrative  in  conformity  with  our  original  design.  Like  the  preceding  and 
the  succeeding  volume,  too,  we  hope  it  will  bear  elocjuent  testimony  to  the  conscien- 
tious care  with  which  that  design  has  been  executed.  Our  "  History,"  conceived  as 
it  is  upon  ethuogeographical  principles,  has  laid  itself  open  to  the  reproach  that  it 
violates  thereby  the  first  law  of  historical  writing  —  the  preservation  of  the  chnauj- 
logical  sequence  of  events.  In  reply  to  this  charge  we  may  justly  and  repeatedly 
declare  that  in  no  other  work  bearing  a  like  name  does  the  course  of  the  narrative, 
from  the  dimmest  ages  of  antiquity  to  the  present  day,  flow  on  as  illuminatiugly 
and  as  uninterruptedly  as  within  the  main  divisions  of  the  "  Historj'  of  the  World." 
(On  this  point  we  would  expressly  refer  the  reader  to  the  Editor's  Announcement 
in  the  Supplement  to  the  "  Allgemeine  Zeitung"  for  October  26,  1899,  already 
mentioned  in  the  preface  to  Volume  IV.)  Our  method,  indeed,  has  made  it  pos- 
sible to  wi'ite  history  from  the  broad  standpoint  of  evolution.  The  divisions  of  the 
subject  which  we  have  made  are  neither  accidental  nor  arbitrarj-.  They  are  based 
solely  upon  the  great  historic  fact  that  the  human  race,  originally  homogeneous, 
lias,  in  the  course  of  time,  become  subject  to  marked  differentiations,  and  that  these 
differences  find  expression  in  various  ethnic  groups,  between  whom  the  line  of 
demarcation  is  shai-p.  Thus  Volume  I  was  devoted  to  a  treatment  of  the  Amer- 
ican branch  of  the  human  race,  a  branch  which  in  the  course  of  centuries  has 
developed  into  a  mighty  stem.  In  the  same  manner  Volume  III  dealt  with  ilie 
history  of  a  second  great  unity,  embracing  the  peoples  of  Western  Asia  and  Africa. 
The  present  volume  fills  the  gap  between  the  two  by  taking  up  the  intervening 
element  between  America  and  the  western  Orient,  namely,  the  sphere  of  East 
Asian  and  Oceanic  civilization  in  all  its  subdivisions. 


vi  HISrOKY    OF    THK    WORLD  [/■-/«« 

Tliere  are  three  great  routes  along  which  nature  jwints  the  way  across  the 
PaciKc  (Volume  I),  from  America  to  the  eastern  shores  of  Asia.  In  the  north  the 
path  runs  from  Alaska  across  Behriug  Strait  to  Siberia ;  in  the  middle  latitudes 
steamers  plougli  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama  in  tlie  Britain  of  the  Pacific;  in 
the  soutli  the  way  lies  across  the  far-stretching  island-bridge  of  Polynesia  to 
Australia  and  Indonesia.  The  far  north,  however,  has  very  little  to  show  in  the 
way  of  historic  life,  and  the  authentic  history  of  Australasia,  in  compaiison  with 
tliat  of  tlie  world,  is  quite  recent.  We  have,  therefore,  had  no  liesitation  in  choosing 
the  middle  route  and  in  beginning  the  present  volume  with  the  history  of  Japan, 
followed  by  that  of  its  neighbours,  China  and  Korea.  These  are  naturally  succeeded 
by  Central  Asia  and  Siberia,  wlience  we  have  deemed  it  best  to  pass  on  to  the 
fifth  continental  division  with  its  numerous  dependencies  (Australasia),  whose  his- 
tory falls  almost  entirely  within  the  last  two  centuries.  The  second  half  of  the 
volume,  dividetl  into  three  parts,  deals  with  the  sphere  of  Indian  civilization  as  a 
whole.  Nearer  and  Further  India,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  the  Indian  Ocean, 
throughout  their  past  history,  have  constituted  a  firmly  articulated  entity  which 
ought  not  to  be  dismembered.  The  concluding  manogi-ajjli,  which  deals  with  the 
coimtries  bordering  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  brings  us,  it  will  be  found,  so  frequently 
in  contact  with  the  races  of  Western  Asia  and  Africa  as  to  make  the  section  an 
introduction  almost  to  Volume  III.  With  this  volume,  then,  we  conclude  our 
account  of  the  non-European  world,  an  account  which  we  deem  in  no  way  dispro- 
portionate to  the  merits  of  the  subject.  In  the  preface  to  Volume  III  we  spoke  of 
the  importance  of  the  history  of  the  Orient,  and  of  the  remarkable  degree  to  which, 
up  to  the  present  day,  it  has  been  depreciated  and  misunderstood.  There  are  so 
few  names,  indeed,  to  be  cited  in  support  of  ovir  contention  that  we  feel  compelled 
to  make  reference  to  what  has  been  saitl  on  the  subject  by  Gustav  Strakosch- 
Grossman  in  the  introduction  to  his  excellent  work,  Einfall  der  Mongolen  in  Mittel- 
Europa  in  den  Jahren  12^1  und  124-2  (February,  1893).  He  speaks  unqualified 
truth  when  he  says:  "The  scope  of  our  knowledge  is  .sure  to  be  broadened  by  a 
more  thorough  study  of  the  historical  literature  of  tlie  East,  which  contains  so 
much  valuable  material  for  the  history  of  medieeval  Europe.  A  systematic  exami- 
nation of  the  Oriental  writers  would  supply  the  historical  student  with  a  wealth  of 
new  data,  revealing  many  hitherto  unsuspected  contributions  to  the  history  of  the 
relations  between  the  peoples  of  Europe  and  of  the  East." 

This  verj-  aim  is  the  one  that  above  all  others  has  been  pursued  in  the  present 
work.  In  his  general  introduction  to  Volume  I  of  the  "  Hiatorj^  of  the  World,""the 
Editor  made  the  promise  that  the  work  then  begun  should  not  consist  of  a  mere  col- 
lection of  unrelated  monographs  dealing  with  different  nations,  but  that   there 


'■r'fce]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  vii 

should  be,  too,  "  bridges  that  connect  one  structure  or  division  with  another." 
Naturally,  this  difficult  task  was  made  possible  only  by  the  readiness  of  the  various 
writers  who,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  had  worked  up  their  subjects  indepen- 
dently, to  submit  to  changes  in  their  contributions,  which,  in  many  instances, 
amounted  to  much  more  than  editing  simply  for  stylistic  and  formal  purposes.  It 
has  been  the  Editor's  task  to  reconcile  or,  at  least,  to  soften  conti-adictiun ;  but, 
more  than  that,  it  has  been  his  to  bind  together  the  various  parts  of  this  work  into 
a  harmonious  whole.  Not  without  justice  does  this  "  History  "  bear  the  Editor's 
name.  The  latter  finds  in  the  fact  something  more  than  an  empty  and  little 
merited  honour.  Rather  he  deduces  therefrom  the  duty,  which  he  gladly  assumes, 
of  seeing  to  it  that  this  "  History  of  the  World,"  far  from  remaining  a  mere  collec- 
tion of  some  fifty  or  sixty  essays,  shall  be  fashioned  into  a  real  historj-  of  the 
liuman  race.  By  this  method  the  authors  of  the  various  parts  of  a  composite  work 
are  made  veritable  "  contributors " ;  but  by  this  method,  too,  the  Editor  assumes 
his  share  of  the  responsibility.  We  believe  the  time  has  come  for  making  this  fact 
public.  In  the  present  volume,  for  instance,  the  Editor  has  had  a  relatively  impor- 
tant part  in  the  revision  of  the  section  on  India. 

All  this,  however,  woidd  have  been  impossible  of  accomplishment  were  it  not 
for  the  valuable  assistance  the  Editor,  as  on  previous  occasions,  has  been  fortunate 
enough  to  obtain,  in  the  form  of  information  supplied  by  eminent  specialists,  as  well 
as  in  unselfish  support  on  the  part  of  his  younger  colleagues  in  the  historical  held. 
In  addition,  the  success  of  the  entire  work  is  due  in  no  little  measure  to  the  kind- 
ness of  those  public  authorities  and  persons  in  private  life  who  have  furnished  us 
with  valuable  originals  for  our  illustrations.  Our  special  thanks  are  due  to  the 
autliorities  of  the  Museum  of  Ethnolog}-  at  Berlin,  the  Imperial  and  Royal  Libraiy, 
and  the  Imperial  and  Eoyal  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Vienna,  as  well  as  to 
His  Highness  Prince  Roland  Bonaparte,  of  Paris.  The  greater  number  of  originals 
for  tlie  plates  accompan}'ing  the  section  on  the  history  of  China  were  placed 
at  our  disposal  by  Professor  C.  Arendt,  whose  early  death  occurred  January  30, 
1902  ;  for  those  on  the  history  of  Oceania  we  are  indebted  to  Professor  Dr.  Felix 
von  Luschan,  of  Berlin. 

In  view  of  the  frequent  and  general  complaints  of  Indian  and  Arabic  scholars, 
concerning  the  total  or  almost  total  lack  of  care  exhibited  by  works  of  a  popular 
nature  in  the  transliteration  of  Oriental  proper  names,  we  have  endeavoured  to  com- 
ply with  at  least  some  of  the  principal  demands  formulated.  In  so  doing,  we  have 
partly  followed  the  usage  of  the  learned  Jesuit,  Alexander  Baumgartner,  in  his 
monumental  Geschichte  der  Weltliteratur,  a  work  similar  in  plan  to  our  own,  and 
]iartly  have  availed  ourselves  of  the  guidance  afforded  by  Ferdinand  Justi  in  his 


viii  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  [/■«/.,« 

Iramsches  XaMcnhticli.  Thus  we  have  atteini>ted  to  preserve  the  distinction  among 
the  three  hard  sibihmts  in  Sanskrit,  the  palatal  s,  the  lingual  sh,  and  the  dental  s, 
as  well  as  the  dift'erences  between  corresponding  forms  in  tlie  other  consonants 
(n  =  guttural,  n  =  palatal,  n  =  lingual,  n  =  dental;  t  and  th,  d  and  dli  =  lingual, 
t  and  th,  d  and  dh  =  dental,  etc.).  M  is  pronounced  like  final  n  in  French,  espe- 
cially Wfore  sibilants  (samskrita),  and  before  h  (siiiiha).  On  the  otlier  hand,  we  have 
thtiught  it  vain  to  attempt  adecjualely  to  represent  the  rare  vowel  r  (similar  to  the 
Bohemian  vocalised  r).  The  hard  palatals*  c  and  ch  appear  as  such  in  the  section 
on  China,  elsewhere  we  have  represented  them  by  the  less  equivocal  combination 
tsch.  The  soft  palatals  j  and  jh  are  eveiywhere  represented  by  the  equally  prefer- 
able combinatit)ns  dj  and  djh.  All  such  other  departures  from  common  usage,  as 
may  occasionally  occur,  call  for  no  special  explanation  (c*/.  the  differentiation  in 
Sanskrit  of  the  long  vowels  &,  l,  and  u  bj-  the  use  of  the  circumflex,  which  the 
diphthongs  e  and  o  long  by  routine  do  not  require). 

"  We  have  given  ourselves  up  to  a  study  of  the  languages  of  the  East,  not  merely 
for  the  reason  that  the  genius  of  the  nations  of  the  East  has  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  Western  world  in  ages  past,  but  because  from  such  studies  we 
hope  to  derive  still  greater  gains  for  the  future.  We  fondly  expect  that  our  special 
study,  in  conjunction  with  other  rapidly  developing  disciplines,  will  be  instru- 
mental to  a  very  important  degree,  in  leading  man  to  abandon  his  narrow,  one-sided 
view  of  life,  and  to  re-endow  him  with  an  understanding  of  the  Beautiful  in  its 
universal  aspect.  And  for  those  nations  that  cherish  the  Beautifid,  ])ractical 
achievement  shall  go  hand  in  hand  with  spiritual  conquests.  It  is  our  chronic 
neglect  of  the  past  that  has  made  us  blind  to  universals."  Thus  Georg  Jacob, 
at  the  close  of  his  address  on  "  Eastern  Elements  of  Civilization  in  the  Occident." 
manfully  pleaded  for  a  widening  of  man's  spiritual  horizon.  May  his  words  pre- 
pare as  a  friendly  and  auspicious  welcome  for  the  present  volume  at  its  appearance 
before  the  learned  world. 


CONTENTS 


I.    .TArAN,  CHINA,  AND   KOKKA 

1 .    .lArAS 

a.  The  Country  and  its  People    .     .     . 

(a)    Configuration 

(6)    The  Population 

b.  The  Age  of  the  Gods  and  Heroes  (to 

the  Apparent  Foundation  of  the 
Empire  in  660  B.C.) 

c.  The  Legendary  Period  (until  the  In- 

troduction of  Buddhism,  552  A.  D.) 
(a)  Foreign  Relations  .  .  .  . 
(6)    Internal  Development    .     .     . 

d.  Buddhism  in  Japan   from  its  Intro- 

duction in  552  A.  I),  to  the  Present 
Time 

e.  The  Chaiise  of  Constitutional  Form 

(a)    The   Supremacy   of  the  Fuji- 


Pago 
1 


14 


IT 


19 
20 


«ara 

The  Wars  of  the  Taira  and  of 
the    Minamoto    (until  1185 

A.D.) 

/".   The  Minamoto,  the  Hojo,  and   tlic 

Ashikaga  (1186-1.573) 

(a)    Yoritomo 

(6)    The  Shadow  Shognns  and  the 

Hojo  Family 20 

(c)    The  Ashikaga 22 

g.   Christianitv  and  Foreign  Influence  in 

Japan  (1543  to  1624) 24 

(a)  History  of  the  Relations  be- 
tween Japan  and  Christian- 
ity   . 

(h)    Reasons    for  the    Rapidity  of 

the  Establishment  and  the 

Fall  of  Christianity  in  Japan 

((•)   The  Mode  of  Procedure  against 

the  Foreigners  adopted  by 

the  Japanese 28 

(d)  The  Situation  since  the  Reop- 
ening of  Japan  to  Foreign 

Nations 

A.   The  Period  of  the  Parvenus  (157.3 

1600)      

(a)    Xobunaga 29 

(6)    Hideyoshi 30 


24 


26 


29 


29 


Pnge 
(c)    The     Victory     of     the    East 

(lyeyasu) 33 

j.   The    Origin     and    Derelopnient    of 

Feudalism        34 

(a)    Anterior  to  the  Year  1615       .  34 
(6)    Under   lyeyasu   and   his  Suc- 
cessors    35 

k.    TlieTokugawa  (16a3  to  1868).     .     .  39 

I.    The  Fall  of  the  Shoguuate  ....  44 

(a)    The  Last  Tokugawa  Shognns  44 
(6)   The  Opening  of  Japan  to  the 

Foreigner 45 

(o)   The  Fall  of  the  Shogunate     .  47 

in.    The  Modern  I'eriod 49 

(a)    The      Restoration      of      the 

MiUdo     Uulc 49 

(/))    Japan's  Foreign   Policy  fmni 

1874  to  1893 51 

(-;)    The  War  agaln.st  China,  1894 

to  1895 52 

((/)   Japan  during  Recent  Years    .  54 

China 56 

a.  The  Name 56 

b.  The  Country  and  its  Population    .     .  57 

(a)  Configuration 57 

(b)  The  Population 59 

<■.   The  Mytlncal  Period 61 

</.  The  Legendary  Period 62 

e.  The   Religion,   Philosophy,  and  Civ- 
ilization of  the  Ancient  Chinese    .  64 

(a)    The  Religion 64 

(/-)    The  Philosophy 64 

(c)  TheCiviliztttionof  the  Ancient 

Chinese 68 

/.   The  Ancient  History  of  China  ...  .70 

(a)  The  Chan  Dynasty  (1122  to 

249  B.C.) 70 

(o)  The  History  of  the  Chan 

until  600  B.  C.      .     .  70 

(/3)    Kung  fu  ts/.c  ....  71 

(■y)  Meng  ts/.e 73 

(S)    The  Fall  of  the  Chan  .  74 

(b)  The   Chin    Dynasty  (220-206 

B.C.)    .......     .  74 


CONTENTS 


(f)    The    First   or    Western    llaii 

Dyuasty  (206  B.  C.-8  A.  I).)       76 
(a)    Kruiii  KaoTsu  toChiug 

Ti 77 

(/J)    Wii  'li 77 

(■y)    From    Clian    Ti    to  Ju 

tszc  Yiiig     ....       79 
(J)    The    IiiHuenoe    of    the 
Western     Man    iipou 
Literature  and  .\rchi* 

teitiirc 79 

(rf)  The  Period  of  the  Usurper 
Wang  Man^,  ami  the  Time 
of  Anarchv  (9-24  A.  1).)  80 

(e)    The    }.Ater  or    Eastern     Man 

Dynasty  (2.^-220  A.  U).     .       81 

l    Bnddhisni  in  China 81 

(<i)  The  Historical  Development 
of  the  Huddhist  Doctrine  in 

China 81 

('")   The  Influence  of  Duddhisni  on 

the  Chinese  Civilization       .       85 
I.   The  Medieval  llisiory  of  China    .     .       86 
(ii)    The  "Three  Kingdoms"  (216 

or  220  to  2ri.'>)    " 86 

(li)  The  Western  and  Ea-stern  Tsin 
Dynasty  (26.5-316  and  317- 
420) 87 

(c)  The  Period  of  Separation  he- 

twecn    North    and     South, 

420-581    (589)    88 

(a)    The  South 88 

(j3)    The  North       ....       89 

(d)  The  Sui  Dynasty  (581  or  589 

to  617  or  619) 90 

(e)  The  Tang  Dynasty  (618-907)  90 
(/)  The  Five  Dyna-siies  (907-960)  92 
(g)  The  Northern  Sung  Dynasty 

(960-1127) 93 

(A)   The  Southern  Sung  Dynasty 

(1127-1295) 94 

(i)    The    Mongol   Yuan    Dyna.sty, 

1206  (1260  or  1280)  to  1368       95 
The   Beginnings  of    Christianity    in 

China  (635-1368) 97 

(a)    Neslorianism 97 

.     (6)    The  Roman  Catholic  Belief    .       98 
.    China  during  the  Period  of  Transi- 
tion   from    .Medieval    to    Modern 
Times;  the  Ming  Dynajity  (1368- 

1644) 100 

The  Second  Period  of  Christianity  in 

China  (from  1581) 102 

(o)   The  Period  of   Prosperity  of 

the  Jesuit  .Mission       .     .     .     102 


Page 
(i)   The  Downfall  of  the  Christian 

Missions  in  China  ....     103 
(c)    The  Itetival  of  Christian  .Mis- 
sions in  China 105 

m.    The  Moilcrn  History  of  China      .     .     105 
(u)    The  Man.  Im  (Ta  Ching)  Dyn- 
asty (ir.44-1820)     ....      105 
(6)    The    .Manchii    Dynasty,    from 

1821  to  the  Present  Day  108 

(a)    From  the  Opium   War 
to  the  Conventions  of 

Peking 108 

(f3)  The  Disturbances  of  the 

Last  Forty  Years  109 

II.    Retrospect 1I2 

Korea 114 

(I.    The  Country  and  its  Population  .  114 

4.    The  Karly  History  of  Korea      .     .     .  115 

c.  The  Medieval  History  of  Korea     .     .  116 

d.  Korea   during    the     Transition    from 

Medieval  to  .Modern  Times        .     .  117 

(<i)  The  Predominance  of  the  Ming  117 
(fc)   The  Policy  of  Aggression   of 

llideyoshi 118 

e.  The  Modern  Period 119 

II.     CENTRAL   ASIA    AND   SIBERIA 

The  Earliest  Pkuiod  ami  the  His- 
torical BEGINSIN08  OF  Cestrvi. 
Asia 122 

a.  The  Country  as  the  Theatre  of  His- 

torical Events 123 

b.  The  Economic  Conditions    ....  127 

c.  The  Prehistoric  Period 130 

d.  The  Rise  of  Nomadism 132 

Centhai.  Asia  after  the  Rise  of  the 

Mongolian  No.mahs 136 

a.   Cieneral  Remarks 136 

(a)    The  Sources  of  our  Informa- 
tion        136 

(A)   The    Relation    of    China   to 

Nomadism 1,36 

(c)   The  Mixtiiie  of  Nationalities 

in  Central  Asia       ....     138 

/'.    The  Huns 139 

r.    Western  Central  Asia  and  the  adjoin- 
ing Countries 142 

(A   The  Tarim  Basin  (East  Turke.stan) .     145 
(n)    The    Tarim     Basin    and    the 

Trade    from   West  to   I''iust     145 
(4)    The  Cliaiiges  in  Commercial 

Intercourse 147 


CONTENTS 


XI 


Page 
(c)   The  Chinese  as  Conquerors  in 

the  IJasiii  of  the  larim  .     .  150 

e.  The  Western  Huns 153 

f.  Central   Asia  after   the  Fall  of   tlic 

Empire  of  tlie  Huns 155 

((()   The  Sieii  Vv  ami  tlie  Yen  Yen  155 

(A)    The  Uif^urians 157 

g.  The  Turkish  Knipires 157 

(o)    The  Hej^inniiigs 158 

(6)    The     Kastern     ami     Western 

Turks 159 

(c)   The  Kirghiz  and  the  Khitan  .  IGO 

h.    Tibet 161 

(a)    Prehistorie  Age  of  Tibet    .     .  162 
(6)    The  Empire  of  Tibet      .     .     .  163 
(<■)    The  Fall  of  the  Tibetan   Em- 
pire    16.! 

I.    Tlie  State  of   Civilization  and   Ueli- 
gion  in  Central  Asia  down  to  the 

Time  of  the  Mongols 164 

(a)    Buddliisni  in  Central  Asia      .  166 

\b)    v^oroastrianism  in  Central  Asia  167 

(c)    Christianity  in  Central  Asia   .  167 

((/)    Islam  in  Central  Asia    .     .     .  168 

Cesti:ai.  Asia  from  the  Mongol  Pe- 
Rioii  TO  Modern  Times 169 

a.  Genghis  Khan 169 

(u)    The  Beginnings  of  the  Mon- 
gols   170 

(6)    Genghis  Khan  (Temujin)    .     .     170 
(c)    The    Administration    of    the 
Empire       under      Genghis 
Khan 173 

b.  The    Mongol    Empire   down    to   its 

Partition 174 

c.  The    Fall    of    tlie    Mongol   World- 

Empire  177 

(a)  The  Beginning  of  the  Fall  177 
(6)    The  Western  Sections  of  the 

Divided  Empire      .     .     .     .  17'.> 

d.  Timur  (Tamerlane) 182 

((/)    The    Beginning    of    Timur's 

Career 182 

(/.)    Timur's  Campaigns    ....     183 

e.  The  Descendants  of  'I'imur  ....     185 

f.  Tibet  and   Eastern    Buddliism   after 

the  Close  of  the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury   187 

g.  Mongolia  and  the  Tarim  Basin  from 

1300  to  the  Present  Day  .  .  .  .  191 
(a)   The     Last     Descendants     of 

Genghis 191 

(6)    The  Empire  of  the  Calnmcks 

(1630-1757) 192 


Page 
(c)   The  Advance  of  Kussia  and 

the    Kestraining    Inlluence 
of   tlie   Buddhist   Teaching     193 
((/)    The  Age  of  the  Insurrections 

of  tlie  Dnngaiis  (182.5-1894)      194 
h.    Western  Turkestan  from  the  Fall  of 
tlie    Ilnn.se  of   Timiir  to  the  Ad- 
vance of  the  Hiissians      ....     196 
(u)    The    Kirglii/.   from   the  Com- 
mencement of  tlie  .Sixteentli 
to  the  (.'lose  of  tlie  Eigh- 
teenth Century 196 

<6)  The  Uzbeg  States  of  Khiva, 
Bokhara,  and  Khokand, 
after  1500 197 

SiisEitiA  AND  Asiatic  Hcssia     ....  199 

a.  The  Hyperborean  Zone 200 

(a)   The  Dolichocephalic  Hunters 

and  Keindeer-breeders    .     .  201 
(6)    Composite  Nature  of   Hyper- 
borean Civilization     .     .     .  203 
(c)   The    Northern    Migration    of 

the  Yakuts 204 

6.   The  West  Siberians 205 

(«)   The     Magyars,     Alani,     and 

Avars 205 

(i)    Ugrians 206 

(c)    The  Empire  of  Siberia   .     .     .  207 

c.  The  East  Siberians 208 

(«)   The    Northern    Migration  of 

the  Tungusians      ....     209 
(6)    The  Southeastern  and  South- 
ern Branches  of  the  Tungu- 
sians       210 

(o)    The  Wu  hwan  and  the 

Sien  lie 210 

()3)   The    Khi  tan,    Nu  cbi, 

and  Manchus    .     .     .     211 

d.  The  Nations  on  the  (oast  and  on  the 

Islands  of  the  Northwestern  Pacific 

Ocean 213 

(rt)    The  Common  Features  of  the 

History  of  Northern  Asia   .     213 

(5)  The  Separate   History  of   the 

Palajo-Asiatics 214 

e.  The  Russians  in  Siberia  and  Central 

Asia 216 

(n)   The  Cossacks  down  to  the  Year 

1600 217 

(6)  Kussian     Aggression     in    the 

East  and  West  (after  IGOO)     219 
(o)    The    Peaceful   .Acquisi- 
tion of    F.iustern   and 
Northern  Siberia  (un- 
til 1800) 219 


\ll 


CONTENTS 


I'uge 

(^)  The  Strusjjlt'  »''•'  ">'' 
Nomads  of  Soiiiliwest 
Siberia 221 

(7)  The  Kiideavours  to  ob- 
taiu  a  Secure  I'o.-ition 
on  tlic  I'arific  (aft«r 
1800) 225 

III.     AUSTRALIA    AXD  OCEANIA 

1.  Introiiuctohv  Remauks 230 

2.  ArsTHAi.iA  AM>  Tasmania  as  1'ahts  of 

TUE  IsiiAniTKii  Karth 23.1 

a.  Australia 234 

(a)   The  Pwition  of  Australia  .     .  234 
(t>)    The    I'hvsieal    fliaracteristios 

of  Austmlia 235 

(c)    Tlie  Hv,lr.i<rraphy  of  Australia  236 

(rf)  The  Australian  Climate      .     .  237 

(f)    The  Vegetation  of  Australia  .  238 

(/)   The  Animiil  Life  of  Australia  239 

{(/}    Australia's  Mineral  Wealth    .  239 

b.  Tasmania 240 

3.  The     ropii.ATios    of   Aisthai.ia    anu 

Tasmania 240 

a.    The  Anthropologieal  Position  of  the 

Auslmliaus 241 

6.    The  Anthropological   I'dsition  of  the 

Tasmanians 242 

r.   The  Whites 243 

4.  TlIF,      ASCEBTAINAHLE      FaCTS      IX      THE 

History   of   the    Aostralians    anm> 

Tasmanians 245 

a.   Conjectures  as  to  the  pre-European 

Period 245 

6.   The  History  of  the  Tasinaniaos    .     .  247 

c.  The  History  of  the  Australians     .     .  249 

5.  Thk  Colonial  History  of  Australia 

ANii  Tasmania 252 

a.  The  Opening  of  the  Colonial  History 

of  Australia 252 

(a)    The  History  of  its  Discovery     252 
(t)   The  Founding  ami  Karly  Days 

of  New  South  Wales       .     .     254 
(c)   The     Development     of     New- 
South  Wales  to  the  Middle 
of  the   Nineteenth  Century     262 
(a)    The  l.aml  tiucstion  .     .     265 
iP)    The    Transportation 

Question       ....     268 
i.  The  Growth  and  Development  of  the 
Daughter    Colonies   down    to   the 
Middle  of  the  Nineteenth  Century     270 


P»ge 
(a)    The    Effect    on    Colonisation 
produced  by  the  Wider  K.\- 

ploraiioii  of   the  Continent  270 
(/.)    The  Colonial   History  of  Tx* 

mania  (  Van  Diemen's  Land)  272 

(r)    Port  Phillip  (Victoria)  .     .     .  277 

((/)    Queensland 279 

(•)    Western  Australia      ....  280 

{  /')  South  An.stralia 283 

c.    The  Colonies  in  the  Second  Half  of 

the  Nineteenth  Century    ....  286 
(«)    The  Bestowal  of  Self-govern- 
ment        286 

(fc)    The  Discoveries  of  Gold     ,     .  289 
(c)    The  Development  of  Austra- 
lia to  the  Present  Time  .     .  291 
(o)    The  Kcononiic  Growth  291 
{fi)    Educational  Progress  .  294 
(7)    The  Military  Position  .  295 
{S)    The  Completion  of  the 
Internal  I  )evelopinent 
and  the  first  Oversea 
Expansion    ....  296 
(e)    The  Steps  toward  Fed- 
eration       298 

Oceania    as    Part   of    the   Imiakitek 

World 299 

a.   The  Position,  Size,  and  Distribution 

of  the  Islands 299 

6.  The  Coufiguration  of  the  Jslauds .     .  301 

c.  The  Climate  of  Oceania 302 

(I.  The  Flora  of  Oceania 303 

c    The  Fauna  of  Oceania 304 

The  Poi'ulatiiin  of  (Veania  ....  305 
<i.   The  Anthro|)ological  Position  of  the 

Oceanians 305 

/).    The  Wanderings  of  the  Oceanians    .  306 

The  History  of  the  Oceanians      .     .  .308 
'I.   Conjectures  as  to  the  Primitive  His- 
tory of  the  Oceanians  308 

6.    The  Hi.story  of  the  Melanesians    .     .  310 

(n)    General  Remarks 310 

(I,)    Fiji            312 

r.   The  History  of  the  Micmnesians  .     .  313 

d.  The  History  of  the  Polynesians    .     .  314 

(«)    Eaiit  Polynesia 315 

(a)   Tahiti 315 

(3)    The  Remaining  Archi- 

pehigocs 316 

(y)   Rapanui  (Easter  Island)  317 

(J)    Pitcairn 318 

((.)    Hawaii 319 

(o)    The  Pagan  Period  .     .  319 


CONTENTS 


xiu 


Paga 

(/3)  The  Christian  Period  to 
tlic  Extinction  of  tlie 
line  of  Kamehameha     320 

(7)  The     Last     I'erioil    of 

Hawaii  as  an   luile- 
pendent  State  .     .     .    322 

c)    Samoa 324 

(o)  History  of  Samoa  Proper    325 

(8)  The     Invasions      from 

Outside 326 

(7)   Samoa  and  the  Powers    327 

(d)  Tonga 328 

(e)  New  Zealand 331 

^o)  The  Position  and  Physi- 
cal Featnns  of  New 
Zealand 331 

($)  The  History  of  the 
Maoris  to  tlie  Year 
1839 332 

(7)  The  Treaty  of  Waitangi    335 

(S)  The  Fortunes  of  tlie 
Maoris  from  1840  to 
the  Present  Day  .     .     337 

(e)   The    Colonial    Develo))- 

ment  of  New  Zealand     339 

9.    Missionary  Work  in  the  South  Sea    340 

a.   Missions  in  Australia 340 

h.   Missions  in  Oceania 340 

10.  The  Colonial  History  of  the  Sodth 

Sea 342 

11.  The  Antarctic  Region 344 

IV.     INDIA 

1.  The  Characteristics  OF  Nearer  India     345 

a.   The  Country *.     .     .  345 

(a)    General  Observations     .     .  345 
(6)    The     Configuration     of     the 

Country 346 

(c)   The  (icosjraphical  Position     .  348 

h.   The  Population 350 

(a)    Physical  Characteristics     .     .  350 

(6)   The  Languages  of  India     .     .  352 
(c)    The  Distriliution  of  the  Indian 

Religions 353 

(</)   The  Caste  System     ....  355 

2.  The  History  of  India 355 

a.    Ancient  India 3.55 

(a)   Prehistoric  Age 355 

(a)    The    Original    Inhabi- 
tants of  the  Country     355 
{$)    The  Iranian-Indian  Ar- 
yans in  their  Original 
Abode      .....     360 


Page 
(6)  The  First  Stage  of  Aryan  Im- 
migration into  the  Punjab  .  363 
(a)  The  Houte  of  Migration  363 
(p)  Progress  in  Civilization  365 
(7)  The  Keligion  of  the 
Indian  Aryans  in  the 

Punjab 367 

(r)    The  Expansion  of  the  Aryans 

in  the  Ganges  Territory       .     368 
(a)    Historical  Evidences  — 

The  Mahabharata      .     369 
(/3)    Political      and     Social 

Changes 373 

(7)   The    Brahman    Caste 

System 374 

(5)   The  Brahman   Philoso- 
phy       382 

(e)  Brahman  Theology  384 

(f)  The  Extension  of  Brah- 

mauism     to    South 

India 385 

(7))    The  Early  Kingdoms  in 

the  South  of  India    .     387 
{$)    The  Advance  of  Brah- 
manism  to  the  Mala- 
bar (\)ast     ....     388 
(rf)    Buddhism  in  India    ....     389 
(a)    The  Life  of  Buddha      .     390 
(/j)    The  "Three  Councils"     393 
(7)    The  Historical  Person- 
ality of  Buddha     .     .     394 
(5)    Buddhism  in  the  Period 

after  Asoka      ...     397 
(c)    Buddhist  Monasticism  .     398 
(f)    Buddhism  in  its  Impor- 
tance to  Indian  Civili- 
zation        399 

(7,)   Jainism 402 

(c)  The  Period  from  the  Expedi- 
tion of  Alexander  the  Great 
to  the  Entrance  of  Moham- 
medanism        404 

(a)   Alexander's  Expedition 

against  India   .     .     .     404 
(j3)    The      Kingdom     of 
Magadha;   Chandra 
gupta  and  Asoka  .     .     405 
(7)    The    Scythian-Tibetan 
Kingdom    in    North- 
west India  ....     406 
(5)   The  Hindu  Dynasty  of 
North     and    Central 
India  during  the  First 
Millennium,  A.D.      .     407 
(()    Hinduism 408 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


(1)  Kuildhisni;    its 

Kxieu»ii>ii  and 
Division,  etc.  .     408 

(2)  Tlie  Himlu  Reli- 

gion ....     410 

(3)  The  Hindu  Con- 

ception    of 
Caste     .     .     .    413 

(4)  The   Position  of 

the  Woman     .     414 

(5)  The    Pursuit   of 

Science    and 
Art    by    the 
Brahnians  .     .     415 
The  Mohammedan  IVriod  of  India 

(1001-1740) 419 

{a)    The    Helipous    Struggle   be- 
tween Islam  and  Hinduism 

(1001-1. i26) 419 

(a)    The  House  of  Ghazui    .     420 
(/3)    The  House  of  Ghor      .     421 
(y)   The  -Mameluke  Rulers 
("  The  Slave  or  First 
Tartar  Dynasty")     .     422 

(5)  The    House    of    Khilji 

(the    Second    Tartar 
Dynasty)      ....     424 
(f)   The  House  of  Tughlak 
(the     Third    Tartar 
Dynasty)      ....     426 
(f)    The  Seiads      ....     428 
(I))    The  House  of  I>6di  .     .     428 
\6)    Political  ("hanees  in  the 
Soutli  of  India  since 

1347 428 

(t;    The    Mogul    Empire   of   tlie 
Timurites  until  'Alamgir  II 

(1526-1759) 429 

(o)    Baber 429 

((S)   Humayfln  and  the  Suri 

Dynasty 431 

(7)    Akbar 432 

(J)    Jehangir 436 

(e)  Shah  .leh.in      ....     438 

(f)  The      Karly     Years    of 

Aurang  7.eh      .     .     .     439 
(i;)    The  Foundation  of  the 

Mahratta  Power   .     .     440 

(6)  The  Fall  of  Aurang  lib     442 
li)    The  Later  .Mogul  Em- 
perors        443 

(k)   The  Sikhs 444 

(A)  The  Invasions  of  Hin- 
liostan  by  Nadir  Shah 
anil  Ahmeil  Durrani     445 


(/»)  The  Mahratta  Kingdom 
at  the  Height  of  its 

Power 446 

(v)  The  Transformation  of 
the  Mahratta  State 
into  a  Loose  Confed- 
eracy   448 

({)   The    Kingdom    of   the 

Nizam 448 

c.    The  Opening  of  India  by  Europeans 
and   the   Struggle    for    Economic 
Supremacy  (1498-1858)    ....     44',! 
(a)  The  Discovery  of  the  Maritime 
Passage  to  India  from  West 
to    East,    and    the    conse- 
quent   Commercial    Enter- 
prises of   European    States 

(1498-1740)        449 

(a)  The  Portuguese  in  India     450 
(fl)  The  Dutch  in  India.     .     452 
(y)  The  Commercial  I'nder- 
takings  of  other  Eu- 
ropean States  .     .     .     454 
(8)   The  First  English  Set- 
tlements      ....     455 
(6)    The  Struggle  of  the  English 
and    French    for    Predomi- 
nance in  India  (1740-1760)     459 

(o)    Dupleix 460 

[P)  Clive's  First  Appear- 
ance    and     Military 

Success 461 

((■)   The  Period  of  Extortion,  1760 

to  1798 462 

(a)    Clive's  Second  Appear- 
^  ance  in  India   .     .     .    462 

(3)  Mir  Kasim;  Further 
Success  on  the  Part 
of  the  Company 
(1761-1765)  and  Cor- 
ruption of  its  ( IfiiciaU  464 
(7)  Clive's  liLst  Appearance 
in  India,  and  his 

Death 466 

(J)  The  First  War  of  the 
English  Company 
with     Hyder   Ali    of 

Mysore 466 

(«)  Warren  Hastings  .  .  467 
(f)  The  First  War  of  the 
English  Company 
with  the  Mahrattas; 
the  Second  War  with 
Mysore ;  the  Return 
of  Hastings       .     .     .     469 


CONTEXTS 


XV 


(i|)  Lord  Comwallis ;  the 
Third  War  against 
Mysore 

(•)   Sir  John  Shore  and  the 
Compiiboi7     "  Sob- 
sidiarT  Alliances  ~ 
(rf)  Tbe  Imperalist   Idea  and  the 

Age    of    great    Territorial 

Aeqnigtion  (179»-l$a8) 

(■Ji  WeUesJej;  tbe  Detfk 
of  Tippo :  the  Secant 
Slahratta  YTar     .    . 

O)  Sir  George  YiaAcm  .    . 

(t)  lord  Miato;  tbe  Opea- 
ing  of  Potitkal  Bda- 


470 


471 


479 


472 
474 


States 

(<)  Lnd  Moiia  I  Haalii^) : 
tbe  War  «itb  tbe 
Gharkas.  Piadarif, 


(c)   Loid  A»brr8t  aad  the 
Fiist  War  witb  Bar- 


(r)   Lori  Willi— Bfriart  (1888- 
ISS3t    


!  (I8K-IM8t 
(a)  Tbe  ffast  War 


473 

i'-i 

473 
480 


(3)  Tbe  Dwtaftaates  m 
Siadb  a^  GwaBor; 
tbe  Fast  War  witb 
ibeSUs    .    .    .    . 

(a)  The  Seca^  War  with 
tbe  Sfthf  aa 


4»( 
487 


4S7 


(^   UUboaae » 

tfe 

tiw    StatPB^  OB   tba 
IMaiipb   <tf  -"Detv- 

ktiOB'' 488 

(i>   LnrtCii    '■„ ;  tfce  SiepoT Be- 

laknaST)     ....*..    4» 
«•>  Tbe  Utrnfoataam    <tf    laib 
witb  tbe    BritiA   Sapire 
C»aS8|l 438 

X   Orrus 4»4 

a.  Tbe  Xasare  of  Orba 4M 

(•>  TbeCaaaOT 494 

m  Tbe   OngiBi   Fjwlaeua  of 

Cerloa  «36 


&  Tbe  Piebtstotic  Pniod  of  Cerka  .  49S 
<a>  Tbe  Arraa  laaigntioa  .  .  49S 
(fr)  Tbe  Soarecs  of  tbe  Hiatorr  of    «C 

CejloB 49C 

(e>  Tbe  Legeai  of  tbe  Cofaaaa- 

tioa  of  Cerba 4917 

(>)   Wiina 497 

(fl)  Tbe  Saccessors  of 

Wija»» 499 

(-))  TbeCbnaolagFoftbe 

tegeadarr  Fferiod    .    500 
e.  Tbe  Earlj   Hisorr  of  Cerka  (300 

&C.  t«  l300A.b.) 500 

(«)  Baddbea  ia  Cerloa  ...  500 
(&)  TktFost  H^oneall 

oftbeT^nk    ... 

•ft   TVe  last  King!  of  tbe  Ha 

of  Wi^sra  aad  tbeir  : 

3MS  |Si»  &  C.  to  1104  A.  D.)     304 

(«)l   Decarfnaces  apoa  tbe 

Tbioae    aad     ia     tbe 

CbaRb;BBidb*gbaaba    30t 

{fii  Tbe    Decfiae    «<    tbe 

BonlPtoweraadlbe 

AdTaaee  of  tbe 

Tanib  (434-1164 

A.D.) 50S 

(^  F^nakkaaaBabaltbeGieac  3aC 
((|i  Tbe  Deen-  of  tbe  Kagdaa 

arf  tbe  Chartb  (1300  Ij00|i     300 
J.  Tbe  Later  H»CaiT  of  Certam  (abce 

130^ 310 

(a)  Tbe  Poatagaese  ■  Cerfcia  .  3IO 
(&)  Tbe  Daatb  B  O^oa  .  .  .  5U 
fcj)  Tbe  Ekg&b  a  Offoa  .    .    .    5U 

IsDoOnxa  .    .    -  314 

OL  CoafiganiBaB  314 

t«)    TWCoaaSZT 515 

(&>  Tbe  Peoples  of  bitKClaai    .  315 

II  Tbe  Frebiatanc    Ftani  aad   Eartr 

SBttar  of  fado-CS^ia     ....  317 

e.  Tteffi»an-«C'l 

(*) 

p)  (>aDalI^»C&B>a    .    .    .    .    5S4 

t,i).   Sob Sas 

il)  TbeFiiatFtariad 

aaaaeHiKan^ 
(mi-lja<>  .  333 
(9  Tbe  Secaad  P^ 
iiid«<Mii*ia 
-SoBBK  Ha§- 
tarj  (1556- 
ltS7>     .     .     .     306 


XVl 


CONTENTS 


P»(5« 


(3)  Tho  Third  Pe- 
riod nfModeru 
Siamese  His- 
tory (since 
1767)  .  .  . 
(r)  Knstern  Further  India  (Tong- 
kii]<;,  Aiiuain,  ami    CiH'hiu- 

Chitia) 

(a)   The  Chinese  Period 
(yS)    The   Hise    of   National 
Keeling  for  Indepen- 
dence   

(7)  The  Age  of  French  In- 
fluence in  Eastern 
Further  India  .     .     . 


528 


529 
529 


530 


531 


V.     IXDdXKSIA 

1.  Etiinograi-iiical  Sukvkv 535 

2.  Indonesian-  Historv 53G 

a.  The  Primitive   lliscorical  Conditions  537 

b.  The  Present  Distribution  of  the  Na- 

tions of  Indonesia 537 

c.  The  Wanderings  of  the  Malays     .     .  539 

(o)    The    Culture   of    the   Earlier 

Period  of  Migration   .     .     .  540 

(6)    Migrations  of  Earlier  Times  .  542 
(c)    The  Migrations  of  the  Malays 

in  the  Stricter  Sense  .     .     .  542 

d.  Foreign  Interference 543 

(a)    The  Chinese 544 

(6)    The  Inhabitants  of  India   .     .  545 

(c)    The  Arabs 548 

(</)    The  Europeans 54'J 

(a)    The  Portuguese  .     .     .  549 
(i9)    The  Dutch      ....  .'551 
«.   The  Several   Part.s   of  Indonesia  in 
their  Individual  Historical  Devel- 
opment    554 

(a)    Java 554 

(i)    Sumatra .■)(;(  1 

(c)    Borneo "jiij 

((/)    Celebes 56.') 

(e)    The  Mohicca-s 567 

(/)  The  Sm.iU  Sunda  Islands  .     .  568 

(</)    Thi-  Philippines 569 

3.     MAnAOASCAR 572 

a.   The  Primitive  Ili.story  of  .Mailaga-scar  572 
I).    The  Authenticated  History  of  Mada- 

l,'i»«car 574 

(a)    The  Arabian  Period  ....  574 

('')    Poliiical  Or^-anizalion    .          .  575 

(r)    The  French  Period  577 

c.    The  Mascareiies 578 


VI     THE    HISTOUICAL  IMPORTANCE    OF 
THE    INDIAN    OCEAN 

1.  The  Position  and  Siiapi:  ok   the    In- 

dian Ocean jso 

2.  The  Dawn  of   History 583 

3.  The    Historic    Period    Down    to  the 

AlTEARAXCE    OF    lsi.A.M 586 

a.  The  Period  down  to  the  Appearance 

of  the  Chinese  597 

(o)    The  Ancient  Egyptians      .     .     587 

(i)    ludia r,ss 

(e)    The  Pha'nicians,  the  Hebrews, 

and  Necho  II  of  Egypt  .     .     588 
(rf)    The   Tmiisit    Traile    on    the 

Indian  ( )cean.  600-30  B.  C.     590 
(c)    The   Beginnings  of  an  Inter- 
national   Coniniei'ce   in   the 
Imperial  Days  of  Konie       .     591 

b.  From  the  Appearance  of  tlie  Chinese 

on  tlie  Scene  to  Mahomet      .     .  .  592 

(«)  The  Chinese      .                   .  .  592 

(A)    The  Western  Nations     .     .  .  593 

4.  From  Mahomet  to  \'ASro  da  Gama  .  594 

a.  The  East 595 

b.  The  West 598 

(o)    The  Aral)S 598 

(6)   The  Results  of  the  Errors  of 

the  Ptolemaic  Cosmography  599 

5.  Modern  Times 601 

a.    From  Vasco  da  Gania  to  the  Begin- 
ning of  the  British  Rule  in   India 

(1498-1757) fiol 

(u)  The  Importance  of  the  Iiule- 
peiidciit  Advance  of  the 
Whitf  Race  into  the  Imiian 

Ocean 602 

(6)    The  Struggle  for  the  Suprem- 
acy in  the  Indian  ( Icean  604 
(r)    The  liiilian  Ocean  as  Part  of 

the  I'niversal  Ocean  .     .     .     605 
6.    From  the  Beginning  of  the  British 
Sovereignty  in   India  to  the    Cut- 
ting of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  (1757- 

1859) 607 

c.   The  Present  Day  (after  18.'>9)       .     .     609 
(a)   The  Constr,uction  of  the  Suez 

Canal  and  its  Results      .     .     609 
(i)    The  Consolidation  of  the  Brit- 
ish Supremacy  in  the  Indian 
<  Icennby  theCapetown-Cairo 

Policy  '. 611 

(c)  The  Northern  and  Northeast- 
ern Indian  Ocean    .     .     .     .     611 

6.    Retrospect  and  Outlook 612 

INDEX 615 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


COLOURED  PLATES 

FaCINQ  I'A'iK 

The  Abolttion    of   Go  Siiiuakawa,   former    Kmi-eroh  of    Japan,  hv  Fl.iiwara 

NO  NoBUYORi  IN  THE  Yeau  1159.     (With  leaf  of  toxt) 18 

Hf.roes  and  Heroines  of  Chinese  History.     (Witli  k'af  of  text) 90 

Specimens  of  Melanesian  Carving.     (With  leaf  of  text) 304 

Specimens  of  Micronesian  Carvinc;.     (With  leaf  of  text) 312 

Benares  on  the  Ganges 370 

The  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra.     (With  leaf  of  text) 438 

WOOD   ENGRAVINGS   AND   ETCHINGS 

The  Biriai,  Place  ani>  Temple  Groves  of  Nikko  in  Japan 40 

Old  Chinese  Stone  Carving  in  Relief  ;  Ornamentation  in  Bas-Relief  on  the 
Sixth  Stone  of  the  Nearer  Burial  Vatlt  of  the  Family  Wu  in  Shan- 
tung, AiiouT  ITjO  A.  D.     One-seventh  Actual  Size 08 

Four  Chinese  of  Influence  at  the  Close  of  the  Nineteenth  CENTiia'    .     .     .  108 

Chinese  Residences  at  Canton 114 

The  Eighth  Page  from  the  Old  Turkish  Book  of  Ethics,  the  Kudatku  Bilik. 

(With  leaf  of  text) 158 

The  Gate  of  Kiu-Yung  kwan 108 

The  Mosqce  of  Gur-Amir  in  Samarkand,  with  the  Tomb  ok  Ti.au  k     ....  184 

Polynesian   Antiquities  and  Carvings 3."i2 

Early  Indian  Sculpture 390 

The  Interior  of  a  Jain  Temple  at  Mount  Abu  in  Ka.iputana 402 

Columned  Corridor  within  the  Hindu  Temple  on  the  Island  of  Rameswaram, 

Southern  India 412 

Early   Indian   Art  and  Auihitectcre 418 

TiiE  Victoria   Railway  Station  and  Terminus  in  Bombay 102 

Eakly    Buddhist   Temple    BuiLDiN<is    and  the    Ruwanweli-Dagoba    in    .-Vnurad- 

IIAPURA 500 

Buddha    and   his   Pupils  :    Stone  Figures'  h:om    thi:    Interior   of  the  Siamese 

Pagoda  of  Vat  Suthat  in  BAN(iK<>K 518 

Two    Illustrations    of    Hindu    Mythology,   from   the  Temple   of  Kusamba   in 

Kelungkung   in  Southeast  Bali •  -'08 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

COLOL  KKI)  MAPS 

Kacimo  Paoi 

Japan  and  Coijka 2 

China  and  Japan 58 

Central  A.>ia 122 

TiiK  Mongolian  Empike  from  the  Twelfth  to  the  Fifteenth  Centlkv    .     .     .  174 

XoiiTii  Polar  KEiiiuNs 200 

Siberia 208 

OlKANIA 232 

East   Indies    from   the  first  invasion  of   the  Mohammedans  1001  to  the  fall 

of  the  Great  Mogul  Empire  1788 430 

Fcrther  India  and  Malay  Archipelago 538 

TiiE  Indian  Ocean 580 

ADDENDA 

The  Japanese  Cabinets  from  December  1886  to  the  beginning  of  11)02  ...  52 

Order  of  Development  of  the  Ixdo-Germanic  Peoples 362 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD 


I 

JAPAN,  CHINA,  AND  KOREA 

By  MAX  VON  BRANDT 

FORHEBLT   GeBUAN   RESIDENT   MINISTER   IN  JaPAN   AND  AMBASSADOR  TO   CuiNA 


1.   JAPAN 
A.  The  Country  and  its  People 

(«)  Configuration.  —  The  Japanese  islands  Kyushu  (Saikaido),  Shikoku,  Hondo 
{Houshiu,  Nippon),  Yezo  (Hokkaido),  and  Saghalien  (Karafuto,  Krafto),  the  last 
of  which  is  separated  from  Japan  only  politically  (since  1875),  confront  the  conti- 
nent of  Eastern  Asia  from  the  southern  promontory  of  Korea  on  the  southwest  up 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Amur  on  the  northwest,  and  are  divided  from  it  by  that  great 
mediterranean  sea  known  as  the  Sea  of  Japan,  which  is  connected  by  a  few  narrow 
straits  with  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  its  component  seas.  On  the  north,  the  island 
of  Saghalien  is  divided  from  the  mainland  by  that  passage  which  has  been  known 
to  Europeans  for  the  last  fifty  years  only  as  the  Nevelski  Strait,  or  Gulf  of  Tartary. 
On  the  south,  the  Sea  of  Japan  and  the  eastern  Chinese  Sea  are  joined  by  the 
Straits  of  Korea,  which  lead  between  Korea  and  Hondo,  and  are  further  subdivided 
into  three  passages  by  the  islands  of  Tsushima  and  Iki(-shima).  On  the  east,  the 
Tsugaru  (or  La  Perouse)  Strait,  between  Yezo  and  Saghalien,  make  communica- 
tion possible  between  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Sea  of  Japan.  But  hitherto  this 
great  mediterranean  sea  has  been  rather  an  obstacle  than  a  means  of  communi- 
cation. In  prehistoric  times  there  may  have  been  one  or  two  immigiations  from 
the  Asiatic  mainland  into  the  chief  islands  of  Japan  by  way  of  Saghalien  and  Yezo, 
but  it  is  only  in  comparatively  recent  years  that  unimportant  bodies  of  Giljaks 
have  crossed  the  five-mile  breadth  of  the  straits  and  driven  the  Ainos  out  of  the 
northern  part  of  Saghalien.  Evidence,  also  exists  of  an  immigration  from  Korea 
to  Hondo  as  early  as  the  second  century  A.  D.,  though  this  passage  had  undoubt- 
edly been  traversed  at  an  earlier  period. 

The  long-drawn  islands  of  Japan,  which  extend  from  24°  20'  to  54°  20'  latitude 
north,  are  of  volcanic  origin ;  the  numerous  moimtain  ranges  of  the  interior,  which 
generally  run  from  southwest  to  northeast,  or  from  south-southwest  to  north- 
northeast,  contain  many  volcanoes,  some  of  which  are  apparently  extinct,  while  a 
considerable  number  are  yet  active.  Everywhere  throughout  the  country  traces 
are  constantly  to  be  found  of  volcanic  action  yet  in  progress  in  the  shape  of  sul- 

VOL.  II  -  I 


2  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_ciu,pta- 1 

phiir  vents  aud  hot  springs  ;  it  is  indeed  remarkable  that  tliese  phenomena  seem 
to  have  exercised  no  influence  upon  .Taj)aiicse  cosmogony  or  upon  the  mylliohigy  df 
the  native  Sliintoism.  An  important  part  is  phiyed  hy  tlie  warm,  dark-coloured 
stream  known  as  the  "  black  river  "  (Kuro  Shiwo),  whicli  rises  between  Luzon  aud 
Formosa  aud  washes  with  its  main  current  the  southeastern  coasts  of  Kyushu, 
Shikoku,  aud  Hondo,  and  gives  their  soil  the  luxuriant  verdure  aud  fertility  of 
tropical  regions.  The  climate  of  the  northwest  coast  of  Hondo  is  not  so  warm, 
though  even  here  the  cultivation  of  the  tea-plant,  which  usually  ceases  at  latitude 
36°  north,  has  been  continued  nearly  as  fur  as  latitude  39°  nortli ;  however,  the 
warm  aud  cold  streams  which  flow  into  the  Sea  of  Japan  from  south  and  north 
produce  many  fogs  and  make  it  dangerous  and  inhospitable.  Far  greater  influence 
has  been  exercised  ujwn  the  development  and  tlie  history  of  the  coimtry  by  the 
conformation  of  tlie  coast  line  (see  the  map,  "  Japan  and  Korea  ").  Ou  the  south- 
eastern side  of  the  main  islands,  especially  in  Shikoku  and  Kyushu,  the  coast  line 
for  the  most  part  is  precipitous  and  falls  down  sheer  to  the  sea,  while  at  the 
same  time  providing  countless  bays  and  harbours,  great  and  small,  as  a  sure  refuge 
for  fishermen  and  mariners ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  northwest  coast  of  Hondo  is 
flat,  covered  with  sand  and  shingle,  and  almost  harbourless.  For  this  reason  the 
southeast  coast  was  naturally  populated  more  densely  and  at  an  earlier  period. 

(/>)  Tlic  Population.  —  Our  information  concerning  the  earliest  inhabitants  of 
Japan  is  alike  scanty  and  imreliable.  At  different  spots  in  Yezo  and  the  Kurile 
islands  excavations  have  been  found  from  three  to  six  feet  deep,  with  a  length  or 
diameter  of  fifteen  to  twenty  feet;  these  lie  in  groups,  numbering  as  many  as  one 
thousand,  and  are  attributed  by  the  Ainos  to  a  people  called  Koko-pok-guru  ("  peo- 
ple having  excavations,"  "  cave-dwellers  ")  or  Koshito  ("  dwarfs  "),  who  are  said  to 
have  inhabited  the  island  before  the  Ainos  aud  to  have  been  exterminated  liy  them. 
These  holes  were  probably  covered  with  a  roofing  of  branches  on  which  earth  was 
laid.  Excavations  in  their  neighbourhood  have  brought  to  light  potsherds  and  stone 
arrows,  a  fact  which  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  the  Ainos  seem  never  to  have  learnt 
the  art  of  making  pottery,  which  they  do  not  even  now  possess.  (!)n  the  other 
hand,  a  few  centuries  ago  they  also  made  use  of  stone  arrowheads ;  these  were 
then  replaced  by  points  of  bamboo,  which  are  both  more  easily  made  and  better 
suited  to  hold  the  poison  which  they  emjiloy  in  hunting. 

Nothing  is  known  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Koko-pok-guru  or  of  the  Ainos  (Ainu, 
Ebisu,  Emishi ;  cf.  below,  p.  214) ;  apparently  both  peoples  immigrated  from  the 
north  at  an  early  period,  and  the  Ainos  at  any  rate  advanced  as  far  as  the  northern 
half  of  Hondo,  and  perhaps  even  farther  south.  Some  authorities  consider  the 
Ainos  as  a  Mongolian,  others  as  a  Polynesian  people.  Dr.  E.  Raelz  places  them 
among  the  Caucasian  races,  and  believes  them  to  have  been  related  to  the  Mujiks, 
the  peasants  of  Great  Russia ;  theii-  resemblance  to  these,  at  any  rate  in  advanced 
years,  is  certainly  remarkable.  In  this  case  we  must  consider  tlie  Ainos  as  mem- 
bers of  a  greater  continental  race,  which  migrated  to  Jajjan  in  prehistoric  times  and 
was  giadually  driven  further  northward  by  later  arrivals,  ultimately  crossing  into 
Yezo  by  the  T.sugaru  Strait.  There  are  probably  twenty  thousand  of  them  in  Yezo, 
the  southern  part  of  Saghalien,  aud  in  tlie  Kurile.s.  Where  their  race  has  main- 
tained its  purity,  their  civilization  is  scarcely  higher  than  it  was  at  the  time  when 
they  first  came  in  contact  with  the  Japanese. 


THE    OLD 

IPOIJTICAI.  DIVISIONS  OF  .JAPANIDO) 
UToian 
U  Sanyo     i         '  UoUiriai    i"      ~1  Tokai 
DSaiikai  ■'        iu..ir,.T..T,..  f       MTt,.vi,-.. 


«  K  H  0  •,■  s   Vi  .^    ^1*%;         * 


liondan ,  (TC"  Srbif3iui 


Y,.fk   I'odd.MtailA  f 


J 


ifrA'/Zf"]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  3 

The  origin  of  the  Japanese  is  also  wrapped  in  mj-stery.  The  attempt  to  solve 
the  problem  from  the  authr(>iH)l(jgieal  side,  and  to  consider  the  modern  Japanese  as 
a  mixed  people  consisting  of  Aino,  Korean,  Chinese,  and  Mala}-o-Chinese  elements, 
may  be  said  to  have  l)een  successful,  in  so  far  as  all  these  races  have  undoubtedly 
contributed  to  the  formation  of  the  nationality  now  inliabiting  Japan  ;  but  no  jiroof 
has  been  brought  forward  to  show  to  which  of  these  races  (he  main  body  of  those 
immigrants  belonged,  who  probably  made  their  way  into  Japan  long  before  the 
seventh  century  b.  c. 

Ethnological  com])arisons  promise  better  results.  The  practice  of  sootlisnying 
by  means  of  the  shoulder-bones  of  a  slaughtered  animal,  and  that  of  sending  horses 
and  servants  to  accompany  a  dead  prince,  who  were  not  killed  and  buried  with 
him,  but  were  partly  buiied  in  an  upright  posture  round  the  gi-ave  luomid  to  serve 
as  a  living  fence,  —  these  seem  to  have  been  Japanese  customs  from  a  very  early 
antiquity.  For  pui-poses  of  soothsaying  they  used  the  shoulder-bones  of  the  stag ; 
the  sheep,  which  is  usually  employed  for  this  purpose  in  Northern  Asia,  is  not  found 
in  Jajian.  Concerning  their  burial  customs,  the  chronicles  known  as  the  Nihongi 
speak  as  follows  :  "  Tlie  brother  of  the  emperor  Suhiin  [29  B.  c. -70  A.  D.]  died 
and  was  buried  at  Musa.  All  those  who  had  been  in  his  personal  service  were 
gathei-ed  together  and  were  buried  alive  in  an  upright  position  around  his  ban-ow. 
They  did  not  die  for  many  days,  but  wept  and  bewailed  day  and  night.  At  length 
they  died  and  became  putiid.  Dogs  and  crows  came  together  and  ate  them  up." 
The  emperor,  who  had  also  listened  to  the  lamentations,  ordered  the  abolition  of 
this  custom  ;  and  it  is  said  that  from  the  year  3  A.  D.  clay  figures  instead  of  human 
beings  were  buried  in  or  about  the  bairows.  Pieces  of  these  figures  are  constantly 
foinul  at  the  present  day.  However,  this  ordinance  was  frecpiently  disregarded. 
Thus  the  Cliinese  annals  of  the  Wei  dynasty  stated  that,  on  the  death  of  the 
empress  regent  Himeko  (Jingo  Kogu,  according  to  the  Japanese  lists),  in  the  year 
247  A.  D.,  a  large  mound  was  p)iled  above  her  grave,  and  more  than  a  thousand  of 
her  male  and  female  servants  followed  her  to  death.  It  is  indeed  difficult  to  eradi- 
cate customs  which  have  become  part  and  parcel  of  the  national  life,  as  is  the 
case  when  the  unwilluig  sacrifice  has  become  voluntary  in  the  course  of  centuries 
and  is  considered  an  honourable  duty.  In  the  year  646  A.  D.  the  mikado  issued 
an  order  for  the  cessation  of  all  these  customs,  —  namely,  suicide  or  the  murder  of 
others  for  the  purpose  of  sharing  the  fate  of  the  deceased,  the  killing  of  his  hoi-.ses, 
the  burying  of  treasure  for  the  Ijenefit  of  the  dead,  the  cutting  short  the  hair,  stab- 
bing in  the  thigh,  or  loud  wailing  on  the  part  of  mourners ;  yet  almost  a  thousand 
years  later  we  find  leyasu  obliged  to  forbid  the  Samurai  to  kill  or  mutilate  them- 
selves upon  their  master's  grave. 

Both  of  these  customs,  divination  by  shoulder-bones  and  the  slaughter  of  ser- 
vants at  their  master's  grave,  are  imdoubtedly  of  North  Asiatic  or  Tartar  origin. 
In  China  they  also  existed.  Kungfutse  mentions  the  second  of  these  customs  as 
belonging  to  antiquity,  as  also  the  substitution  of  wooden  figures  for  human  sacri- 
fices;  and  the  last  knowai  example  occurs  in  the  time  of  the  present  Manchu 
dynasty  after  Kanghis's  ascent  of  the  throne  (1662).  They  are  to  be  retraced  to  the 
influence  of  Tartar  dynasties.  Moreover,  the  obscene  characters  of  the  Shintoist 
mylliology  and  the  jiopular  phallus-worship,  which  was  jiractised  without  conceal- 
ment in  Japan  so  recently  as  1860,  are  evidences  in  favour  of  a  Tartar-Shamanist 
origin.     Finally,  it  is  important  to  observe  that  the  earliest  events  of  irajiortance 


4  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [a.nj.nr  i 

iu  llie  Shiiilo  mylhulogy  are  laid  imt  in  Kynsliu,  wliicli  would  be  evidence  in 
favour  of  au  iuiuiigration'  from  llie  west  or  south,  bul  in  I/.unio,  Yamato,  and  Selsu, 
thus  jwinting  to  a  migration  from  the  north.  According  to  Chinese  annalists, 
Korea  was  comjuered  and  civilized  by  a  member  of  the  Slian  dynastv,  Kitsze,  on 
the  fall  of  that  dynasty,  1122  U.  C. ;  therefore  the  migration  from  Korea  to  Japan 
must  have  taken  place  before  that  date,  as  the  immigrants  in  question  had  cer- 
taiulv  never  come  iu  contact  with  Chinese  civilization.  It  is,  however,  quite  pos- 
silile  that  this  migration  may  have  started  from  one  of  the  Manchurian  States 
(for  example,  Funu)  lying  to  the  north  of  Korea.  According  to  Chinese  sources 
of  information  the  inhabitants  of  these  districts  seem  to  have  had  many  ideas 
and  customs  corresponding  to  those  of  Old  Japan.  In  that  case  old  Engelbert 
Kinnpfer  was  correct  when  he  -wrote  in  his  "  Amoenitates  E.\otica' "  in  1712: 
"  Lalucrunt  diu  ohscuro  nomine  e  Datz  seu  Tarf.aria  hospites  in  Japoiiia  et  per  pro- 
vineias  disseminati  incultam  ichtyophagorum  vitam  vixerunt "  ("  Strangers  from 
Datz  or  Tartary  have  long  lain  concealed  in  Japan  under  a  name  of  doubtful 
meaning,  and,  scattered  about  the  provinces,  lived  the  wild  life  of  fish-eaters  "). 

B.  The  Age  of  the  Gods  and  Heroes  (to  the  apparent  foundation  of 

THE  Empire  in  660  b.  c.) 

The  age  of  the  Japanese  gods  and  heroes  falls  into  two  divisions,  seven  genera- 
tions of  heavenly  beings  and  five  of  earthly,  embracing  altogether  many  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  millions  of  years.  In  the  beginning  was  Chaos,  a  monotonous  and 
stormy  sea  out  of  which,  l)j'  degrees,  the  light,  pure  elements  arose  and  formed  the 
heaven,  while  the  gross  and  heavy  sank  to  create  the  earth.  Between  the  two 
appeared  the  first  god,  the  lord  of  the  eternal  kingdom.  The  duration  of  his  reign 
is  given  as  one  hundred  thousand  millions  of  years  ;  and  the  two  self-created 
deities,  who  succeeded  to  his  throne  m  turn,  ruled  each  for  a  like,  period.  Then 
followed  three  pairs  of  male  and  female  deities,  who  created  their  successors  by 
sinking  into  contemplation  of  one  another ;  they  ruled  during  six  hundred  thou- 
sand millions  of  years,  and,  like  their  predecessors,  in  virtue  of  the  power  of  an 
element  possessed  by  each,  water,  fire,  wood,  metal,  and  the  earth.  The  last  or 
seventh  generation  of  the  heavenly  beings  includes  the  male  Isanagi  no  mikoto 
and  the  female  Isanami  no  mikoto.  These  two  were  the  fir.st  to  be  carnally  con- 
joined, and  created  the  eight  lands,  that  is,  the  islands  and  provinces  of  Japan 
(eight  is  the  sacred  number  constantly  recurring  in  the  Shinto  religion),  the  sea, 
the  rivers,  the  mountams,  the  first  trees  and  the  first  plants,  the  goddesses  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  the  sea-god  Ycbis,  and  the  god  of  the  storms  ;  then  they  returned 
again  to  tlie  heavens.     They  conclude  the  seven  generations  of  the  heavenly  beings. 

The  five  generations  of  terrestrial  spirits  form  what  may  be  called  the  heroic 
period  of  Japanese  history.  The  bad  spirit,  Sofan,  the  god  of  the  winds  and  storms, 
whom  Japanese  expositors  identify  with  winter,  is  overcome  by  the  vivifying 
influence  of  the  sun-goddess,  Amaterasu,  and  the  earth  is  made  fruitful.  Sofan 
submits  and  descends  to  the  earth,  where  he  frees  the  daughter  of  the  first  human 
couple  from  a  dragon  in  the  province  of  Izumo,  and  mari-ies  her.  After  l)egetting 
a  son,  he  leaves  iier  and  retires  to  the  desert  in  the  southeast  of  Japan,  whicli  has 
been  previously  assigned  to  him  by  his  parents  as  a  dwelling-place.  The  grandson 
of  the  sun-goddess,  Amatsu,  is  then  said  to  have  been  made  ruler  of  the  earth  ;  and 


iTKlJia""']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  5 

different  childreu  of  the  gods  come  down  to  the  earth  to  drive  away  the  evil  spirits 
and  to  make  all  things  ready  for  the  arrival  of  the  god,  but  instead  of  fulfilling 
their  task,  they  settle  upon  tlie  earth,  and  enter  into  alliance  with  tlie  son  of  Sofan. 
Two  new  messengers  from  the  gods,  themselves  also  of  divine  nature  (Kami), 
succeed  in  reducing  their  refractory  forerunners  to  obedience.  Some  of  the  teires- 
trial  Kaiiiis  submit,  othei-s  are  destroyed.  Amatsu  comes  down  to  earth,  and  takes 
over  the  government  of  tlie  province  of  Hyuga  in  Kyushu.  He  is  followed  by  his 
son  and  grandson,  with  whom  the  succession  of  the  terrestrial  spirits  comes  to  an 
end.     The  liistorical  age,  according  to  the  Japanese,  then  begins. 

Ihauriko,  the  youngest  sou  of  the  last  terrestrial  spuit  and  the  daughter  of  the 
dragon-god  Riosiu,  wliom  Japanese  expositors  would  consider  as  a  ruler  of  the 
Liukiu  islands,  succeeds  his  father  in  the  government  of  Hyuga  in  virtue  of 
his  high  cajjacities.  In  the  year  667  B.  c,  at  the  age  of  fortj'-live,  he  advances 
with  his  three  brothers  to  conquer  the  wliole  kingdom.  He  first  subdues  Tsukushi 
(the  niidern  (Jliikuzen  and  Chikugo),  then  Kibi  (that  is,  Bizen,  Bichiu,  and  Bijigo) 
in  Kyushu,  and  also  Aki  in  Hondo.  After  three  years  of  prejiaration  for  a  further 
campaign  lie  sails  along  the  coast  with  his  fleet  to  Xaniwa  (Osaka),  where  he  lands. 
However,  at  Kusagesaka  in  Yamato  and  at  Kumano  in  Kii  he  is  beaten,  and  is 
obliged  to  retire  to  his  fleet.  He  loses  the  greater  part  of  his  ships  in  a  storm ;  the 
remainder  are  saved  only  by  the  devotion  of  two  of  his  brothers,  who  cast  them- 
selves into  the  sea  to  appease  the  anger  of  the  gods.  With  fresh  troops  he  returns 
to  Yamato,  and  in  the  year  660  b.  c.  subdues  the  independent  petty  chiefs,  partly 
by  treachery,  his  supremacy  being  established  by  the  surrender  of  the  tokens  of 
empire,  the  sworil,  mirror,  and  insignia  (pearls  ?),  which  had  hitherto  been  in  different 
hands.  He  builds  his  residence,  half  palace  and  half  temple  (that  is,  house  for 
jmcestors)  on  the  mountain  Unchi  in  Yamato,  and  hands  over  the  government 
of  the  kingdom  to  four  ministers,  one  of  whom  becomes  the  ancestor  of  the  famous 
family  of  the  Fujiwara.  The  first  tenno  (heavenly  king)  of  Japan  is  known  by 
the  na'iie  of  Jimnm  (spirit  of  war),  which  was  given  him  after  his  death ;  so  run 
the  Japanese  narratives. 

If  there  be  any  substratum  of  reality  to  these  tradition.s,  it  probably  consists  in 
the  fact  that  the  main  settlement  of  the  immigrants  was  situated  in  the  provinces 
of  Izumo,  Yamato,  and  Setsu,  which  were  united  at  a  later  period  with  Yamashiro 
and  Kawachi,  and  formed  the  Gokinai  (the  five  original  provinces),  which  was  the 
central  point  of  the  kingdom.  From  this  centre  the  advance  to  the  conquest  of 
the  western  and  southern  districts  was  made.  Probably  Jimmu's  expedition  was 
undertaken  to  enforce  the  recognition  of  actual  or  putative  rights  which  had  existed 
at  an  earlier  period ;  he  is  said  to  have  married  the  daughter  of  the  ruler  of  Izumo. 
The  struggles  appear  to  have  been  fought  out  between  members  of  the  same  clan. 
Wliether  the  Takeru,  who  are  mentioned  later  as  iidiabitmg  Kyushu,  are  to  be 
identified  with  the  Kumaoso  (Kumaso),  whether  they  were  members  of  the  im- 
migrant hosts,  whether  and  how  far  they  were  commingled  with  the  Malay-Chinese 
or  Korean  nationalities,  are  problems  in.solubIe  at  the  moment.  According  to 
Japanese  sources  of  information,  the  first  Korean  immigration  is  said  to  have  taken 
place  in  59  A.  D. ;  however,  embassies  from  Korea  seem  to  have  arrived  in  the 
country  as  early  as  33  b.  c.  In  the  nortlieast  tlie  Ainos  were  the  only  enemies 
with  whom  the  immigrants  had  to  contend,  although  their  opponents  in  that 
direction  are  mentioned  under  different  names. 


6  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  la.aj.ter i 

C.  The  Legendary  Pekiod  (until  the  Intkoduction  of  Buddhism, 

552  A.  D.) 

(a)  Foreign  Relations.  —  The  great  obstacle  to  the  proper  comprehension  and 
relation  of  early  Japanese  history  is  the  fact  thai  native  historical  records  are 
entirely  wanting  until  the  eighth  centur}'  a.  d.  Until  the  sixth  century  a.  d.  the 
Jajianese  possessed  no  system  of  writing  of  any  kind,  and  from  that  period  until 
the  invention  of  the  Katakana  script  in  the  nmth  century  tliey  used  notliing 
but  the  Chinese  characters.  The  oldest  piece  of  histurical  wriiinjj;  extant,  the 
Kojiki,  the  book  of  the  old  traditions,  was  completed  in  the  years  711  and  712; 
two  older  works  apparently  belonging  to  the  years  620  and  GSl  have  been  lost. 
The  Kojiki  contains  the  history  of  the  creation  of  the  gods  and  heroes  and  of  the 
mikados  up  to  the  year  628  a.  d.  ;  it  was  prmted  for  the  tirst  time  between  1624 
and  1642.  The  next  work  in  point  of  age,  the  Nihongi  (Chronicles  of  Jajian), 
belongs  to  the  year  720  a.  d.,  and  treats  of  the  same  subject-matter  as  the  Kojiki, 
except  that  it  carries  on  the  annals  of  the  emperors  to  699.  For  this  reason,  apart 
from  the  fact  that  Chmese,  Korean,  liuddhist,  and  Confucian  intiueuces  are  very 
strongly  marked,  these  books  can  only  be  used  with  the  utmost  caution.  The  lists 
of  rulers  given  by  them  often  faU  to  correspond  with  these  contained  in  Cliinese 
works  upon  the  subject  (for  example,  Matuanlin) ;  moreover,  they  obviousl}-  bear 
the  stamp  of  improbability.  For  instance,  they  relate  that  Jimmu  reached  the  age 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty -seven  years,  and  that  among  his  first  sixteen  successoi-s, 
the  last  of  whom  died  399  A.  d.,  thirteen  lived  more  tlian  one  hundred  years ;  one 
of  them,  Suinin,  the  Solon  of  Japanese  history,  lived  one  hundred  and  forty-one 
years,  and  ruled  for  ninety-nine  of  them.  Moreover,  tlie  long  line  of  the  mikados 
(the  ruling  mikado,  Mutsuhito,  is  the  one  hundred  and  twenty-third)  does  not  con- 
tinue in  diiect  succession  according  to  our  ideas,  but,  as  even  Japanese  accounts 
admit,  is  broken  by  seven  empresses  and  many  adopted  children. 

Wliere  contemporaiy  Chinese  and  Korean  accounts  exist  side  by  side,  —  and  this 
is  constantly  the  case  in  the  histories  of  the  individual  dynasties  and  states  of  these 
countries,  —  the  Japanese  versions  usually  a]ipcar  wholly  unreliable.  For  instance, 
as  regards  the  empress  Jingo  Kogu  (201-269)  and  her  reported  successful  conquest 
in  202  of  Shiraki  (Silla)  in  Korea,  the  account  given  by  the  writer  of  the  Nihongi 
is  adorned  with  the  most  impossible  extravagances.  Apart  from  all  the  evidence 
against  any  historical  foundation  to  the  nai-rative  (such  as  the  mention  of  names 
whicli  can  be  proved  not  to  have  existed  at  that  period,  etc.),  the  Chinese  and 
Korean  annalists  mention  Japanese  attacks  against  Silla  only  in  the  years  209, 
233,  and  249.  The  tirst  was  a  wholly  unimportant  event,  while  in  the  two  latter 
the  Japanese  were  defeated  with  heavy  losses  in  ships  and  troops.  Tlie  annals  of 
the  Chinese  Wei  dynasty  of  the  year  247  mention  the  death  of  the  queen  Himeko, 
(that  is.  Jingo  Kogu),  and  relate  that,  after  the  outbreak  of  a  civQ  war  in  which  one 
hundred  thousand  persons  were  kiUetl,  a  girl  of  thirteen  years  of  age  succeeded  to 
the  throne.  This  is  a  far  more  probable  account  than  the  story  that  Jingo  Kogu 
reigned  sixty-eight  years  after  her  consort's  death. 

Influenced  by  these  and  similar  discrepancies  between  the  Chinese  and  Korean 
liistorians  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Jajianese  ui)on  tlie  other,  W.  G.  Aston  has 
declared  his  conviction  that  the  Japanese  narratives  are  unworthy  of  credence,  not 


tS"L^""'l  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  7 

only  up  to  400  and  500  a.  d.,  but  also  during  the  sixth  century  of  our  era.  He 
considers  that  the  first  demonstrably  historical  event  in  the  Japanese  chronology 
occurs  in  the  year  4ril.  .Japanese  history  properly  so  called  does  not  begin  before 
500  A.  D.,  and  tlie  introduction  of  Chinese  civilization  into  Japan  took  place  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years  later  than  the  date  given  by  the  Japanese  to  that  event, 
—  in  397  A.  II.,  instead  of  277  a.  d.  Modern  Japanese  criticism  has  also  declared 
against  tlie  credibility  of  the  Xihongi.  In  1S89  Tachibana  Riohei  collected  a  large 
number  of  instances  shovring  the  unreliable  character  of  the  work.  According  to  the 
Nihougi,  Yamato-dake,  the  national  hero  of  the  Japanese,  died  in  the  forty-third 
year  of  the  emperor  Keiko,  that  is,  1 14  a.  d.  ;  but  his  son  Tsinai,  according  to  the 
same  authority,  was  born  in  the  nijieteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Seimu  (150),  that  is, 
thirty-six  years  after  his  father's  death.  Prince  Oho  usu  no  mikoto  was  the  twin 
brother  of  Yamato-dake  ;  the  latter  was  aged  sixteen  when  he  took  the  field  against 
the  Kumasos  in  98  A.  n.,  so  that  the  brothers  must  have  been  born  in  83  a.  d.  l>ut 
the  Niliongi  informs  us  that  prince  Oho  seduced  a  noblemau's  daughter  in  the 
year  75,  that  is,  eight  years  before  his  birth.  A  large  number  of  similar  dis- 
crepancies have  been  collected  by  Tachibana. 

Consequently,  to  reconstruct  Japanese  history  from  the  foimdation  of  the 
kingdom  (G60  A.  D.)  to  the  introduction  of  Buddhism,  we  are  forced  to  restrict 
ourselves  to  such  information  as  can  be  checked  and  corrected  b)-  accounts  other 
than  Japanese.  These  latter  are,  at  best,  nothing  but  a  patchwork  of  incredible 
traditions  arbitrarily  put  togethei-,  apparently  with  the  object  of  providing  some 
support  for  the  claims  which  the  ruling  dynasty  advanced  at  a  later  period. 
Hence  there  can  be  no  possible  doubt  that  the  three  original  settlements  of  the 
immigrants,  Yaraato,  Izumo,  and  Tsukushi  (north  Kyushu),  existed  independently 
of  one  another  long  after  the  time  of  Jimmu  tenno.  In  the  annals  of  the  Han 
dynasty  (25-220  a.  d.)  mention  is  made  of  Japanese  embassies  which  could  only 
have  been  sent  out  by  petty  princes.  The  Chinese  records  compiled  by  ilatuanlin 
in  the  thirteenth  century  show  how  low  was  the  stage  of  Japanese  development  at 
the  time  when  these  accounts  were  written. 

The  annals  of  the  later  Han  say  that  there  is  a  mountainous  island  to  the 
southeast  of  Korea,  divided  into  more  than  a  hundred  districts.  After  the  conquest 
of  Korea  by  Wuti  (140-86  b.  c.)  tiiirty-two  of  these  tribes,  who  called  their 
hereditar}-  riders  kings,  are  said  to  have  entered  into  communication  by  messenger 
with  the  authorities  of  the  Han.  The  ruler  of  Great  Wo  (Wa,  Japan)  resided  in 
Yamato.  Their  customs  were  similar  to  those  of  the  province  of  Tschekiang, 
which  lay  opposite  to  Wo.  The  soil  was  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  corn,  hemp, 
and  mulberrj'-trees.  The  people  understood  the  art  of  weaving.  The  country 
produced  white  pearls  and  green  nephrite.  In  the  mountains  there  was  ciiiualiar. 
The  climate  was  mihl,  and  vegetables  could  be  cultivated  both  in  winter  and 
summer.  They  had  no  oxen,  horses,  tigers,  leopards,  or  magpies.  Their  soldiers 
carried  spears  and  shields,  bows  and  arrows  of  wood,  the  points  in  many  cases 
being  made  of  bone.  The  men  tattooed  their  faces  and  bodies  with  designs. 
DiHerence  of  rank  was  denoted  by  the  size  and  position  of  these  designs.  The 
clothes  of  the  men  were  fastened  crossways  by  knots,  and  consisted  of  one  piece 
of  material.  The  women  bound  up  their  hair  in  a  knot,  and  their  clothes  resem- 
ble Chinese  clothes  of  the  thickness  of  one  piece ;  these  they  drew  over  their 
heads.     They  used  red  and  purple  colours  to  besmear  their  bodies  as  the  Chinese 


8  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  [chapter  i 

used  rice  po\rder.  They  had  forts  and  houses  protected  with  palisading.  The 
father  and  mother,  the  older  and  younger  brothers  of  a  famQy  lived  apart,  but 
when  they  came  together  no  difl'erence  was  made  between  the  sexes.  Tliey  took 
up  their  food  in  their  hands,  but  laid  it  upon  plates  of  bamboo  and  wooden  dishes. 
They  all  went  barefoot.  Keverence  was  paid  by  crouching  low.  They  were  very 
fonii  of  strong  drink.  They  were  a  long-lived  race,  and  people  a  hundred  years 
old  were  constantly  met  with.  The  women  were  more  numerous  than  tlie  men. 
All  men  of  high  rank  had  four  or  five  wives,  others  two  or  three.  The  wives  were 
faithful  and  not  jealous.  Theft  was  unknown  and  litigation  extremely  rare.  The 
wives  and  children  of  criminals  were  confiscated,  and  for  grave  offences  the  crim- 
inal's family  was  destroyed.  Mourning  lasted  only  ten  days ;  during  tliat  period 
the  members  of  the  family  wept  and  lamented,  while  their  friends  came,  sang, 
danced,  and  made  music.  They  practised  soothsaying  by  burning  bones  (over  the 
fire),  and  thereby  (pre)determining  good  or  evil  fortune.  They  appointed  one  man 
who  was  known  as  the  "  public  mourner ; "  he  was  not  allowed  to  comb  liis  hair, 
to  wash,  to  eat  meat,  or  to  approach  any  -woman.  If  they,  the  survivors,  were  pro- 
sperous, they  made  him  valuable  presents ;  but  if  misfortune  came  upon  them,  they 
blamed  the  "  mourner  "  for  having  broken  his  vows,  and  all  joined  in  kUling  him, 
a  custom  the  existence  of  which  is  confirmed  by  Japanese  sources. 

Further  on  we  are  told, "  Between  147  and  190  Wo  was  in  a  state  of  great 
confusion,  and  civil  wars  continued  for  many  years,  during  whicii  period  there  was 
no  ruler.  Then  a  woman  Pimihu  (Himeko)  appeared.  She  was  old  and  unmarried, 
and  liad  devoted  herself  to  the  arts  of  magic,  so  that  she  was  able  to  deceive  the 
people.  The  people  agreed  to  recognize  her  as  queen.  She  has  one  thousand 
male  servants ;  but  few  see  her  face,  except  one  man,  who  brings  her  meals  and 
maintains  communication  with  her.  She  lives  in  a  palace  of  airy  rooms,  which  is 
surrounded  by  a  palisade  and  protected  by  a  guard  of  soldiers." 

From  the  third  century  A.  D.  we  have  constant  references  to  embassies  from 
Japan  to  China  bringing  presents  (tribute)  and  seeking  grants  of  titles  and  seals. 
Many  of  such  mentions  may  have  been  inspired  by  Chinese  vanity  alone ;  none  the 
less  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  half-barbarian  Japanese  of  that  age  may  have  been 
flattered  by  the  conferment  of  such  outward  distinctions,  although  their  descend- 
ants naturally  deny  the  dependency  of  their  country  upon  China.  Traces  of  a 
certain  degree  of  dependency  are  to  be  found  until  the  period  of  the  great  Mongol 
invasion  of  1370-1380. 

From  the  last  century  B.  c.  more  constant  and  closer  connections  subsisted 
between  Jai)an  and  the  States  on  tlie  soutli  of  the  Korean  peninsula,  Peh  tsi 
(P^kch(5,  Hiak'sai,  Kudara),  Shinra  (Shiragi,  Silla  Sinlo),  Kara  and  Kaj-a  (Mimana), 
Kokuli  (Konia,  Korai).  It  is  not  easy  to  distinguisli  the  character  or  results  of 
the  various  embassies,  incursions,  and  larger  expeditions  undertaken  by  the  State 
or  by  individuals ;  at  any  rate,  many  of  the  hostile  descents  of  the  Japanese  upon 
the  Korean  seaboard  of  wliich  we  hear  were  made  as  often  for  piratical  purposes  as 
to  support  one  or  other  of  the  political  parties  in  Korea.  The  Japanese  State  was 
too  loosely  organised  at  that  period  to  have  provided  the  impulse  to  each  one  of 
these  different  movements.  E.  H.  Parker,  who  has  made  a  special  study  of  the 
relations  of  China  and  Japan  with  Korea,  says  on  this  point :  "  The  Chinese  twice 
overran  K<irea,  once  in  the  third  century  B.C.  and  once  in  tlu'  seventh  century  A.  D. 
In  both  cases  their  personal  government  was  of  short  duration,  and  their  vice- 


i:s"K'or:r']        history  of  the  world  9 

royalty  never  extended  over  the  northern  half,  and  for  some  time  not  even  beyond 
the  mountain  range  which  divides  the  northern  half  into  eastern  and  western 
portions.  The  Japanese  never  set  foot  in  that  part  of  Korea  which  was  actually 
under  Cliinese  influence,  except  during  a  few  mouths  at  the  time  of  Hideyoshi  at 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  They  never  really  subdued  any  part  of  Korea. 
It  is,  however,  possible  that  scattered  renniants  of  tlie  Japanese  races  may  have 
existed  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  peninsula  during  the  first  century  a.  d.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  Japanese  influeuce  was  strong  in  the  southwestern  parts  until  the 
second  Chinese  invasion ;  at  a  later  time  they  were  mere  pirates,  until  Hideyoshi 
conceived  the  idea  of  attacking  China  by  way  of  Korea.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Japanese  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  periods  seem  to  have  possessed  a  settle- 
ment in  the  extreme  south  of  Korea,  or  at  Fusau." 

(h)  Internal  Development.  —  Japanese  records  mention  many  battles  with  the 
Kumaso  in  Kyushu,  who  were  either  invaded  and  attacked  in  their  own  country, 
or  themselves  invaded  and  overran  the  western  provinces  of  the  chief  island.  The 
first  battles  against  these  eastern  neighbours  are  those  mentioned  as  having  occurred 
under  the  emperor  Keiko  (71-130  a.  d.).  His  son  Yamato-dake,  the  warrior  prince, 
carried  the  fame  of  tlie  Japauese  arms,  though  certainly  only  for  a  time,  into  the 
mountain  district  of  Nikko,  north  of  the  modern  capital  of  Tokio.  In  other  re- 
spects the  records  are  confined  to  accounts  of  the  gradual  and  very  slow  internal 
development  of  the  interior,  whicli  is  naturally  ascribed  to  the  enterprise  of  indi- 
vidual emperors.  Sujin,  the  tenth  emi^eror  (97-30  b.  c),  is  said  to  have  constructed 
the  first  aqueduct  for  the  irrigation  of  the  rice  fields.  His  successor,  Suinin  (29  B.  c- 
70  A.  D.),  continued  this  work,  and  extended  it  by  making  canals  ;  he  is  also  said  to 
have  encouraged  the  national  kami  (god)  worship.  He  seems  also  to  have  been 
the  first  to  introduce  a  system  of  taxation,  a  reform  of  which  the  chief  object 
was  to  provide  funds  for  religious  worship.  Under  the  twelfth  mikado,  Seimu 
(131-190),  the  expedition  against  the  Ainos  of  the  east  took  place,  and  under  the 
fifteenth,  the  empress  Jingo  Kogo  (201-269),  occurred  the  fabulous  voyage  to 
Korea.  Her  son  Ojin,  of  whom  she  is  said  to  have  been  pregnant  at  that  time, 
and  who  for  that  reason  has  been  worshipped  at  a  later  period  as  tiie  god  of  war, 
Hachiman,  succeeded  her  (270-310),  and  is  reported  to  have  paid  special  attention 
to  trade  and  manufactures,  teachers  of  which  he  brought  over  from  Korea.  His 
successors  imitated  his  example,  and  thus  we  reach  the  epoch  of  the  introduction 
of  western  civilization  into  Japan,  although  many  of  the  statements  upon  this 
subject  must  be  considerably  post-dated. 

During  the  whole  of  this  period  the  immigrants  seem  to  have  been  in  no  very 
close  relations  with  the  emperor.  Tokuzo  Fukuda  connects  these  "  Yamato " 
together  even  during  their  earliest  period  by  the  fusion  of  three  subordinate 
tribes, — the  Tenson  (grandsons  of  the  heaven),  Tenjiu  (heavenly  deities),  and 
Chiji  (earthly  deities),  standing  in  different  degrees  of  relationship  to  the  sun- 
godiless.  But  here  he  is  pi-obably  describing  the  results  of  later  developments; 
such  distinctions  do  not  usually  become  manifest  until  the  necessity  becomes 
apparent  for  sharper  lines  of  demarcation  between  the  upper  and  lower  grades  of 
society,  and  this  can  hardly  have  become  imperati\e  at  the  stage  of  development 
reached  by  the  immigrants  about  660  B.  c.  The  development  of  the  priesthood 
must  also  have  been  a  very  slow  process,  even  according  to  the  Japanese  reports. 


10  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [r/»,y,^.r/ 

Tlie    more   pronounced   ancestor  worship  with  which  were  connected  the  more 
definite  distinctions  of  social  rank  may  be  ascribed  to  later  Confucian  influences. 

This  much  is  certain,  that  the  race  which  licld  the  upper  liand  in  Central 
Japan  —  the  power  of  the  Yamato  scarcely  reached  beyond  this  region  —  was 
composed  of  a  large  number  of  tribes  (Uji),  each  of  which  had  originated  in  a 
single  family.  Both  in  Japan  and  China  we  find  the  same  course  of  dcvdojiment 
which  lias  been  followed  Lu  Greece,  Konje,  Germany,  and  among  the  North  Amer- 
ican Indians.  Such  tribal  unions  increase  to  a  remarkable  degree  the  stability 
and  [>ermanence  of  the  body  politic  in  which  they  pass  the  first  stages  of  their 
constitutional  development.  In  Japan  each  tribe  with  its  chief  formed  a  self- 
contained  whole,  the  emperor's  tribe  under  his  personal  leadership  being  the  most 
numerous  and  powerful.  The  worship  of  their  common  ancestor  was  the  bond  of 
union  within  each  individual  Uji,  and  the  worship  of  the  suu-godde.ss  formed  the 
tie  between  the  imperial  and  the  other  tribes.  The  creation  of  fresii  l^^jis,  espe- 
ciall)-  such  as  were  formed  of  prisoners  of  war,  slaves,  and  Tomobe,  seems  to  have 
been  a  privilege  of  the  emperor,  who  was  allowed  to  incorporate  such  Ujis  with 
his  own  to  increase  the  strength  of  his  household  troops.  It  seems  that  originally 
within  tiie  Uji,  while  it  was  yet  small,  the  products  of  hunting,  fishing,  and  agri- 
culture were  held  in  common,  and  that  ultimately  there  was  community  of  all 
acquisitions ;  in  this  way  some  organisation  parallel  to  that  of  European  trade 
guilds  in  the  Middle  Ages  may  have  been  developed.  The  I'ji  could  also  enter 
into  external  relations  without  losing  its  corporate  character,  appearing  in  some 
respects  as  a  legal  personality.  Certain  offices  belonged  to  the  tribe  and  were 
hereditary  in  it :  the  man  followed  the  woman  into  her  tribe,  to  which  also  the 
cliildren  belonged.  Here  we  have  a  remarkable  coincidence  with  the  customs  of 
tlie  Iro(piijis,  whicli  perhaps  originated  at  tlie  time  when  women  were  scarce  and 
a  girl  was  consequently  a  valuable  possession  to  a  tribe.  The  power  which  the 
liead  of  the  tribe  had  over  the  members  was  very  considerable,  and  appears  to 
have  resembled  the  Roman  jialria  2wtestas ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  relations 
of  individual  Ujis  to  the  imperial  tribe  seem  to  have  been  very  loose.  Tokuzo 
informs  us  that  they  consisted  chiefly  in  the  recognition  of  the  emperor  as  high 
priest  for  the  worship  of  the  common  ancestral  goddess,  as  lord  of  war,  as  the 
representative  of  the  common  interests  abroad,  and  as  chief  judge  to  decide  dis- 
putes between  the  different  Ujis.  The  emperor  had  no  right  over  the  land  or 
property  of  the  Ujis. 

D.  BuDDiiLSM  IX  Japan  fro.m  its  Introduction  in  552  a.  d.  to  the 

Phksent  Time 

Buddhism  has  been  to  Japan  what  classical  antiquity  and  Christianity  were  to 
the  West :  it  brought  with  it  a  better  religion  and  Chinese  civilization.  The  dif- 
ferent accounts  of  the  time  and  manner  of  its  introduction  are  widely  discrepant. 
The  most  probable  story  is  that  in  552  a  king  of  Kudara  in  Korea  sent  jiictures 
of  T.iKlilhist  .sacred  history  to  the  emperor  Kimmei  (540-571),  and  tliat  the  new 
teaching  fell  upon  fruitful  soil.  It  does  not,  however,  seem  to  have  obtained  a 
footing  in  the  country  entirely  unopposed  ;  hi  consequence  of  the  outbreak  of  an 
epidemic,  under  the  emperor  Bhidatsu  C572-585)  it  was  persecuted  and  furliidden. 
J'ruice  Shotoku,  a  son  of  the  empress  Suiko,  seems  to  have  materially  influenced 


ir^rJa""-']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  11 

the  extension  of  Buddhism ;  in  587  he  built  a  gieat  temple,  and  encouraged  foun- 
dations and  organisations  for  works  of  mercy  and  charity.  The  new  doctrine 
obtained  an  informal  official  recognition  from  the  emi)eror  Sinmu  (715-731),  who 
ordered  llie  erection  of  a  temjile  in  every  province  of  the  empne. 

Japanese  Buddhism,  like  the  Chinese  and  Korean  forms,  and  perhaps  under  their 
influence,  was  soon  broken  up  into  a  number  of  sects  (six)  ;  at  the  same  time  the 
antagonism  and  hostility  between  Buddhism  and  Shintoism  became  strongly  appa- 
rent. It  is  remarkable  that  the  emperoi-s  generally  accepted  the  new  teaching, 
though  it  threatened  from  the  outset  to  discredit  tlieir  own  divine  origin.  Thus 
on  both  sides  the  desire  may  well  have  arisen  to  incorporate  the  new  belief  with 
the  old.  In  794  the  emperor  Kwammu  changed  liis  place  of  residence  from 
Nara  to  the  modern  Kioto ;  at  the  same  time  tlie  Japanese  Buddliists  began  their 
journey  to  China,  in  order  to  seek  information  and  enlightenment  at  the  sources 
of  the  doctrine,  which  for  Japan  at  least  was  new.  Dengio  went  to  Cliina,  and 
on  his  return  in  798  founded  the  Tendai  sect,  and  the  monastery  Enriakuji  on  the 
Hieizan  as  its  centre  of  meeting  and  departure. 

A  yet  more  important  influence  upon  the  development  of  religion  and  of  scien- 
tific life  and  thought  was  exercised  by  Kukai  (Kobodaishi,  774-835) ;  he  is  also 
said  to  have  visited  China,  and  upon  his  return  in  816  to  have  founded  the  Sliingon 
sect.  On  the  Koya  mountain  he  founded  tlie  monastery  of  Kougaji,  wliich  became, 
with  the  support  of  the  emperor  Saga,  the  central  point,  in  many  respects,  of  Japa- 
nese Buddhism.  Kobodaislii  invented  the  Japanese  alphabet,  Iroha,  consisting  of 
forty-seven  signs,  and  also  the  first  Japanese  writing,  the  Katakara :  hitherto  only 
the  Chinese  characters  had  been  known,  and  these  continued  in  use  for  the  writing 
of  works  of  a  scientific  character.  But  the  greatest  achievement  of  Kobodaishi 
was  his  effort,  which  attained  a  gi-eat  measure  of  success,  to  make  a  fusion  of  Bud- 
dhism and  Shintoism.  The  old  divinities  were  received  into  the  Japanese  heaven 
and  explained  as  incarnations  of  Buddha ;  while  the  demi-god  heroes  and  warriors 
received  general,  or  at  any  rate  local,  worship  as  "  gongs."  Thus  he  gave  a  Japanese 
colouring  to  Buddhism.  To  him  it  is  undoubtedly  due  that  the  emperors  gave 
their  unconditional  adherence  to  the  foreign  doctrine,  which  had  now  become 
national.  During  several  centuries  after  his  age  most  of  the  emperors  resigned 
after  a  .short  rule,  shaved  their  heads,  and  ended  their  lives  as  Buddhist  monks. 
To  him  also  is  to  be  ascribed  the  introduction  of  cremation ;  in  several  cases  even 
the  emperors  accepted  this  custom. 

During  the  struggles  between  the  rival  families  of  the  Taira  and  Minanmto 
the  prestige  and  power  of  the  Buddhist  priesthood  steadily  increased.  With  Yori- 
tomo's  victory  over  his  rival  in  1186,  and  the  removal  of  the  capital  of  the  shogun^ 
to  Kamakura  (near  the  modern  Yokohama),  begins  the  most  brilliant  age  of  Japa- 
nese ]'>uddhism,  as  regards  the  number  of  its  sects,  their  power,  and  their  ]iolitical 
influence.  In  1191  Yeizai  founded  the  Ituizai  sect;  and  Shinran, in  1220,  founded 
t'le  Shin  sect,  the  nationalist  party  of  Japanese  Buddliism.  Sliinran  allowed  tlie 
priests  of  his  sect  to  eat  meat  and  to  marry;  and  in  order  to  break  down  the  bar- 
riers between  priest  and  people,  removed  the  temples  to  the  towns  from  the  moun- 

'  Tile  shoguns  were  orijriiially  militmy  coninmnders,  four  in  immber,  and  nilinf;  tlie  four  military 
districts  into  wIiIlIi  the  empire  was  divided.  But  in  1192  the  title  was  given  to  a  supreme  military  chief 
or  field-marshal ;  and  from  that  date  to  1868  there  was  an  almost  unbroken  succession  of  shoguns,  whose 
importance  will  be  seen  in  the  later  course  of  the  narrative. 


12  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [Chapter I 

tains  and  desert  places  where  they  had  been  previously  erected.  Contrary  to  the 
usage  of  other  sects,  the  writings  of  the  Shin  sect  are  in  Japanese  characters.  They 
are  known  by  the  names  of  Ikko  (the  first  word  of  their  most  important  work,  the 
book  of  everlasting  life)  and  Monto  (servant  of  the  gate,  referring  to  the  miity  of 
their  organisation).  They  are  spoken  of,  and  with  much  reason,  as  the  I'roiesiants 
of  Japan.  They  refuse  to  consider  as  obligatory  not  only  celibacy  and  abstinence 
from  c€rtain  meats,  as  we  have  already  observed,  but  also  the  practices  of  penance 
and  a.seetic  living,  pilgrimages,  and  the  monastic  life.  They  teach  tliat  men  are 
justified  by  faith  in  Buddha.  Among  them  the  priesthood  is  hereditary.  In  1227 
the  Yodo  sect  was  founded  by  Daghiu,  and  in  1261  Nichiren  founded  the  sect 
which  has  been  called  after  him,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  counterpoise  to 
the  Shin  sect,  and  perhaps  owes  its  origin  to  a  feeling  that  some  sucli  opposition 
was  requued.  Like  its  founder,  who  escaped  the  death  sentence  pronounced  upon 
him  by  Hojo  Tokeyori,  owing  to  the  miraculous  splintering  of  the  swoiil  upon  his 
neck,  this  sect  was  invariably  characterised  by  intolerance  and  fanaticism,  and 
therefore  played  a  leading  jiart  in  the  struggle  against  the  Christians.  One  of  its 
members  was  Kato  Kiyomasa,  that  persecutor  of  the  Christians  wlio  is  a  notorious 
figure  in  the  Jesuit  relations  at  the  outset  of  the  seventeenth  century;  and  its 
motto  was  to  be  seen  on  the  standards  of  many  a  general,  — "  Xanui  mio  ho  ren 
ge  kio "  ("Honour  to  the  book  of  the  law  that  bringeth  redemption"),  wliich 
was  adopted  in  place  of  the  old  "  Namu  Amida  Buddha  "  ("  Honour  to  the  Holy 
Buddha").  In  12S8  the  last  of  the  great  sects,  li  ("Seasons  of  the  year"),  was 
founded  by  Yippen. 

During  the  wars  which  devastated  the  country  between  1332  and  1602,  the 
priests  kept  alive  the  study  of  science  and  literature ;  but  they  also  took  a  very 
definite  part  in  the  political  struggles  of  the  time,  and  many  an  abbot,  harnessed 
and  armed,  charged  into  the  fray  at  the  head  of  his  monks  and  vassals.  Hence  it 
was  only  to  be  expected  that  Ota  Nobunaga,  the  first  important  personality  who 
made  it  his  object  to  restore  peace  and  order  throughout  the  ct)untry  and  to  secure 
obedience  to  tlie  emperor's  will  (tliough  this  redounded  also  to  his  own  advantage), 
should  have  turned  upon  the  monasteries.  In  1571  the  worst  of  these  spiritual 
strongholds,  the  monastery  of  the  "Shingon  sect  on  the  Hieizan,  was  destroyed  by 
his  orders  and  all  its  inhabitants  slain.  Some  vears  later  the  same  fate  befell  the 
great  temple  of  Hongwanji  of  the  Shin  .sect  in  Osaka.  Tlie  priests  of  this  latter 
had  harboured  robbers  and  also  political  opponents  of  Nobunaga.  After  weeks  of 
fighting,  three  fortresses  were  captured  out  of  the  five  which  composed  the  monas- 
ter}', l^pon  the  entrance  of  the  mikado  the  survivors  were  permitted  to  depart 
(two  thou.sand  of  the  garrison  are  .said  to  have  fallen  during  the  siege).  The 
Buddhist  priesthood,  however,  never  recovered  from  these  two  blows ;  and  even 
though  it  was  found  necessary  at  a  later  period  to  break  down  one  or  another  of  the 
strf)nghol(ls  of  political  Buddhism,  Nobunaga  had  already  performed  the  hardest 
part  of  tliis  task. 

Tlie  Yodo  sect  was  the  most  important  under  the  Tokugawa  rule.  It  is  note- 
wortliy  that  the  shoguns  of  this  dynasty  showed  special  favour  to  that  sect,  which 
certaiidy  was  less  cultivated  than  any  other.  Its  priests  followed  the  chief  rules 
of  Indian  Buddhism,  and  taught  that  the  welfare  of  the  soul  depended  rather  upon 
prayers,  and  ujxju  the  strict  performance  of  external  ceremonies  and  pious  precepts, 
than  upon  moral  purity  and  perfection.     The  shogunate  was  therefore  able  to 


ifrA-r;""]         history  of  the  world  is 

entrust  to  tliis  sect  the  religious  guidance  of  the  people  without  fear  of  any  attempt 
to  exercise  an  influence  in  opposition  to  its  own  plans.  Tiie  priests  of  this  sect 
also  jn-ovided  the  services  in  the  burial  grounds  of  tlie  shoguns  at  Shiba  and  Nikko 
(see  the  plate,  "  The  liurial  (irounds  and  Temple  Precincts  of  Nikko,"  p.  40). 
The  temple  of  Zozoji,  situated  in  Shiba,  which  was  burnt  down  in  1574,  also 
belonged  to  them.  The  Buddhism  which  had  become  the  State  religion,  at  any 
rate  of  the  shogim  bureaucracy  (Bak'fu),  declined  greatly  in  the  later  years  of  the 
shogimate,  as  did  all  other  branches  of  the  public  service.  It  failed  completely  in 
the  final  struggle  of  the  shogunate  against  the  mikado.  After  the  shoguu  himself 
had  given  up  the  contest,  tlie  adherents  of  the  shogunate  made  an  attempt  to  set 
up  an  opposition  mikado  in  the  person  of  Kiuuoji  no  mya,  a  prince  of  the  empire 
and  high  priest  of  the  Teudai  sect,  with  a  residence  in  the  temple  of  Toyeisan  in 
Ugeno.  This  proceedmg  had,  however,  nothing  to  do  with  Buddhism  as  such ;  it 
was  little  more  than  an  liistorical  recollection  of  the  reasons  which  had  induced  the 
shogims  of  the  Tokugawa  dynast}^  to  hnd  an  instrument  for  use  against  the  mikado 
in  the  chief  of  this  sect,  which  the  emperor  Kwammu  had  joined  upon  its  founda- 
tion by  a  prince  of  the  blood  royal. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Tokugawa  dynasty,  the  victors  began  to  display  a  vio- 
lent doctrinaire  animosity  against  Buddhism  which  resulted  in  persecution.  This 
was  the  more  natural  as  the  literary  activity  of  the  Shintoists  and  authors  who 
gave  themselves  out  to  be  Shintoists  materially  contributed,  from  the  eighteenth 
century  onward,  to  bring  about  the  downfall  of  the  .shogunate  in  1868.  The 
mikado  issued  a  decree  making  a  sharp  distinction  between  the  Buddhist  and 
Shintoist  forms  of  worship.  Buddhist  priests  who  had  hitherto  been  allowed  to 
perform  Shintoist  ceremonies  were  now  prohibited  from  doing  so,  and  all  tenijiles 
in  which  the  two  creeds  had  been  united  were  assigned  to  the  Shintoists.  At  the 
same  time  a  special  ministerial  department  (the  Shing-aikwan)  for  the  support  of 
Shintoist  worship  was  created,  the  object  of  which  was  to  spread  Shintoist  doc- 
trines l)y  means  of  missionaries  educated  for  the  purpose.  In  1870  a  new  decree 
appeared  forming  these  missionaries  into  a  kind  of  political  corporation,  to  which 
also  prefects  and  other  administrative  otiicials  might  belong.  In  1871  relations 
between  Buddhism  and  the  government  wei'e  entirely  broken  off.  The  Buddhist 
sanctuaiT  in  the  palace  was  closed,  the  Buddhist  festival  of  the  emperor  al)olished, 
and  the  statue  of  Buddha  removed  from  the  palace.  At  the  same  time  the  titles 
of  honour  given  to  the  temples  were  annulled  and  their  landed  property  was 
sequestrated.  In  1872  the  government  de])rived  the  priests  of  their  clerical  titles 
and  dignities  and  ordered  tlieni  to  resume  their  family  names.  At  the  same  time 
the  prohibitions  against  man-iage  and  the  eating  of  meat  were  removed,  all  temples 
without  priests  and  congregations  were  sequestrated,  and  the  priests  were  forbidden 
to  apjieal  to  the  charity  of  their  believers.  Tlie  importance  of  these  rules  can  be 
easily  understood  if  it  be  remembered  that  in  1872,  in  a  population  of  rather  more 
than  thirty-three  millions,  there  were  72,000  Buddhist  priests  and  9,621  nuns,  to 
which  must  be  added  about  126,400  novices,  students,  and  families  belonging  to 
the  Shin  sect,  and  that  the  number  of  temples  in  the  possession  of  the  seven  chief 
sects  amounted  to  more  than  67,000. 

These  efforts  of  the  government  to  suppress  Buddhism  and  to  revive  Sliintoism 
remained  fruitless,  as  was  boimd  to  be  the  case,  for  Shinto  doctrine  contains  none 
of  those  elements  which  are  essential  to  successful  religious  propaganda.     The 


14  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  [cJn.j.ter  i 

Shingaikwan  was  cousequeutly  dissolved,  and  the  religious  question  submitted  to 
the  oitlinary  ministerial  department  of  public  worship,  which  now  laid  three 
injunctions  upon  the  state  missionaries:  they  were  to  preach  the  fear  of  the  gods 
and  the  love  of  tlie  fatherland ;  to  explain  the  laws  of  nature  and  soimd  morals ; 
to  serve  the  em]>eror  and  to  obey  his  orders.  At  the  same  time  the  government 
apjx)inted  for  every  Buddhist  and  Shiutoist  sect  a  chief  of  these  official  mission- 
aries, and  allowed  the  members  of  all  Buddhist  sects  to  preach  when  and  where 
they  would,  jirovidcd  that  they  taught  nothing  opposed  to  the  tliree  injunctions 
above  mentioned.  As  these  measures  did  not  produce  the  desired  result,  the  gov- 
ernment abolished  the  official  missionaries  in  1884,  and  left  the  settlement  of  the 
missionary  question  to  the  heads  of  the  different  .sects  whom  it  was  to  ajiiHiint. 
Finally,  in  1889  the  new  constitution  recognised  religious  toleration  as  a  caidinal 
point.  Proposals  for  a  law  to  settle  the  questions  concerning  the  Buddhist,  Shiu- 
toist, and  Cliristian  sects  were  rejected  by  the  first  chamber  in  1899.  The  most 
obvious  cousequence  of  the  government's  interference  in  religious  questions  and  of 
the  persecution  of  the  Buddhists  may  be  said  to  consist  in  the  fact  that,  witli  the 
exception  of  the  Shin  sect,  which  seems  to  have  gained  new  strength  in  the  struggle 
for  existence,  all  the  Buddhist  sects  have  suffered  financially  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  wliile  their  religion  has  emerged  from  the  period  of  trial  with  advantage 
rather  than  loss. 

K  The  Change  of  Constitutional  Fuk.m 

(«)  The  Supremacy  of  the  Fujiwara. —  If  the  Japanese  annals  ai'e  to  be 
believed,  .Timmu,  iuimediately  after  the  fomidatiou  of  the  kingdom,  handed  over 
the  government  to  four  ministers,  one  of  whom  was  an  ancestor  of  the  family  of 
the  Fujiwara.  In  this  piece  of  information  we  may  probably  recognise  nothing 
more  than  a  desire,  formulated  by  this  powerful  family  some  fifteen  hundred  years 
later,  to  justify  their  actual  predominance  by  reference  to  an  antiquity  as  remote 
as  possible.  In  reality  the  true  state  of  affairs  for  a  long  period  must  have  been 
that  the  supreme  chieftains  (emperors ;  Sumera  ilikoto)  of  the  victorious  tribe, 
who  did  not  receive  the  Chinese  title  of  "  tenno  "  imtil  a  much  later  date,  found 
themselves  obliged  to  defend  and  to  extend  their  tottering  supremacy  as  best  they 
could.  As  the  emperors  attempted  to  strengthen  the  forces  under  their  conlnd,  so 
also  did  the  chieftains  of  other  Ujis.  In  the  course  of  centuries  conflicts  can  be 
shown  to  have  been  waged  between  the  emperor  and  unruly  Uji  chiefs,  which  were 
generally  decided  by  the  interference  of  other  chiefs  in  favour  of  one  or  other  of  the 
contending  parties,  and  not  always  in  favour  of  the  rightful  superior.  Such  strug- 
gles constantly  broke  out  over  questions  concerning  the  succession  to  the  throne, 
for  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Kwamnui  (782-806)  tliat  the  right  of  primogeni- 
ture was  asserted,  and  it  was  some  time  before  it  advanced  from  the  tlieorctical 
to  the  practical  stage. 

These  continual  contests  for  power  and  supremacy  involved  the  downfall  of  the 
fild  tribal  .system.  The  ultimate  causes  of  tlie  change  are  to  be  found  in  the 
increase  of  the  population  and  conseijuently  of  tlie  members  of  the  individual  I'jis, 
and  also  in  the  increased  necessity  for  labour  to  provide  sustenance  for  individuals, 
resulting  in  the  abandonment  of  fi.shiug  and  hunting  for  agriculture.  Tlie  rise  of 
the  family  and  of  the  individual  within  the  tribe  gradually  made  itself  felt  as  a 


iZTSa""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  15 

danger  both  to  the  upper  ami  to  the  lower  strata  of  society :  to  the  upper,  because 
the  Uji  system,  in  the  event  of  a  rapid  increase  in  the  members  of  the  Uji,  placed 
these  numbers  at  the  immediate  disposal  of  a  vassal  anxious  to  create  disturbance ; 
to  the  lower,  because  the  tribe  was  no  longer  al)le  to  provide  for  the  welfare  of  its 
members.  The  Chinese  constitution  offered  a  solutitm  of  tliese  ditticulties,  on  wliidi 
the  emperor  or  his  councillors  gladly  seized.  In  tlie  great  neighbour  kingdom  the 
monarch's  person  was  unapproachable  to  the  mass  of  the  population.  He  ruled  by 
means  of  his  otiicials,  of  wlioin  he  saw  none  but  the  highest.  Kverything  in  the 
coimtr}',  men  as  well  as  luml,  was  his  property,  and  was  wholly  subject  to  his  will, 
which  he  exercised  through  his  ministers  in  the  capital  and  through  his  viceroys 
in  the  provinces.  The  constitution  of  the  Japanese  Empire  now  underwent  a 
change  in  accordance  with  these  principles.  The  mikado  was  nominally  at  the 
head  of  the  government :  in  practice,  though  not  as  a  matter  of  right,  he  was  con- 
fined to  the  precincts  of  his  palace,  and  as  time  went  on  became  more  and  more  a 
stranger  to  his  subjects.  I'ltimately  he  became,  what  he  remained  imtil  1868,  a 
mythical  personality,  for  the  possession  of  whom  disputants  would  tight,  because 
this  alone  could  give  to  their  measures  the  stamp  of  legality ;  but  a  personality 
who  could  only  give  expression  to  his  wOl,  when  his  servants  provided  the  means 
to  this  end,  with  a  \-iew  to  their  own  advantage  and  aggrandisement.  The  execu- 
tive power  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  central  administration,  which  had  been  remod- 
elled after  the  Chinese  pattern.  This  body  was  controlled  by  any  one  who  had 
sufficient  strength  or  cunning  to  make  himself  master  of  the  .situation.  From  the 
heads  of  tribes  a  court  nobUity,  the  kuges,  was  created,  from  which  were  selected 
the  high  officials  of  the  central  administration  and  the  viceroys  of  the  provinces 
and  departments. 

The  tribes,  as  such,  lost  the  political  and  economic  importance  which  they  had 
hitherto  possessed,  and  their  property  was  no  longer  held  in  common.  Their  place 
was  taken  by  the  family,  the  ko,  in  wliich  the  individual  member  had  greater 
freedom  of  action.  On  the  other  hand,  again  after  the  Chinese  model,  freedom 
was  limited  and  the  solidarit)'  of  family  life  increased  b}-  the  introduction  of  a  new 
system  of  police,  to  which  the  history  of  mediicval  England  supplies  a  striking 
parallel.  The  ko  were  organised  in  groups  of  five,  and  each  group  became  answer- 
able in  common  for  its  members :  this  regulation  seems  to  have  been  further 
strengthened  by  the  creation  of  similar  unions  of  ten  famUies,  or  twenty,  and  so 
on.  Only  .a  few  of  the  greatest  tribes,  such  as  the  Fujiwara,  the  Taira,  and  the 
Minamoto,  retained  that  influence  which  the  I  jis  had  formerly  exercised,  and  this 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  unity  of  the  members  on  which  the  strength  of  the 
Uji  had  rested  was  now  a  thing  of  the  past.  We  may,  however,  conclude  that 
these  families,  and  especiallj-  the  Fujiwara,  were  the  chief  agents  in  the  intro- 
duction of  this  change,  which  exercised  so  great  an  influence  upon  the  whole  of 
Japanese  internal  development,  that  tlie  battles  of  the  next  eight  hundred  years 
were,  almost  without  exception,  fought  out  between  and  within  such  tribes.  Such 
a  change  was  naturally  slow  of  completion.  Initiated  and  supported  by  Chinese 
and  Buddhist  influences,  a  necessary  condition  of  its  accomplishment  was  the 
downfall  of  the  existing  system,  the  reduction  of  the  emperor's  position  whidi 
that  system  strengthened,  and  above  all  things,  energy  and  decision.  As  early  as 
603  the  empress  Suiko  created  twelve  new  grades  of  nobility ;  in  647  these  were 
reorganised  in  thirty  subdivisions  by  the  emperor  Kotoku.     In  this  institution  we 


16  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  ^Chapter  i 

may  trace  the  origin  of  the  kiiges,  the  court  nobility.  lu  603,  also,  eight  ministers 
of  the  imperial  palace  were  created,  to  deal  with  administration  and  education, 
ceremonies,  finance,  and  the  census,  military  affairs,  the  judicature,  the  excliequer, 
and  the  domestic  economy  of  tiie  palace.  At  tliis  time  the  "  counsellor  of  llie  gods 
of  heaven  and  earth  "  (jingi  kuan),  who  had  previously  been  a  supreme  authority, 
was  deprived  of  his  dignity  by  the  progress  of  Buddliist  influence.  In  786  the 
daijo  kuan  was  created,  a  board  of  the  chief  otticials  of  tlie  realm,  consisting  of 
four  ministers  (the  princes  and  the  chief  of  the  kuges);  these  were  the  daijo 
daijm  (great  minister  of  a  great  government),  the  sadaijin  and  the  udaijin  (great 
ministers  of  the  left  and  right),  and  the  naidaijin  (great  private  minister).  The 
entire  government  was  in  the  hands  of  these  officials.  Finally,  in  the  year  889  the 
hereditary  dignitary  of  the  kwambaku  or  regent  was  created. 

Other  changes  exerted  a  deeper  influence  upon  the  social  organism.  Under  the 
emperor  Kotoku  (645-654),  a  succession  of  regulations  called  the  Taikwa  (this  being 
the  name  of  the  year-period  in  which  they  were  issued)  withdrew  from  the  I'jis 
the  offices  which  had  hitherto  been  connected  with  them,  and  arranged  that  these 
oflices  should  henceforward  be  held  only  by  men  of  proved  capacity ;  the  members 
of  the  Ujis  now  became  the  vassals  of  the  empire,  and  the  land  was  divided  into 
provinces  (kuni)  and  districts  (kori),  the  inhal)itanls  of  which  were  now  respon- 
sible to  the  emperor  for  the  payment  of  taxes  in  kind  and  the  performance  of 
labour  services.  In  the  year  689  was  promulgated  the  "  Taiho,"  that  is,  the  exist- 
ing body  of  legislation  reduced  to  writing.  The  most  important  point  of  this  code 
was  the  introduction  of  a  system  that  had  existed  in  China  from  immemorial 
antiquity,  the  division  of  the  arable  land,  all  of  which  henceforward  belonged 
to  the  emperor,  into  temporary  family  holdings  (on  leases  of  six  or  twelve  years)  ; 
the  size  of  these  was  proportioned  to  that  of  the  families  that  held  them,  and  rent 
was  paid  in  the  form  of  produce  and  of  labour  services.  Forest,  moorland,  etc., 
remained  common  property.  If  the  peasant  brought  fresh  land  under  cultivation,  he 
liad  tlie  right  of  usufruct  for  a  considerable  period  free  of  taxation,  and  this  right 
he  could  even  sell  to  others  with  tlie  consent  of  the  authorities.  At  a  later  period 
this  system  of  land  tenure  became  the  basis  for  the  formation  of  the  feudal  state ; 
at  that  time  the  territorial  lords  claimed  to  stand  in  the  position  of  the  emperor 
toward  the  tenants,  raised  the  taxation  upon  arable  land  from  three  to  fifty  per 
cent,  appropriated  the  common  land,  and  respected  only  those  articles  of  the  code 
which  happened  to  correspond  with  their  own  convenience.  Under  this  system 
the  possessions  of  the  temples  and  monasteries  increased  with  unusual  rapidity ; 
in  addition  to  the  land  which  they  gained  by  making  clearings  for  cultivation,  they 
acquired,  notwithstanding  repeated  proliibitions,  rich  presents  and  legacies,  which 
enabled  the  priests  during  the  wars  of  the  coming  century  to  play  a  part  by  no 
means  in  consonance  with  their  vows  of  poverty. 

In  the  year  669  Nakatomi  no  Kamatari  received  from  the  emperor  Tensi,  who 
favoured  his  desires,  the  family  name  of  "  Fujiwara  "  (wistaria  field,  a  name  taken 
from  his  place  of  birth).  His  family  was  of  divine  origin  ;  their  ancestor  was  Amano 
koyane  no  niikoto.  One  of  their  forefathers  had  accompanied  Jimmu  on  his  cam- 
paign, and  liad  received  from  him  the  daughter  of  a  subjugated  prince  in  marriage ; 
another  member  had  taken  the  family  name  of  Nakatomi  under  the  mikado  Kimmei 
(540-571).  Thus  the  Fujiwara  were  the  oldest  and  most  distinguished  clan  in 
the  country  after  the  mikado  family.     Of  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  families  com- 


i^^""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  17 

posing  the  court  no]iility  (Kugos),  tlie  first  ninety-five  traced  their  descent  from 
Kamatari,  and  it  was  from  the  first  five  of  tiiese,  the  Gosekke,  that  the  mikado 
was  obliged  to  choose  his  consort.  From  888  to  1868  the  office  of  regent  and 
also  that  of  daijo  daijiu  was  hereditary  iu  this  family.  Its  influence  was  further 
increased  by  constant  intermarriage  with  the  house  of  the  mikados,  the  daughters 
of  which  were  also  almost  invariably  married  into  tlie  same  family.  However, 
this  position  of  almo.st  complete  supremacy  which  the  fanuly  had  succeedeil  in 
acquiring  was  destined  to  bring  about  the  loss  of  its  political  power.  In  the  hand 
of  the  Fujiwara  the  mikados  were  mere  puppets,  generally  children,  and  often  in 
their  tenderest  years.  The  provincial  governors  remained  peacefully  in  Kioto,  and 
sent  substitutes  to  occupy  their  posts.  If  a  shogun  was  appointed  to  deal  with  a 
revolt  of  the  Ainos  or  of  some  governor,  he  left  others  to  do  the  work,  and  remained 
at  court  to  lead  the  life  of  pleasure  for  which  he  found  there  all  possible  ]iro- 
vision.  .Tajianese  literature  t'cntred  round  the  court  of  the  mikado,  and  in  this 
period  attained  its  zenith ;  but  the  period  was  also  one  of  extreme  luxury  and 
unbridled  immorality. 

(b)  The  IFars  of  the  Taira  and  of  the  Minamoto  {until  1185  A.  D.).  —  The  real 
power  consequently  passed  by  degi-ees  into  the  hands  of  those  who  did  the  work  of 
the  government.  While  the  effeminacy  of  the  €ourt  nobility  increased,  a  stronger 
caste  rose  into  prominence,  the  Bukes,  who  may  be  defined  as  a  military  uobUity. 
The  chief  re})resentatives  of  this  caste  were  the  two  families  of  the  Taira  and  the 
Minamoto.  The  ft)i'mer  traced  their  descent  from  Takamochi,  the  great-grandson 
of  the  emperor  Kwammu  (782-806),  while  the  latter  family  were  descended  from 
T.suuemoto,  a  grandson  of  the  emperor  Seiwa ;  both  were  originally  members  of 
the  court  nobility,  five  families  of  which  retraced  their  origin  to  the  Taira  and 
seventeen  to  the  Minamoto  as  late  as  the  year  1868.  The  first  serious  danger 
with  which  the  Fujiwara  were  confronted  arose  from  a  struggle  for  in-ecedence 
against  the  kuge  family  of  the  Sugawara,  who  were  no  less  ancient  than  them- 
selves. The  conflict  was  fought  out  amid  the  intrigues  of  court  life,  and  ended  w  ilii 
the  overthrow  of  Michizan^,  the  representative  of  the  Sugawara  family,  who  was 
defeated  in  the  reign  of  Daigo  (8'JS-9oO)  and  sent  into  exile,  ilore  dangeious 
was  the  revolt  of  one  Taira,  who  set  himself  up  as  emperor  in  Kwanto  under  the 
mikado  Shujaku  (931-946),  and  was  supported  by  some  members  of  the  Fujiwara ; 
tlie  movement,  however,  was  suppressed  after  a  bloody  conflict.  The  influence  of 
the  Fujiwara  in  Kioto  remained  unimpaired  until  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century.  The  Taira  were  active  in  the  south  and  west,  the  Minamoto  in  the  north 
and  east,  where  they  won  a  great  military  reputation,  and  gathered  bands  of  bold 
and  predatory  warriors  around  them  Both  j)arties  were  fully  occu])ied  with  wars 
against  the  Ainos  in  the  north,  and  against  the  Koreans  who  had  invaded  Kyushu 
in  the  south. 

Meanwhile,  both  the  Taira  and  the  Minamoto  began  to  acquire  influence  in  the 
capital.  A  favourite  of  the  emperor  Toba,  Ity  name  Taira  no  Tadamori,  had  a  son 
by  one  of  his  master's  concubines  (or  by  a  servant  of  the  palace  whom  he  married 
later)  in  1118,  whom  he  named  Kiyomori.  In  the  disputes  concerning  the  succes- 
sion which  broke  out  upon  the  death  of  the  emperor  Konoye  in  the  year  1155, 
tlie  two  chief  claimants  for  the  tlirone  were  Shutoku,  a  former  mikado,  who  liail 
abdicated  in  1141,  and  now  claimed  the  imperial  title  for  his  son,  and  Go  Shi- 

VOL.  II  —  2 


18  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [ckapterl 

rakawa,  one  of  the  sons  of  the  emperor  Toba,  who  had  abdicated  in  1123.  Almost 
all  tlie  Miiiamoto  supported  the  first  of  these  claimants,  while  the  cause  of  the 
other  was  esixmsed  by  the  Taira.  The  latter  succeeded  in  obtaining  tlie  election 
of  Go  Shirakuwa ;  Kiyomori,  who  had  inherited  all  the  dignities  and  ullices  of  his 
father,  ottered  to  support  him.  In  the  battles  between  the  two  parties,  Yoshitomo, 
a  member  of  the  Minamoto,  also  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Taira.  The  Minamoto 
were  defeated ;  their  leader,  Yorinaga,  committed  suicide,  while  another  leader, 
Tametomo,  a  renowned  archer,  was  captured  and  banished.  The  victorious  Kiyo- 
mori was  rewarded  with  the  position  of  daijo  daijin.  He  now  ruled  as  the  Fujiwara 
had  done  before  him.  The  Minamoto  became  the  special  objects  of  his  hatred,  and 
he  i)ersecuted  them  with  such  ferocity  that  in  115'J  Minamoto  no  Yoshitomo,  who 
had  previously  been  on  his  side,  declared  against  him.  He,  however,  was  quickly 
overpowered  and  murdered  while  in  flight.  This  victory  gave  Kiyomoii  absolute 
predominance.  His  I'athcr-in-law,  the  mikado  Go  Shirakawa,  who  li:ul  abdicated 
in  115S  (see  the  plate,  "The  Abduction  of  Go  Shirakawa  in  the  A' ear  1159"), 
was  sent  into  exile,  and  the  war  of  extermination  against  the  Minamoto  con- 
tinued. Yoritomo,  the  fourth  sou  of  Yoshitomo,  escaped  the  fate  of  his  brother 
owing  to  the  pleading  of  the  sons  of  Kiyomori,  and  was  sent  into  exile.  Three 
of  his  half-brothers,  including  the  famous  Yoshiisune,  who  was  then  an  infant 
at  the  breast,  were  spared  for  a  like  reason.  Their  mother,  the  fair  Ti)kiwa,  a 
clever  peasant  woman  liy  birth,  wlu)  had  been  the  couculiine  of  Yoshitomo,  saved 
them  after  they  had  been  cut  off  from  flight  by  offering  herself  to  the  victor  as  his 
concubme.  Yoritomo,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Hojo  Tokimasa,  the  man 
to  whose  custody  he  had  been  committed,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  against  the 
Taira.  His  first  attempt  ended  in  disaster;  but  he  escaped  to  Kwanlo,  soon  col- 
lected a  force,  and  fortified  himself  in  Kaniakura,  where  the  Taira  did  not  venture 
to  attack  him.  Shortly  afterward  (1181)  Kiyomori  died;  his  last  words  to  his 
family  were  that  the  observance  of  the  usual  burial  customs  were  to  be  omitted  in 
his  case,  and  that  tlie  only  monument  to  be  set  up  before  his  grave  was  the  head  of 
Minamoto  no  Yoritomo. 

His  son  Munemori  possessed  neither  the  capacity  nor  tlie  bloodthirsty  energy 
of  his  father.  He  wasted  valuable  time  in  deliberation  wliile  liis  enemies  in  the 
north,  who  were  joined  by  the  remnant  of  the  Miiianiot<i.  grew  more  powerful 
every  day ;  their  cause  was  also  espoused  by  many  of  the  Fujiwara,  by  the  priests 
of  Hieizan,  and  by  the  exiled  Go  Shirakawa.  The  first  conflict  took  place  in  the 
mountains  of  Nakasendo,  between  an  army  of  the  Taira  and  ]\Iiiuimoto  no  Yoshi- 
naka,  whose  father  had  also  been  a  victim  of  Kiyomori.  The  Taira  were  utterly 
beaten  in  11S2,  and  Munemori  fled  from  Kioto  with  the  young  mikado  Antoku. 
There  the  old  Go  Shirakawa  greeted  the  conqueror  upon  his  entry.  Antoku  was 
declared  to  be  deposed,  and  Go  Toba  was  elected  emperor  in  his  jilace.  He 
appointed  Yoshinaka  to  the  post  of  .shogun,  so  that  this  personage  now  became 
leader  of  the  opposition  to  the  family  of  his  cousin  Yoritomo.  Minamoto  no  Yori- 
tomo sent  his  younger  brothers  Yo.shitsune  and  Xoriyori  againsthim  ;  they  defeated 
him  in  11S4  at  Lake  I'.iwa,  and  Yoshinaka  committed  suicide.  Yoshitsune  availed 
himself  of  this  advantage  to  resume  the  pursuit  of  Munemori.  After  a  series  of 
combats,  all  of  which  went  against  the  Taira,  a  decisive  naval  battle  was  fought  in 
1185  at  Dan-no-ura,  near  Shimonoseki.  The  Taira  made  a  most  valiant  resistance, 
but  were   utterly  defeated.     The  widow  of  Kiyomori  drowned  herself  witli  ilie 


THE  ABDUCTION   OF   GO   SHIRAKAWA,  FORMEll   EMrEKOR   OF 
JAPAN,  BY   FUJIWARA   NO   NOBUYORI   IN   THE   YEAR  1159 

The  illustrations  to  the  book  "  Heiji-monogatari,"  that  is,  "  Narratives  of  the  Year  Ileiji," 
have  been  partly  lost.  The  picture  here  reproduced  forms  pari  of  the  ilhistration  to  the  Sanjudeii- 
Yakiuti  section  (the  destruction  by  fire  of  the  Sanjuden  castle).  On  the  ninth  day  of  the  twelfth 
month  of  the  year  Heiji  (1159  a.  d.),  Fujiwara  no  Nobuyori,  with  five  lumdred  cavalry  under  the 
field-marshal  Minamoto  no  Yoshitonio,  surprised  about  midiii<,'ht  the  Sanjuden  ca-stle,  wlicre  tlie 
former  emperor  Go  Shirakawa  wa-s  in  residence.  The  emperor  in  terror  took  to  flight ;  but 
Nobuyori,  Yoshitonio,  Mitsuyiisu,  Jlitsumoto,  and  Suesime  brought  liini  back  by  force  in  his  car- 
riage to  the  imperial  palace.  Concerning  the  monk  Keion,  the  painter  of  this  picture,  we  have 
but  very  scanty  information ;  however,  he  must  have  been  born  some  twenty  years  after  the 
"Heiji  revolt." 

(From  Vol.  XIV  of  the  monthly  periodical  "Kokkura"  (flora  of  the  country),  published  in  Tokio  by 
Yamamoto,  on  behalf  of  the  Kokkura-sha  society;  trauslated  by  Dr.  Kita.sato  in  Herliu.) 

As  Dr.  Kitasato  adds,  the  disturbances  of  the  year  Heiji  were  due  to  the  following  causes  : 
The  emperor  Go  Shirakawa,  who  had  reigned  from  1156,  alxlicated  in  1158  in  favour  of  his  little 
son  Nijo  (1159-1165),  but  continued  to  govern  as  regent,  and  lived  till  1192.  At  this  period  a 
political  quarrel  broke  out  between  two  court  officials,  Shinsei  and  Nobuyori,  of  the  noble  family 
of  the  Fujiwara.  Nobuyori's  jealousy  was  aroused  by  the  preference  which  Go  Sliirakawa  showed 
for  Sliinsei;  he  captured  the  ex-emjieror  in  his  ca.stle  of  Sanjuden,  brought  liim  as  a  jirisoner  to  the 
imperial  palace,  and  nnirdered  Shinsei,  his  opponent.  Tliis  rising  is  known  as  the  "  Heiji  revolt." 
The  author  of  the  "  Heiji-monogatari "  is  supposed,  though  on  no  certain  evidence,  to  be  Hamura 
Tokinaga,  who  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century. 


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a'TIir^a'""]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  19 

mikado  Antokii,  who  was  then  five  years  old.  Most  of  the  Taira  who  did  not  fall 
in  tiie  battle  committed  suicide  or  were  killed  iu  the  pursuit.  A  few  found  refuge 
in  the  remotest  parts  of  Kyusliu,  where  it  is  said  that  their  descendants  may  to 
this  day  be  recognised.  The  utter  ruin  with  which  tlie  Taira  had  once  threatened 
the  Minamoto  was  now  dealt  out  to  them  by  the  enemy  tliej-  had  formerly 
conquered. 

In  certain  respects  the  wars  of  the  Taii-a  and  Minamoto  are  analogous  to  the 
wars  of  the  Roses  in  England ;  the  comparison  can  be  extended  to  the  colours 
worn  by  the  Japanese  parties,  the  standards  of  the  Minamoto  being  white  and 
those  of  the  Taira  red.  The  events  of  these  wars  form  the  subject  of  the  most 
famous  Japanese  novels  Heike  (Chinese  for  Taira,  peace),  Moncjgotari  and  Genge 
(Chinese  for  Minamoto,  source),  Konogatari,  which  are  to-day  the  delight  of  young 
and  old  in  Japan. 

F.  The  Minamoto,  the  Hojo,  and  the  Ashikaga  (1186-1573) 

The  following  four  centuries  of  Japanese  history  are  filled  with  indiscriminate 
fighting.  Law  and  order  are  non-existent,  treachery  and  murder  are  of  daily  occur- 
rence, and  our  contempt  for  the  faithlessness  of  the  nobles  to  tlie  mikado,  the 
shogun,  and  the  regent  is  increased  by  the  numerous  instances  of  the  fidelity  dis- 
played by  the  lower  orders  toward  their  masters.  Each  individual  is  concerned 
only  with  his  own  advantage  and  the  easiest  means  of  obtaining  it.  The  one  in- 
spiring feature  of  the  period  is  the  stoical  courage  with  which  the  conquered,  who 
as  conquerors  were  merciless,  met  their  death,  —  they  fell  upon  their  own  swords, 
after  the  manner  of  the  ancient  Eomans. 

At  the  outset  of  the  rule  of  the  Fujiwara  in  the  eighth  century  the  necessity 
became  apparent,  probably  owing  to  the  growing  etfeminacy  of  certain  classes  of 
the  population,  for  the  creation  of  a  special  military  class  (the  Samurai).  At  an 
earlier  period  every  man  was  a  soldier,  and  marched  out  wlien  he  received  his 
summons ;  now  this  militia  was  replaced  by  a  class  of  professional  soldiers.  In- 
stances occur  at  an  early  period  of  the  existence  of  body-guards  of  which  the 
military  forces  of  the  greater  lords  may  have  been  composed  ;  these,  however,  are 
purely  exceptional  cases.  As  in  Anglo-Saxon  England  and  in  Europe  at  large 
during  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  of  our  era,  the  necessities  of  the  time  obliged 
the  free  peasants  and  often  the  petty  nobles  of  Japan  to  place  themselves  mider  the 
protection  of  a  more  powerful  lord,  and  to  give  up  their  freedom  in  return  for 
the  .security  which  he  could  offer  them.  An  additional  piece  of  evidence  for  this 
fact  is  the  argument  invariably  adduced  by  the  Japanese  themselves  during  the 
debates  on  the  proposal  to  capitalise  the  incomes  of  the  Samurai  (1870-1880), 
that  this  order  of  nolnlity  had  originated  from  the  peasant  class  iu  the  eighth  cen- 
tury and  ought  to  revert  to  that  condition.  The  peasant  serfs,  like  those  wlio 
voluntarily  sought  the  protection  of  a  lord,  owed  military  service  to  this  lord  and 
not  to  the  emperor  ;  eventually,  iu  view  of  the  unbroken  continuance  of  war,  both 
parties,  lord  and  peasant,  found  it  to  their  advantage  to  draw  a  more  definite  line 
of  demarcation  between  the  productive  and  the  military  classes. 

Similar  circumstances  no  doubt  gave  rise  to  the  great  fiefs.  In  the  times  when 
might  ]ireceded  right,  the  regent,  the  field-marshal,  or  whoever  was  in  power  for 
the  moment,  either  seized  the  property  of  a  defeated  enemy  for  himself  or  divided 


20  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter T 

it  among  his  adliereuUs.  Al  a  later  iieriod,  when  an  ineieasetl  number  had  heen  able 
to  carve  a  kingdom  for  themselves  out  of  the  iiroperly  wliich  tlieoretically  belonged 
to  the  emperor,  when  the  country  was  divided  among  great  and  small  lords,  actual 
possession  formed  nine-tenths  of  the  law,  and  often  the  wliole  of  it ;  whether  the 
possessor  of  land  had  been  duly  and  formally  invested  willi  it  was  a  matter  of  total 
indifference.  What  the  sword  had  won  the  sword  alone  could  keeji.  So  when 
social  conditions  became  more  stereotyped  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
turv,  the  whole  of  the  country  was  in  possession  of  gi-eater  or  smaller  lords,  who 
held  their  lands  in  theory  from  tiie  mikado  either  directly,  or  mediately  through 
the  shoguu.  The  theory  became  practice  when,  upon  the  restoration  of  the  mikado's 
power,  the  landed  property  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  were  claimed 
as  imperial  jwssessions  by  the  government. 

For  the  period  from  the  \ictory  of  the  Miuamoto  over  the  Taira  until  the  re- 
storation of  the  mikado  in  1868,  a  period  of  almost  seven  centuries,  two  facts  are  of 
primarv  importance  for  the  internal  development  of  Japan.  First,  that  whereas 
Kioto  had  hitherto  been  the  social  and  political  centre  of  the  country,  this  centre 
of  gi-avity  was  now  transferred  to  the  northeast,  first  to  Kamakura,  a  foundation 
of  Yoritomo,  and  afterward  to  Yedo,  founded  by  lyeyasu.  The  second  fact  is  of 
no  less  importance:  during  the  greater  portion  of  this  period  the  actual  power  was 
not  exercised  by  the  bearei-s  of  the  difl'ereut  titles  of  olHce,  the  mikado,  shogun, 
and  regent,  who  were  generally  children,  and  sometimes  babes  in  arms;  the 
strings  of  government  were  pulled  by  relations  and  other  personages  behind  the 
scenes.  Extremely  rare  are  the  cases  in  which  the  bearer  of  the  title  plays  any- 
thing but  a  passive  part,  and  that,  too,  at  a  time  when  there  was  certainly  no  lack 
of  vigorous  and  energetic  nu-n  in  .Tajjan. 

(a)  Yoritomo.  —  The  victory  of  Dan-no-ura  was  followed  by  the  outbreak  of 
serious  dissensions  within  the  Minamoto  family,  evoked  by  the  jealousy  of  Yori- 
tomo at  the  military  success  of  his  half-lnvlher  Yoshitsune ;  shortly  afterward 
the  latter  was  murdered  by  the  order  of  Yoritomo.  The  personality  of  this  most 
attractive  of  all  the  Jlinamoto  has  become  the  nucleus  of  a  cycle  of  legends ;  some 
of  the.9e  represent  him  as  fleeing  to  the  Aiiios  and  spending  long  years  among  them, 
while  others  recognise  in  him  the  great  Genghis  Khan  who  made  the  Mongols  the 
greatest  nation  in  Asia.  The  most  jirobable  story  says  that  he  committed  harakiri, 
after  killing  his  wife  and  children,  and  that  his  head  was  brought  to  Kamakura,  to 
be  shown  to  his  brother  as  evidence  of  the  .execution  of  his  orders.  Yoritomo  him- 
self was  invested  in  1192  with  the  title  of  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun  ("the  gieat  general 
subduing  the  barbarians"),  lie  died  in  1190.  Ujion  his  hereditary  estates  at 
Kwanto  he  instituted  a  properly  organised  system  of  governiiient,  the  "  Bak'  fu  " 
("  behind  the  curtain  "  which  surrounds  the  tent  of  the  tield-mar.slial).  This  system 
corresponded  in  some  respects  with  the  military  administration  of  the  field-marshal ; 
the  incomjietcnt  provincial  governoi-s  were  replaced  by  ca])able  subordinates  of  his 
own.  Under  him  Kamakura  became  a  large  and  beautiful  town,  of  which  only  a 
pair  of  stately  temples  now  remain,  together  with  a  large  image  of  Buddha  (the 
Daibuz)  and  the  simple  sepulchral  monument  of  its  founder. 

(6)  TJic  Slmdow  Slioguns  and  the  ITojo  Fdmilij.  —  After  the  death  of  Yoritomo 
his  father-in-law,  Hojo  Tokimasa,  together  with  his  widow,  Masago,  acted  as  the 


^r^vSf'"']  HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD  21 

guardians  of  Yori-iye,  who  was  then  eighteen  years  of  age ;  after  a  rule  of  four 
years  he  was  deposed  in  1203,  sent  into  exile,  and  murdered  a  year  later.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Sauetoiixj,  a  brother  eleven  years  of  age,  who  was  murdered  in  1219 
by  his  nephew  Kokio,  the  son  of  Yori-iye.  The  main  branch  of  the  family  of 
Yoritomo  thus  became  extinct,  and  power  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Hojo 
family.  They  did  not  themselves  assume  the  title  of  shogun,  but  contented  them- 
selves with  that  i)f  shikken  (regents)  of  Kamakura,  preferring  to  appoint  children 
of  the  Fujiwara  famil}-,  or  of  the  imperial  house,  to  the  position  of  shogun,  and 
rulmg  under  their  names.  Of  the  eight  shoguns  included  in  the  period  1220-1338 
six  were  between  three  and  sixteen  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  their  a]>]pi)intnieut; 
all  were  deposed,  and  two  are  known  to  have  been  murdered.  In  the  family  of 
the  regents  afifairs  were  no  better;  eight  rulers  succeeded  one  another  in  the  years 
1205-1326,  and  three  or  four  in  the  short  space  between  1326  and  1333.  The 
family  then  became  e.xtinct. 

The  assumption  of  the  ])ower  l)y  the  Hojos  caused  much  dissatisfaction  in  Kioto. 
The  three  ex-mikados.  Go  Tolia  and  his  sons  Tsuchi  and  Juntoku,  together  with 
the  son  of  the  latter,  Chukyo  tenno,  who  had  been  ruling  from  1222,  offered  resist- 
ance but  were  overjiowered  ;  the  three  ex-mikados  were  sent  into  exile  and  there 
thrown  into  prison,  while  the  reigning  mikado  was  deposed.  The  first  of  the  Hojo 
shikken  or  their  councillors  were  men  of  high  capacity.  Yoshitoki  (1205-1224) 
and  Yasutoki  (1225-1242)  did  their  utmost  to  maintain  peace  throughout  the 
count r\-,  but  were  forced  to  struggle  against  the  parties  in  Kioto  and  the  iJuddhisb 
priests,  especially  in  Yamato,  who  stirred  up  the  population  against  them.  Tsune- 
toki  ruled  for  only  three  years  (1243-1246),  and  abdicated  in  favour  of  hisj-ounger 
brother  Tokiyori  (1246-1256).  He  also  gave  proof  of  much  energy  and  made 
special  efforts  to  improve  the  administration  of  justice.  The  greatest  services  to 
Japan  were,  however,  tho.se  of  Tokimune  (1257-1284).  After  his  conquest  of 
China,  Kublai  Khan  sent  a  letter  by  the  Koreans  to  the  mikado  Go  Uda  (1275- 
1287),  demanding  the  recognition  of  his  sujiremacy  and  the  payment  of  tribute 
from  Japan.  Tokimune  scornfully  rejected  the  demand.  The  Chinese  ruler  con- 
tinued his  diplomatic  efforts,  but  with  no  greater  success.  The  Mongols  then  got 
jwssession  of  the  islands  of  Tsu  Shima  and  Iki  Shima,  making  Korea  their  base  of 
operations,  and  attempted  in  1275  to  establish  themselves  in  Kyushil  but  were 
driven  back.  In  the  year  1279  Chinese  ambassadors  again  arrived  at  Nagasaki 
with  demands  for  the  submission  of  the  country,  but  were  beheaded  at  the  orders 
of  the  government  at  Kamakura.  Finally,  in  1281  a  powerful  Mongol  fleet  ap- 
peared off  the  coasts  of  Kyushu.  The  Japanese  annals  are  fidl  of  stories  con- 
cerning individual  deeds  of  valom-.  The  truth  appears  to  be  that  this  fleet  of 
between  three  and  four  thousand  sail  carrj'ing  a  hundred  thousand  warriors, 
including  ten  thousand  Koreans,  was  almost  entirely  destroj-ed  by  a  typhoon, 
and  the  Japanese  then  made  an  end,  without  loss  to  themselves,  of  such  of  the 
crews  as  had  been  saved. 

This  success  and  the  absolute  power  wliich  they  exercised  in  the  kingdom 
tempted  the  Hojos  to  disregard  the  most  ordinary  dictates  of  prudence  and  common 
sense.  Hitherto  they  had  ruled  with  an  iron  hand,  had  deposed  and  appointed 
raikados  and  shoguns  at  their  pleasure ;  but  their  measures  had  been  actuated 
by  desire  for  tlie  national  welfare ;  now,  however,  they  and  their  officials  began 
a  course  of  appalling  oppression  of  the  lower  classes,  in  order  to  pro\'ide  them- 


22  HISTORY    OF    THE   WORLD  [chaj^ter  r 

selves  with  tlie  ineaus  fur  luxury  aud  dissipation.  Dissatisfaction  and  irritation 
increased,  uutU  at  last  in  1330  the  mikado,  Go  Daigo,  the  fifth  who  had  ruled  since 
1287  aud  himself  a  nominee  of  the  Hojo>,  raised  tlie  standard  of  revolt.  One  of 
his  sons,  Moriyoshi,  had  previously  attenii)ied  in  13-7  to  shake  oil'  the  j-oke  which 
lay  heavj'  upon  the  imperial  house  and  the  country,  hut  his  plan  had  heen  dis- 
covered and  he  was  himself  sent  into  a  monastery.  Upon  this  occasion  his  father 
was  equally  unfortunate  ;  he  was  conquered,  deposed,  and  sent  into  exile.  Kusu- 
noki  Masahig»5,  who  had  revolted  in  Kawazi,  was  also  defeated,  but  escaped 
capture. 

The  country  now  appeared  to  be  bound  more  than  ever  firmly  in  its  chains  ;  but 
salvation  was  to  come  from  the  family  of  the  Minamoto.  Two  grandsons  of  Mina- 
moto  Vori-iye,  the  great-grandfather  of  Yoritomo  ;knowu  to  Japanese  history  as 
Hachiman  taro,  that  is,  eldest  son  of  the  war  god),  had  founded  two  families  in 
Xitta  aud  Ashikaga,  who  now  revolted  against  the  Hojo.  Xitta  Yoshisada,  who 
had  formerly  been  in  the  service  of  the  regents,  allied  himself  with  Moriyoshi  (now 
Otonomiya)  in  1333,  collected  his  adherents  and  those  of  his  family,  and  made  a 
forced  march  upon  Kamakura,  before  which  he  appeared  on  the  fourteenth  day  of 
his  revolt.  Takaluki,  who  had  himself  resigned  the  regency  in  1326,  was  then  con- 
ducting the  government  for  the  last  of  the  child  regents.  He  was  completely 
taken  by  surprise.  The  castle  of  Kamakura  was  captured  after  a  short  resistance. 
Takatoki  and  a  large  number  of  his  adherents  committed  suicide,  while  the  re- 
mainder were  slain  by  the  con(iuerors-or  peasants  who  joined  in  the  revolt.  At 
the  same  time  Ashikaga  Takauji,  in  alliance  with  Kusunoki,  had  broken  the  power 
of  the  Hojos  in  Kioto.  There  also  all  the  adherents  of  the  Hojo  were  slaughtered 
wherever  they  could  be  caught.  Even  at  the  jtresent  day  in  Japan  the  memory 
of  the  Hojos  is  regarded  with  hatred  aud  abhorrence. 

(c)  The  Ashikaga.  —  Upon  the  success  of  his  friends  the  ex-mikado  Go  Daigo 
returned  from  exile  aud  again  ascended  the  throne  in  1.'534.  He  appointed  his  son 
Moriyoshi  as  shoguu  of  Kamakura,  aud  rewarded  Ashikaga  Takaugi  with  Hitachi, 
Musashi,  and  Shimosa ;  Kusunoki  Masahigd  was  rewarded  with  Setsu  and  Kawazi ; 
while  Xitta  Yoshisada  received  Kozuke  and  Arima  ;  many  others  receiving  smaller 
possessions.  Peace  and  unity  were  not,  however,  to  endure  for  loug.  Go  Daigo  in 
Kioto  and  Moriyoshi  in  Kamakura  led  a  life  of  debauchery  that  shocked  even  the 
carelessness  of  that  age.  A  former  Buddhist  priest,  under  the  pretext  of  seeking 
for  the  adherents  of  the  Hojos,  overran  Kwanto,  robbing  and  murdering  at  the  head 
of  a  mob  of  scoundrels,  until  he  was  crucified  by  tiie  orders  of  Takauji.  Mori- 
yoshi availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  to  make  clamorous  complaints  to  his 
father,  until  at  last  a  younger  brother  of  Takauji,  Todoyoshi,  revolted  and  pro- 
claimed a  new  shogun.  At  first  tlie  two  brothers  fought  upon  dillerent  sides,  but 
ultimately  they  joined  forces,  marched  together  upon  Kamakura,  and  expelled 
Moriyoshi.  Takauji  now  declared  himself  .shogun.  Go  Daigo  summoned  his  ad- 
herents, including  Xitta  Yosliisada,  for  war  against  the  pretender.  Xitla,  however, 
after  obtaining  some  initial  success,  was  defeated  at  the  pass  of  Hakoue  near  Take- 
nosh'ta.  Takauji  now  marched  upon  Kioto,  and  Go  Daigo  fled,  bearing  the  insignia 
of  empire  to  the  fortified  temple  of  Miidera  on  the  Hieizan,  but  was  ultimately 
di-iven  out  from  thence.  Meauwliile,  however,  his  adherents  had  collected  and 
drove  Takauji  out  of  Kioto  and  Miidera,  but  were  ultimately  defeated  with  crush- 


i^Ko^a""']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  23 

ing  loss  at  Minatogowa,  near  Iliogo.  Kusuiioki  Masahige,  Ihe  commander  of  the 
mikado's  troops,  also  fell  in  the  battle.  Go  Uaigo  tied  to  Miidera  once  more,  and 
in  1337  Takaiiji  appomted  a  3-ouuger  son  of  Go  Fushimi  (1299-1301)  as  mikado 
under  the  name  of  Komiyo  tenno.  Ultimately  tlie  ccinllieting  parties  came  to  an 
agreement  upon  the  terms  that  the  position  of  mikado  sliould  be  occupied  for  alter- 
nating periods  of  ten  years  by  the  descendants  of  Go  Daigo  and  Go  Fushimi.  Go 
Daigo  temporarily  restored  the  insignia  of  empire,  and  Komiyo  was  crowned. 
Takauji  became  grand  shogun  and  consequently  resided  in  Kioto,  while  his  son 
Yosiuiri  remained  in  Kamakura  as  shogun.  Under  the  latter  a  shikkeu  at  Kioto 
dealt  with  the  affairs  of  the  western  provinces,  wiiile  a  kwanrei  (governor)  ruled 
over  the  eastern  provinces  from  Kamakura.  However,  the  peace  between  the  two 
parties  was  not  destineil  to  be  permanent.  In  tlie  same  year  (1337)  (Jo  Daigo 
declared  himself  the  only  legal  mikado,  and  proclaimed  his  opponent  illegitimate, 
collecting  round  him  his  adherents,  the  chief  of  which  were  Kusunoki  Masayuki, 
the  sou  of  Masahige,  and   Nitta  Yoshisada. 

Henceforward  until  the  end  of  the  century  two  mikados  ruled  in  Japan  iu  the 
south  and  the  north,  the  former  of  whom  was  considered  as  the  legal  ruler,  whUe 
the  latter  possessed  the  real  power.  Meanwliile  the  supporters  of  the  southern 
mikado  were  destroyed  one  after  the  other,  and  in  1392  a  convention  was  arranged 
providing  the  same  conditions  as  the  agreement  of  1337.  Go  Kameyama  tenno,  the 
second  of  the  southern  emperors,  who  had  been  nominal  ruler  since  1366,  resigned, 
and  surrendered  the  insignia  of  the  empire  to  his  opponent  in  the  north. 

Takauji  died  in  IS'iS,  at  the  age  of  Hfty -three.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Yoshunori,  who  abdicated  iu  1367  ;  his  grandson  Yoshimitsu,  who  also  abdicated  in 
1393,  lived  till  1409,  and  exerted  a  highly  beneficial  iutlueuce  upon  the  govern- 
ment. Under  him  the  empire  enjoyed  for  a  sliort  space  the  peace  of  which  it  was 
greatly  in  need.  Soon,  liowever,  ilissension  broke  out  again  among  the  different 
families  who  had  gained  power  and  prestige  in  the  wars  of  the  last  century.  The 
Hosi>kawa,  Takeda,  Uyesugi,  Tokuguwa,  Ota,  and  Odawara  in  the  north  and  centre 
of  the  country,  the  Mori  in  the  we.st,  the  Satsuma,  Hiseu,  and  liungo,  in  Kyushu, 
were  continually  at  war  with  oue  another  and  with  other  neighbours.  The  Ashi- 
kaga  were  powerless  to  restore  peace  and  order  until  the  last  of  them,  Yoshiaki,  was 
deposed  in  1573  by  Ota  Nobunaga.  The  country  was  in  a  terrible  condition ;  on 
ever}-  side  were  to  be  seen  devastated  fields  and  the  ruins  of  formerly  flourishing 
towns  and  villages.  Kioto  itself  was  a  heap  of  ruins ;  all  who  could  leave  the 
capital  had  fled  long  since  to  take  refuge  in  the  camp  of  one  of  the  great  territorial 
lords.  The  prestige  of  the  mikado  had  sunk  so  low  that  in  1500  the  body  of  Go 
Tsuciii  stood  for  forty  days  at  the  gates  of  the  castle  because  the  money  for  the 
funeral  expenses  was  not  forthcoming.  The  peasant  class  had  been  almost  en- 
tirely exterminated ;  every  peasant  who  had  the  strength  had  become  a  soldier  or 
had  joined  one  of  the  piratical  hordes  which  raided  the  coasts  of  China,  Korea, 
and  Japan.  Tlie  condition  of  the  country  may  be  compared  with  that  of  Germany 
during  the  Tliirty  Years'  War,  and  even  as  the  German  princes  of  that  time  begged 
support  from  foreign  countries,  France,  Spain,  and  Sweden,  so  the  shogun  Yoshi- 
mochi  at  the  beginning  of  the  tifteenth  century  reiiuested  the  emperor  Yung  lo  of 
the  Chinese  Ming  dynasty  to  grant  him  the  title  of  "  King  of  Japan,"  and  obtained 
his  request  in  return  for  the  yearly  payment  of  a  thousand  ounces  of  gold. 


24  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichujjter i 

G.    CnRISTIAKITY   AND   FOKEKJN    INFLUENCE   IN    JaPAN    (1543    TO    1624) 

(a)  History  of  the  Relations  between  Japan  and  Christianity.  —  It  was  at  llie 
close  of  the  gloomy  Asliikaga  period  that  Europeans  lii-st  came  in  contact  with 
the  Japanese.  The  actual  date,  which  lies  between  1530  and  1545,  has  not  been 
establislied,  and  the  names  of  the  first  Europeans  to  visit  the  country  are  equally 
doubtful  The  dale  usually  adopted  is  1543.  If  Eeruand  Meude/  I'into  observed 
any  chronological  sequeuce  in  the  narrative  of  his  adventures  (though  he  is  known 
as  the  "  father  of  lies,"  his  story  is  none  the  less  deserving  of  serious  historical 
examination),  he  at  any  rate  can  no  longer  claim  the  honour  of  being  one  of  the 
fii-st  three  foreigners  to  enter  Japan.  In  any  case,  these  early  visitors,  whatever 
their  names  may  liave  been,  belonged  to  that  class  of  adventurere  who  then  har- 
assed the  seas  and  coasts  of  Eastern  Asia,  workiug  either  on  their  own  account  or 
in  the  company  of  the  Chinese  freebootei-s.  Shortly  after  the  discovery  of  Japan, 
and  the  announcement  of  a  good  opening  for  trade  existing  in  that  country,  a  nuich 
stronger  mtiux  of  foreigners  must  have  taken  place. 

Tiie  trader  was  followed  by  the  missionary.  In  1549  Francis  Xavier  arrived  at 
Kagosliima  ;  there  he  met  with  a  hostile  reception,  as  the  prince  (or  king,  as  he  is 
termed  in  the  clu-onicles)  of  Satsuma  was  enraged  at  the  fact  that  the  Portuguese 
ships  had  failed  to  appear  off  his  coasts  during  the  previous  year;  Xavier  therefore 
proceedeil  to  Xagato  and  Bungo,  and  from  thence  to  Kioto,  where  he  met  with 
equally  little  success  on  account  of  the  prevailing  disturbances.  In  1551  he  left 
Japan  with  the  intention  of  returning  to  India  to  enlist  missionaries  for  service  in 
Japan,  but  died  during  the  voyage.  However,  the  new  field  was  not  long  without 
labourers.  As  early  as  1564  seven  churches  and  chapels  existed  in  the  suburbs 
of  Kioto,  and  a  number  of  smaller  Christian  communities  were  established  in  the 
southwest  of  Japan,  especially  upon  the  island  of  Kyushu.  In  1581  there  were 
more  than  two  hundred  churches  in  Japan,  and  the  number  of  the  native  Christians 
had  risen  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand.  The  conversion  of  the  population 
continued  peacefidly  until  the  death  of  the  shogun  Xobuuaga  in  the  ft)llowing 
year ;  he  had  openly  favoured  the  Christians,  possibly  because  he  hoped  to  find 
in  them  a  countei-influence  to  the  Buddliist  priesthood,  which  was  hostile  to 
himself.  In  the  year  1583  the  Christian  princes  of  Buugo,  Arima,  and  Omura 
in  the  island  of  Kyushu,  sent  an  embassy,  consisting  of  four  nobles,  to  declare 
their  subjection  to  Home.  The  ambassadors  were  received  by  Pope  Sixtus  V  and 
King  Philip  II,  and  returned  to  Japan  in  1591,  bringing  seventeen  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries with  them. 

However,  in  the  year  1587  the  first  clouds  began  to  gather  above  the  heads  of 
the  foreign  missionaries  ;  a  decree  of  banishment  against  tiiem  was  issued,  probably 
inspired  by  tiie  desire  of  the  prime  minister  Taikosama  to  secure  the  support  of 
the  Buddhists  in  his  stmggle  for  the  supremacy  of  the  country.  The  Jesuits,  who 
in  the  Far  Fast  have  always  understood  how  to  avert  the  dangers  that  threatened 
them  and  their  work,  by  an  outward  show  of  submission  closed  their  churches  and 
ceased  their  public  preaching ;  the  process  of  conversion,  however,  continued  with- 
out inteiTuption  or  disturbance,  and  was  attended  with  such  success  that  during  the 
three  years  succeeding  this  edict  thirty  thousand  Japanese  were  baptized.  Taiko- 
sama (Hideyoshi)  seemed  at  first  to  be  satisfied  with  this  formal  submission  to  his 
will ;  he  may  also  have  feared  that  the  exercise  of  gi-eater  severity  would  result  in 


'•]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  25 


the  loss  of  the  advantage  which  auc-rued  to  him  from  the  foreign  trade,  or  wouW 
induce  the  Christian  princes  of  Kyushu  to  abandon  his  cause.  Hut  further  meas- 
ures were  necessitated  by  the  apjiearance  of  the  Spanish  mendicant  friars,  who 
came  over  ui  great  numbers  from  the  Philippines  and  defied  his  orders  by  preaching 
and  wearing  their  priestly  rolies  in  public.  The  decree  of  banishment  was  revived  ; 
some  churches,  and  the  houses  belonging  to  the  missionaries,  were  destroyed,  and 
finally,  in  1596,  six  Franciscan  monks,  three  Jesuits,  and  seventeen  Japanese 
Christians  were  crucified  at  Nagasaki. 

Even  now,  liowever,  the  prudent  behaviour  of  the  Jesuits  seemed  to  have  obvi- 
ated any  immediate  danger.  Upon  the  death  of  Taikosama,  lyeyasu,  the  most 
powerful  of  the  leaders  who  were  struggling  for  the  supremacy  seemed  inclined  to 
favour  the  missionaries  ;  he  even  attempted  to  use  the  Spanisli  monks  as  a  means 
of  initiating  commercial  relatiorus  between  the  Philippines  and  liis  own  domain  of 
Kwanto  (the  district  near  Yedo).  Soon,  however,  he  found  himself  obliged  td 
oppose  the  foreign  missionaries  and  the  native  Christians.  For  this  change  of 
policy  the  latter  had  only  tliemselves  to  blame.  The  Spaui.sh  mendicant  friars  con- 
tinued to  defy  the  orders  of  the  government  and  to  inspire  their  converts  with  a  re- 
fractory spirit ;  and  the  insubordination  displayed  by  the  native  Christians  in  many 
places  occasioned  serious  forebodings  in  the  government.  During  the  period  when 
the  work  of  conversion  was  at  its  height,  cruel  persecutions  of  the  Buddliists  had 
been  instituted  in  many  of  the  districts  governed  by  Christian  princes,  and  in  par- 
ticular in  Kyushu.  If  these  were  not  instigated  by  the  missionaries,  they  were  at 
any  rate  countenanced  by  them,  as  is  plain  from  their  narratives.  For  example,  in 
Omura,  after  the  conversion  of  the  prince  in  1562,  troops  weie  sent  out  to  destroy 
all  the  temples  and  images  in  the  district.  In  Amakusa,  in  1577,  the  prince  offered 
his  subjects  the  choice  between  conversion  or  exile,  and  in  many  other  places  any 
one  who  hesitated  to  eml)racc  the  new  religion  was  driven  forth  from  liouse  and 
home,  no  matter  what  his  jwsition.  The  victory  of  Taikosama  and  lyeyasu  over 
the  south,  where  their  chief  opponents  were  settled,  was  followed  by  a  fresh  distri- 
bution of  the  principalities  among  new  rulers.  The  heathen  prmces  then  began  to 
persecute  their  Christian  subjects,  as  their  predecessors  liad  persecuted  the  heathen. 
At  this  moment  a  refractory  spirit  of  resistance  was  manifested  by  the  peasant 
population,  —  a  spirit  unprecedented  among  the  peasant  class  of  Japan.  A  natural 
result  was  the  issue  of  further  edicts  against  missionaries  and  Christians,  and,  in 
short,  against  all  foreigners.  In  the  year  1606  Christianity  was  prohibited,  and 
was  declared  in  1613  to  be  a  danger  to  the  constitution,  perhaps  in  consequence  of 
a  cons])iracy  thought  to  have  been  discovered  in  1611  in  the  gold  mines  of  the 
island  of  Sado,  where  thousands  of  native  Christians  had  been  transported  to 
undergo  convict  labour.  It  was  resolved  to  destroy  all  the  churches  and  expel 
all  the  missionaries,  and  the  decision  was  carried  into  effect.  In  the  year  1614 
twenty-two  Franciscan,  Dominican,  and  Augustine  monks,  one  hundred  and  seven- 
teen Jesuits,  and  several  hundred  Japanese  priests  and  catechists  were  forcibly 
placed  on  board  three  junks  and  sent  out  of  the  country,  so  that  the  six  hundred 
thousand  native  Christians  of  Japan  (two  million,  according  to  Japanese  histo- 
rians) were  thus  at  one  blow  deprived  of  their  sjiiritual  pastors.  Their  position 
became  even  more  serious  after  the  battle  of  Sekigahara,  when  lyeyasu  defeated 
Hideyori,  the  son  of  Taikosama,  as  in  that  battle  the  Christian  princes  had  been 
upon  the  losing  side. 


26  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [Chaj^terl 

The  main  reason  which  drove  the  Japanese  goveinmeut  to  severer  measures 
is  to  be  fouud  iu  the  coutimial  attempts  of  foreijju  priests  to  return  into  the 
country  by  stealth.  Hidetada,  the  son  of  lyeyasu,  who  had  succeeded  him  in  1616 
(or  Ifiio),  issued  a  decree  iu  1617  that  all  foreign  ])riests  found  in  Japan  should 
be  put  to  death,  a  penalty  to  which  they  had  been  previously  subjected  upon  one 
occasion  only  (1596).  In  the  year  1617  foreign  trade  was  limited  to  liirado  and 
Nagasaki;  in  1621  the  Japanese  were  prohibited  from  leaving  their  country,  and 
in  1C24  all  strangers,  with  the  exception  of  the  Dutch  and  Cliinese,  were  sen- 
tenced to  expulsion,  though  the  latter  edict  was  not  fully  carried  out  until  fifteen 
years  later.  Meanwhile  the  persecution  against  the  native  Christians  continued. 
Thousands  were  crucified,  burnt,  drowned,  or  otherwise  martyred,  though,  as  was 
to  appear  more  than  two  hundreds  years  later,  Chrisliauily  was  never  entirely 
exterminated  by  this  means. 

In  December,  1637,  a  revolt  broke  out  in  Kyushu,  which,  thougli  but  indirectly 
connected  with  the  Christian  movement,  resulted  in  a  renewal  of  the  pei-secutiou 
witli  increased  severity.  The  revolt  began  with  a  rising  of  the  ])easants  of  Arinia, 
who  had  been  driven  to  despair  by  the  repeated  imposition  of  fresh  taxation  and 
by  other  oppressive  measures  ;  they  were  soon  joined  by  all  the  Christians  who 
remained  in  the  neighbourhood.  According  to  the  Dutcli  narratives  written  at  the 
time,  the  rebels  wore  linen  clothes,  shaved  their  lieads,  and  destroyed  the  iieathen 
temples,  and  had  chosen  Sant  Jago  as  their  war-cry.  After  a  vain  attempt  to 
storm  the  castle  of  the  daimyo  (prince)  of  Amakusa,  they  established  themselves 
in  the  peninsula  of  Shimabara,  and  there  offered  a  lieroic  defence,  bolli  against  the 
forces  of  their  overlords,  the  princes  of  Ariraa  and  Amakusa,  and  against  the  troops 
of  the  government,  until  they  succumbed  to  superior  numbers  after  a  desperate 
struggle  on  April  16  and  17,  1638.  Seventeen  thousand  heads  are  said  to  have 
been  exposed  as  tokens  of  victory,  and  probably  verj^  few  escaped  of  the  thirty- 
five  thousand  men  who  are  said  to  have  taken  part  in  the  revolt.  On  April  25 
the  overseers  of  the  Portuguese  factories  were  imprisoned,  as  they  were  considered 
to  blame  for  the  revolt.  On  August  22  the  Portuguese  galleys  were  forbidden  to 
approach  Japan  under  pain  of  death,  and  on  September  2  the  last  Portuguese  were 
banished  from  the  countrj%  and  took  with  them  their  overseers,  who  had  remained 
in  imprisonment  up  to  that  time.  On  May  11, 1741,  the  Dutch,  the  only  Europeans 
remaining  in  Japan,  were  ordered  to  remove  their  settlement  to  Nagasaki,  whither 
the  Chine.se  were  also  sent.  Thus  for  the  moment  the  first  period  of  contact 
between  Japan  and  European  Christianity  came  to  an  end  ;  it  had  lasted  for  nearl}- 
a  century. 

(/;)  Reasons  for  the  Rapidity  of  the  Estahlishment  and  the  Fall  of  Christianitij 
in  Japan.  —  The  conditions  of  Japanese  life  during  the  second  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century  and  the  first  fifteen  years  of  the  seventeenth  century  are  the  best 
explanation  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the  pioneers  of  religion  and  trade  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  a  footing  in  the  country.  The  land  was  torn  by  dissension  and 
war,  which  had  utterly  destroyed  the  economic  pros])erity  of  the  middle  and  lower 
cla.sses  of  the  population.  From  the  two  native  religions  no  consolation  could  be 
derived.  ShintoLsm  had  become  a  mere  mythology,  and  in  any  case  had  never 
taken  hold  upon  the  sympathies  of  the  people;  Buddhism  had  lost  its  vitality, 
and  had  rejilaced  it  by  the  doctrine  that  prayer  and  jiricsts  alone  could  provide 


i'noZ""'']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  27 

heli>  and  salvation  from  the  dangers  which  threatened  the  soul  in  its  wanderings 
after  death.  Moreover  the  priests  were  far  too  busily  concerned  with  the  jiolitical 
questions  of  the  day  to  bestow  attention  and  sympathy  on  the  sufferings  of  the 
lower  classes,  and  hence  the  Clu-istian  missionaries  found  numerous  converts  from 
the  very  outset ;  to  the  \m<r  and  miserable  they  promised  immediatelj'  upon  their 
death  the  joys  of  that  paradise  of  which  the  Buddliists  only  held  out  a  prospect 
after  long  trials  and  vicissitudes.  By  the  splendour  of  its  services,  by  its  numer- 
ous and  mystic  ceremonies,  in  which  the  converted  were  themselves  allowed  to 
take  a  part,  Christianity  defeated  its  adversaries  on  their  own  ground. 

A  material  reason  for  tlie  tiret  success  was  also  the  fact  that  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  was  entrusted  to  the  Jesuits ;  the  mendicant  orders  are  largely  to 
blame  for  the  ultimate  collapse  of  the  work  of  conversion.  Pope  Gregory  XIII,  in 
a  bull  of  January  28,  1585,  gave  the  Jesuits  the  exclusive  riglit  of  sending  out 
missionaries  to  Japan.  On  December  12,  1600,  Clement  VIII  extended  this  per- 
mission to  include  tlie  mendicant  orders,  upon  the  condition  that  they  should 
take  .ship  in  Portugal  and  go  to  Japan  by  way  of  Goa.  On  June  11,  1608,  Pope 
Paul  V  extended  tliis  permission  to  mendicants  who  should  go  to  Japan  by  way 
of  the  Philippines.  In  most  cases  the  members  of  the  mendicant  orders  had  not 
waited  for  the  pope  to  grant  them  the  permission  which  they  had  requested ;  they 
went  to  Japan  without,  although  by  so  doing  they  incurred  the  greater  excommu- 
nication {e.vcommiinicatio  major  ipso  facto  iucurremla).  This  proceeding  gave  rise 
to  unseemly  quarrels  among  the  missionaries  themselves,  and  further  contributed 
to  undermine  their  prestige  in  the  eyes  of  the  unfriendly  Japanese.  Moreover,  the 
procedure  of  the  mendicant  orders  during  their  work  of  conversion  in  Japan 
differed  greatl}-  from  that  followed  by  the  Jesuits.  The  latter  did  their  best  to 
accommodate  themselves  to  the  views,  wishes,  and  orders  of  the  Japanese  authori- 
ties, whereas  the  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  and  Augustines  continually  defied  the 
authorities  and  declined  to  make  any  such  sacrifice  of  the  external  or  the  non- 
essential as  might  have  enabled  them  to  attain  their  object. 

At  the  same  period  political  dissensions  broke  out  between  the  Portuguese  and 
the  Spaniards,  which  were  rather  increased  than  lessened  by  the  union  of  the  two 
kingdoms  (1580).  Since  the  date  of  the  first  entry  of  the  Portuguese  into  Japan 
the  power  of  Portugal  and  the  prestige  of  her  emissaries  had  steadily  declined ;  the 
revolt  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  the  wars  between  England  and  Holland,  and 
the  downfall  of  the  Spanish  power  under  PhUip  II  and  Philip  III,  enabled  the 
Japanese  authorities  to  attempt  during  the  seventeenth  century  what  they  could 
not  have  dared  in  the  sixteenth.  Moreover,  the  behaviour  of  the  foreign  merchants 
and  mariners  was  not  calculated  to  arouse  the  respect  or  the  good-will  of  the 
Japanese.  The  foreign  trade  certainly  brought  a  gieat  increase  of  wealth  to  the 
princes  of  the  country,  but  this  again  was  a  continual  source  of  jealousy  and  of 
friction  between  them,  as  each  was  anxious  to  secure  the  lion's  share  for  himself, 
and  to  use  it  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  some  advantage  over  his  neighbours. 
Alter  a  strong  central  government  the  shogunate  of  lyeyasu  had  been  set  up ;  this 
again  naturally  attempted  to  secure  control  of  the  trade,  and  to  exclude  those  who 
had  pre\aously  been  its  rivals  and  were  now  its  subjects.  The  different  nationalities 
who  traded  with  Japan,  the  Portuguese,  Spaniards,  Dutch,  and  English,  damaged 
their  reputation  by  continually  accusing  and  slandering  one  another  to  the  Japanese, 
and  by  lodging  complaints  with  them  concerning  goods  and  ships  of  which  they 


28  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter i 

liail  deprived  one  another.  Tlie  continual  (juarrels  between  the  foreigners  in 
Japan,  and  the  condescension  witli  which  they  treated  the  natives,  are  sutticient 
exphmation  of  the  dislike  which  the  proud  Japanese  conceived  for  them  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years. 

An  additional  and  a  justitialile  reason  for  dissatisfaction  was  the  slave  trade 
carried  on  by  all  the  foreigners  in  Japan,  and  particularly  by  the  Portuguese. 
Ci\'il  war,  the  expedition  against  Korea,  and  the  growing  poverty  of  the  lower 
classes  had  brought  so  many  slaves  into  the  niarkel,  tlial,  as  Bishop  Cerqueira 
relates,  even  the  Malay  and  negio  servants  of  the  Tortuguese  traders  were  able  to 
buy  Japanese  or  Korean  slaves  upon  their  own  account,  with  the  object  of  after- 
ward selling  them  in  Macao.  Both  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities  in  IMacao 
(Bishop  Cerqueira  in  1598  and  his  predecessors)  had  made  vain  attempts  to 
suppress  this  ti-ade  in  liumau  flesh,  which  was  undoubtedly  the  strongest  ground 
of  complaint  possessed  b}^  the  Japanese;  in  1621  tlie  authorities  of  Japan  forbade 
the  export  of  hired  or  bought  natives  without  special  permission,  and  prohibited  it 
at  a  later  period  under  the  severest  penalties. 

(f)  27ic  Mode  of  Procedure  against  the  Foreigners  adopted  bg  the  Japanese.  — 
The  unprecedented  enthusiasm  of  the  Jajmnese  converts  became  a  serious  anxiety 
to  the  rulers  of  the  country,  and  inclined  them  to  suspect  some  political  object 
behind  the  religious  zeal  of  the  missionaries;  hence  their  determination  to  put 
an  end  to  foreign  trade  by  the  destruction  of  Christianity  was  received  with  unani- 
mous approval  by  the  whole  couutiy.  Moreover,  the  government  lu^d  taken 
special  care  to  lower  the  prestige  of  the  foreigners  in  the  eyes  of  the  population, 
and  to  deprive  them  of  tlieir  influence  by  a  series  of  regulations  extending  over 
a  number  of  years.  In  1635  the  Portuguese  were  forbidden  to  walk  under  an 
umlirella  carried  by  a  Japanese  servant,  or  to  give  alms  beyond  a  minimum  sum. 
At  the  same  time  they  were  ordered  to  take  oH'  their  shoes  upon  entering  the 
council  chamber ;  and  in  that  year  all  of  them,  except  the  overseers,  were  for- 
bidden to  carry  arms,  and  were  obliged  to  dismiss  their  old  servants  and  to  take 
new  ones.  The  Dutch  were  forbidden  to  emj>loy  Japanese  servants  for  the  future, 
except  within  their  houses.  In  1638  a  Dutch  ship-captain  was  beheaded.  In 
1639  all  Japanese  women  living  with  Dutch  or  English  were  banished,  and  Jajv 
anese  women  were  forbidden  to  contract  marriages  with  the  Dutch.  In  1640  a 
steward  was  executed  for  adultery  with  a  Japanese  woman.  Two  white  rabbits 
found  on  a  ship  called  the  "  Gracht "  did  not  appear  upon  the  list  of  living  animals 
which  had  to  be  provided,  and  the  captain  was  conse(piently  deprived  of  his  ollice. 
The  Dutch  factories  in  Hirado  were  searched  for  ecclesiastical  articles,  and  the 
Dutch  w^re  ordered  to  pull  down  all  buildings  which  bore  a  date  upon  tlieir  walls. 
The  imperial  decree  ran  as  follows :  "  His  Imperial  Majestv  [that  is,  the  shogun] 
has  reliable  information  that  you  are  Christians,  even  as  the  Portuguese.  You 
celebrate  Sunday,  j-ou  write  the  date  Anno  Domini  on  the  roofs  and  gables  of 
your  houses,  you  have  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed, 
the  Cup  and  the  Breaking  of  Bread,  the  Bible,  the  Testament,  Moses  and  the 
Prophets  and  the  Apostles,  —  in  short,  everj-thing.  Tlie  main  ])oints  of  resem- 
blance are  there,  and  the  differences  between  you  seem  to  us  insignificant.  That 
you  were  Christians  we  have  known  long  since,  but  we  thought  that  yours  was 
another  Christ.     Therefore  his  Majesty  gives  you  to  know  through  me,"  etc.     In 


^A^r»""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  29 

1641  the  decree  was  issued  that  the  Dutch  were  no  kmger  to  inter  their  dead, 
but  to  bury  them  at  sea  four  or  five  miles  away  from  the  coast.  Tliis  decree  was 
executed  for  the  first  time  on  August  29,  "  because  a  Christian  corpse  is  not 
worthy  of  burial  in  the  earth."  In  the  next  year  tlie  Dutch  cemetery  in  Hirado 
was  destroyed.  The  Dutch  and  the  Chinese  were  indeed  allowed  to  remain  in 
Nagasaki ;  but  this  permission  was  given  because  they  were  the  sole  medium  for 
the  importation  of  certain  necessary  goods,  and  had  also  made  themselves  useful 
by  pnjvidiug  timely  information  of  the  proposals  tliat  otiier  powers  might  make 
against  Japan.  In  other  respects  the  members  of  both  nations  were  treated  little 
better  than  prisoners. 

(d')  The  Situation  since  the  Reopening  of  Japan  to  Foreign  Nations.  —  AMien 
Japan  was  opened  to  foreign  trade  durmg  the  years  1854  to  1858,  the  Catholic 
missionaries,  who  once  again  had  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  the  trader,  found 
remnants  of  a  former  Christian  community  existing  in  Nagasaki  in  the  village  of 
Urakanii,  though  it  was  thought  that  Christianity  had  long  been  exterminated  as 
a  result  of  cruel  and  continued  persecution.  The  attention  of  the  Japanese  gov- 
ernment was  drawn  to  this  case  by  the  imprudent  action  of  the  missionaries.  In 
the  year  1867  seventy -eight  of  these  native  Christians  were  imprisoned,  and  the 
attemjit  was  made  to  induce  them  to  abjure  their  faith  liy  threats.  Cwing  to  the 
efforts  of  foreign  representatives,  especially  those  of  the  French  ambassador,  M. 
Eoches,  the  prisoners  were  set  at  liberty  upon  the  promise  that  the  missionaries 
would  abstain  from  any  attempt  at  proselytising  outside  the  settlement.  Hardly, 
however,  had  the  mikado  begun  the  reconstituted  government  of  1868  than  the 
persecution  of  these  people  and  their  coreligionists  was  resumed,  and  the  prohibi- 
tions against  this  e\'il  Christian  sect  were  again  enforced,  ilore  than  foiu-  thou- 
sand native  Christians  were  imprisoned,  and,  notwithstanding  all  the  efforts  of  tlie 
foreign  representatives,  were  sent  in  small  bodies  to  hard  labour  upon  the  estates 
of  diiferent  territorial  princes.  It  was  not  until  1873  that  it  became  possible  to 
procui-e  their  liberation,  and  the  removal  of  the  prohibitions  issued  against  Chris- 
tianity. From  that  date  missionaries  have  been  allowed  a  free  hand  within  those 
limits  imposed  upon  all  foreigners.  The  chief  obstacle,  however,  to  their  efforts 
is  the  strongly  developed  national  feeling  of  the  Japanese ;  besides  this,  there  is 
undoubtedly  a  widespread  dislike  of  the  foreign  missionaries,  who  are  often  con- 
sidered merely  as  the  political  agents  of  the  country  which  sent  them  out.  In 
particular,  Japanese  self-consciousness,  even  imder  the  form  of  new  Shintoism,  has 
found  a  useful  lever  in  the  elevation  by  the  missionaries  of  God,  Jesus,  the  pope, 
the  Church,  and  the  Bible  above  the  mikado.  In  any  case,  this  "  Japanese  self- 
concentration,"  however  modified  by  individual  feelings  and  opinions,  has  hitherto 
proved  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  spread  of  Christianity ;  the  various  successful 
attempts  even  of  the  Japanese  Christians  to  break  away  from  the  influence  of 
foreign  missionaries,  and  from  connection  with  them,  are  to  be  ascribed  to  this 
source.  If  there  is  any  hope  for  the  Christianising  of  Japan,  the  movement  must 
first  be  founded  upon  a  Japanese  basis  (of.  below,  p.  57). 

H.    The  Period  of  the  Parvenus  (1573-1600) 

(a)  Ndbunaga.  —  The  fall  of  the  Ashikaga  family  was  brought  about  by  the 
action  of  its  own  adherent,  Ota  Nobunaga  (p.  11).     This  youth  was  descended  from 


30  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chaj,ter i 

a  pranilson  of  Taira  iiu  Kiyonuni.  who  lnul  bi'L'ii  secretly  left  in  charge  of  the  magis- 
trate of  the  village  of  Tsiula  by  his  mother  when  in  tligiit  before  the  soldiers  of  the 
Miiiamoto ;  shortly  afterwanl  the  magistrate  handed  him  over  to  a  Shinto  priest 
from  Ota,  living  in  Eehizen,  who  adojited  him  as  his  son.  The  boy  grew  u)i,  entered 
the  profession  of  his  foster  father,  and  foimded  a  family  from  which  in  loo.S,  nearly 
four  hundred  years  later,  Nobunaga  was  born.  The  immediate  ancestors  of  the 
latter  had  taken  an  active  share  in  the  disturbances  of  the  period ;  his  father,  Ota 
Nobiihide,  who  died  in  1549,  bequeathed  to  him  possessions  of  considerable  imjwr- 
tance.  The  son  entered  the  service  of  the  Ashikaga,  and  succeeded  in  adding  to  his 
hereditary  property,  until  he  fomul  himself  in  possession  of  six  provinces  and  the 
capital  of  the  country.  Among  his  servants  were  included  Kinoshita  Hideyoshi 
and  Tokugawa  lyeyasu  (iIinamoto~),  two  men  who  were  to  play  a  great  part  in  the 
future  history  of  Japan.  In  1574  Nobunaga  quarrelled  with  the  Ashikaga,  marched 
against  them,  and  defeated  the  shogim  Yoshiaki,  whom  he  captured  and  deposed. 
This  event  eiuled  the  dynasty  of  the  A.shikaga.  As  he  was  not  himself  descended 
from  the  Minamoto,  he  could  not  be  shogun,  and  therefore  governed  under  the  title 
of  naidaijin.  Of  his  straggles  against  the  Buddhist  monks  and  the  preference 
which  he  showed  to  the  Christians  we  have  already  spoken  (p.  24).  His  rule 
lasted  but  a  short  period  (1574-1582),  too  short  to  enable  him  to  restore  peace  to 
his  country.  The  battles  against  the  powerful  princes  in  the  west  of  Hondo  and 
in  Kyushu  continued  uuintenuptedly,  and  Mhile  Hideyoshi  was  leading  the  greater 
portion  of  the  troops  of  his  master  against  Mori  in  the  west,  Nobunaga  fell  a  \actim 
to  treachePt'.  He  had  insulted  Akeshi  Jlitsuhide,  one  of  his  generals;  this  leader, 
who  had  been  despatched  with  the  remainder  of  the  troops  upon  another  expedi- 
tion, suddenly  halted  under  the  gates  of  Kioto,  invited  his  soldiers  to  revolt, 
entered  the  town  with  them,  and  surroimded  the  temple  of  Honuoji  in  which 
Nobunaga  had  established  himself.  Surprised  by  the  appearance  of  so  many- 
soldiers,  Nobunaga  opened  a  window  in  order  to  inform  himself  of  the  state  of 
affairs ;  an  arrow  struck  him  in  the  arm,  and  seeing  that  his  cause  was  lost  he  com- 
mitted suicide  after  commanding  the  women  of  his  company  to  flee  and  setting  the 
temple  on  fire.  The  traitor  assumed  the  title  of  shogun,  but  twelve  days  later  was 
defeated  by  Hideyoslii,  who  had  hurried  to  the  spot,  and  slain  whUe  in  flight. 

(h)  HideyosJii.  —  Hideyoshi  was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and  was  born  in  15.'?6  at 
Nakamura  in  OwarL  At  an  early  age  he  enlisted  in  the  service  of  Nobunaga, 
under  the  name  of  Kinoshita  Tokichiro.  Here  he  quickly  gave  proof  of  bravery 
and  military  skill,  and  eventually  became  the  most  capable  and  trustworthy  gen- 
eral of  Nobunaga.  At  the  time  of  the  attack  upon  the  latter  he  was  opposing  the 
troops  of  Mori  in  company  with  Nobunaga's  son,  Nobutaka ;  with  him  he  quickly 
came  to  an  agreement,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  turn  his  steps  to  Kioto  with  the 
success  we  liave  already  described.  Of  the  three  sons  of  his  former  master,  one 
was  already  dead,  leaving  behind  him  a  son,  who  nominally  continued  his  grand- 
father's rule  from  1582  to  1586  imder  the  name  of  Saniboshi.  The  second  sou  was 
now  with  Tyeyasu,  who  was  pledged  to  prevent  any  outbreak  on  his  part.  The  third 
.son,  Nobutaka,  entered  into  alliance  with  a  brother-in-law  of  his  father,  by  name 
Shibata,  who  was  in  possession  of  Eehizen,  but  was  unable  to  make  head  against 
HideyoshL  He  was  defeated,  and  his  ally  was  also  overpowered  in  Eehizen  b)"  the 
pursuing  enemy.    The  narrative  of  the  death  of  Shibata  is  one  of  the  most  impres- 


tS^l'oZ""'']  HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD  31 

sive  incidents  among  the  many  moving  events  of  Japanese  history.  Besieged  in 
his  castle  at  Fiikui  with  no  hope  of  relief,  Shibata  resolved  to  die.  He  invited  all 
his  friends  and  adherents  to  a  feast,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  he  informed  his 
wife,  the  sister  of  Nobunaga,  of  his  determination,  and  gave  her  permission  to 
leave  the  castle  and  save  her  life.  The  proud  woman,  however,  declined  to  avail 
herself  of  the  opportunity,  and  demanded  to  be  allowed  to  share  her  husband's 
fate.  Shibata  and  his  comrades  then  slew  their  wives  and  chililren,  who  thanked 
them  that  they  had  thus  been  privileged  to  die  with  them,  and  then  committed 
hara-kiri.  All  were  buried  in  the  ruins  of  the  castle,  which  they  had  previously 
set  on  fire. 

Hideyoshi  succeeded  in  restoring  peace  and  order  to  the  counti-y,  though  at  the 
price  of  a  severe  struggle.  lyeyasu  was  ruling  in  Kwanto,  with  which  he  had  been 
invested  by  Hideyoshi,  and  is  said  to  have  built  hira.self  a  cajiital  in  Yedo  on  the 
advice  of  Hideyoshi.  Possibly  the  political  recollections  and  sympathies  of  the 
latter  made  it,  in  his  opinion,  far  more  desirable  to  have  the  powerful  Minamoto, 
who  had  been  subdued  only  at  the  cost  of  a  long  straggle,  resident  in  Odawara,  the 
head<iuarters  of  the  .shogmis  subsequent  to  the  destruction  of  Kamakura.  Between 
lyeyasu  and  Hideyoshi  tliere  existed  a  general  understanding,  which  was,  how- 
ever, modihed  by  their  mutual  suspicion.  The  former,  for  instance,  declined  to  go 
to  Kioto  to  have  an  audience  of  the  mikado  until  Hideyoshi,  who  was  staying  in 
the  town,  had  handed  over  his  mother  as  a  hostage.  The  most  important  prince 
in  the  west,  Jlori  of  Xagato  (Clmshiu),  had  also  made  submission  to  Hideyosiii; 
and  the  most  powerful  prince  in  Kyushu,  Shimazu  of  Satsuma,  who  had  made  him- 
self almost  absolute  master  of  the  island  after  long  struggles  with  Kiuzogi  of  Hizen 
and  Otomo  of  Bungo,  was  utterly  defeated  after  a  campaign  of  many  vicissitudes,  in 
which  Hideyoshi  himself  was  ultimately  oldiged  to  assume  the  command  (1586  to 
1587).  Wiy  Hideyoshi  did  not  entirely  destroy  this  most  powerful  and  restless  of 
his  opponents  is  a  doubtful  point.  He  allowed  the  son  of  tlie  conquered  man,  who 
was  forced  to  abdicate  and  to  accompany  the  victor  to  Kioto  as  a  hostage,  to  remain 
in  possession  of  his  father's  territory,  alleging  as  a  reason  for  this  clemency  that 
he  did  not  wish  to  exterminate  their  ancient  family.  This,  however,  seems  an 
extremely  unlikely  motive  in  the  case  of  so  practical  a  politician  as  Hideycishi.  It 
is  more  probable  that  he  hoped  by  tlie  exercise  of  kintUiess  to  gain  llie  gratitude  of 
the  prince  of  Satsuma  and  of  his  father,  and  then  to  use  them  as  a  counterpoise  to 
the  other  princes  of  the  south  and  west. 

As  soon  as  peace  was  restored  throughout  the  kingdom,  Hide5'oshi  proceeded  to 
attempt  the  gi-eat  ambition  of  his  life,  which  he  is  said  to  have  entertained  from 
early  youth, —  the  conquest  of  Korea  and  China.  In  1582  he  had  demanded  of 
the  king  of  Korea  the  tribute  which  liad  formerly  been  paid  to  Japan.  At  a  later 
peri()d  he  had  required  that  Korea  should  form  his  first  line  of  defence  in  his  war 
against  China,  where  the  Ming  dynasty  was  in  power.  I'pon  the  rejection  of  these 
demands,  he  sent  an  army  of  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  men  against  Korea  in 
the  spring  of  1592.  His  first  successes  were  as  rapid  as  they  were  .sweeping. 
Eighteen  days  after  his  landing  at  Fusan,  Seoul  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Japanese. 
The  army  speedily  advanced  to  the  Tai-dong-gang  and  overpowered  the  town  of 
Phyeng-yang,  situated  on  the  northern  bank  of  that  stream.  At  this  point,  how- 
ever, his  advance  was  checked  partly  by  the  ditticulty  of  obtaining  sup])lies,  but 
chiefly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Japanese  fleet  which  was  to  cover  his  further 


32  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_<hnpterl 

ailvauie  luul  K-eu  ilefeated  l>y  llie  Koreans.  Shortly  afterwanl  llu"  Chinese  forces 
ai.i«t>art'a,  wliidi  tlie  Korean's  had  begged  might  be  sent  to  their  help.  The  plans 
of  ihe  Chinese  were  abo  favouivd  by  tlie  jealousy  existing  among  tlie  .Tajiauese 
generals,  one  of  whom,  the  Christian  Kuuishi  Yukiuaga,  was  at  the  head  of  a 
eohinin  formed  entirely  of  Christians,  while  the  other,  Kato  Kiyomassa,  was  a 
Hiiddhist  and  hostile  to  the  Christians.  Almost  a  year  after  the  capture  of  Seoul, 
the  .lapimese  were  obliged  to  evacuate  the  town,  which  was  not  re-entered  by  a 
Jai>anese  force  for  another  three  hundred  years  (1894). 

Military  operations  and  negotiations  between  Kioto  and  Peking  occujtied  the 
period  ending  with  the  year  1596.  Upon  the  failure  of  the  negotiations,  Hideyoshi 
sent  additional  reinforcements  to  China  in  the  year  1597,  while  the  Chinese  also 
sent  out  another  army  which  advanced  far  beyond  Seoul.  Fortune  at  first  favoured 
the  Japanese.  In  October  they  had  again  advanced  nearly  to  the  walls  of  Seoul; 
but  a  second  victory  of  the  united  Chino-Korean  fleet  and  a  threatening  advance 
of  the  Chinese  again  obliged  them  to  retreat,  in  the  course  of  which  operation  they 
utterly  devastated  the  country  through  wliich  they  passed.  The  Chinese  pursiied 
their  retreating  enemy  to  Urusan,  where  the  beaten  Japanese  army  took  refuge. 
The  Chinese  made  vain  attempts  to  capture  the  fortress  until  the  13th  of  Feltruary, 
1598,  when  a  Japanese  division  relieved  their  besieged  compatriots.  With  tliat 
event  the  great  war  ended.  A  few  imimportant  skirmishes  followed,  but  Hide- 
yoshi, who  died  on  the  8th  September,  1598,  recalled  the  expedition  upon  his 
deathbed.  The  only  outward  token  of  success  was  the  Miniizuka  (llie  liill  of  ears), 
a  monument  erected  near  Kioto,  under  which  the  noses  and  ears  of  185,738  slaugh- 
tered Koreans  and  of  29,014  Chinese  are  said  to  have  been  buried. 

■Whether  Hideyoshi  was  actuated  S(jlely  by  the  motives  by  wliich  he  declared 
himself  induced  to  attack  Korea,  or  whether  he  was  also  attracted  by  tlie  possibility 
of  providing  occupation  for  the  disorderly  elements  in  the  country,  and  weakening 
the  military  power  of  the  Christians,  is  a  question  which  must  remain  undecided. 
During  his  reign  numerous  prohibitions  were  i.ssued  against  Christian  teachers 
and  proselytes,  but  at  the  same  time  he  continued  the  policy  of  Nobunaga  against 
the  Buddhist  monks  and  destroyed  their  monastery  of  Kumano  among  others.  He 
is  certainly  one  of  the  best  known  figures  in  Japanese  history.  Even  at  the  jtresent 
day  he  is  an  object  of  general  reverence  to  all  classes  of  the  population,  and  no 
doubt  liis  Korean  expedition  largely  contributed  to  increase  his  reputation.  But 
his  government  was  a  period  of  prosperity  for  the  country  in  other  respects.  Acting 
in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  he  gave  full  .support  to  law  and  justice,  and  in  many 
branches  of  the  administration  he  not  only  established  order,  but  effected  great 
improvements  by  new  laws  and  regulations.  We  may  presume  that  the  attempt 
of  his  successor  lyeyasu  to  reduce  the  country  definitely  to  peace  and  order  would 
have  proved  fruitless  without  liis  preliminary  labours.  It  is  customary  at  the 
present  day  to  utter  reproaches  against  the  dynasty  of  the  Jlinamoto  shoguns,  but 
at  the  same  time  we  must  not  forget  that  they  gave  the  country  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years  of  peace  after  centuries  of  war  and  consetpient  disruption, 

Hideyoshi  appears  in  Japanese  history  under  different  names.  We  have  already 
mentioned  that  (j).  30)  under  which  he  first  entered  the  service  of  Nobunaga. 
"Wliile  a  general  he  was  known  by  the  name  of  Hashima,  and  afterward  the 
mikado  conferred  upon  him  the  name  of  Toyotonii.  He  is,  however,  best  known 
as  Taikosama,  the  title  usually  assumed  by  the  kwambaku  upon  laying  down  their 


frA'ir^*""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  33 

office.  He  could  not  hold  the  title  of  shogun,  as  he  did  not  belong  to  the  Mina- 
moto  family,  who  for  nearly  four  hundred  years  had  been  the  exclusive  possessore 
of  this  dignity.  However,  at  an  advanced  age  he  procured  his  adoption  by  one  of 
the  Kug^s  belonging  to  the  Fujiwara  family,  and  was  thus  able  to  take  the  position 
of  kwambaku  (prime  minister).  Like  other  great  men,  lie  was  known  by  a  number 
of  nicknames,  such,  for  instance,  as  Momeu  Tokichi,  that  is,  cotton-wool  Tokichi, 
as  he  was  useful  for  every  purpose,  like  cotton  wool.  After  he  had  obtained  the 
dignit}'  of  kwambaku  he  was  known  as  Saru  kwanja,  the  crowned  ape,  on  account 
of  liis  ugliness.  Xotwithstandiug  his  high  position  and  tlie  great  honour  in  which 
his  luime  is  held,  his  burial  place  in  Kioto  is  unknown. 

(f )  The  Victory  of  the  East  {^lyeyasu.)  —  According  to  the  Japanese  custom, 
Hide3-oslu  resigned  the  post  of  kwambaku  in  1591  in  favour  of  his  son,  but 
contmued  to  exercise  the  actual  power.  Before  his  death  he  married  his  son, 
who  was  six  years  old  (or  his  adopted  nephew  ?),  Hideyori,  to  a  granddaughter 
of  Iye}-asu,  thinking  thereby  to  secure  the  support  of  this  most  powerful  of  the 
imperial  princes.  He  appointed  five  councillors  of  the  kingdom  as  regents. 
However,  the  actual  government  was  in  the  hands  of  the  mother  of  the  heir,  a 
woman  of  extraordinary  beauty  and  energy.  The  peace  that  had  been  estab- 
lished was  not  destined  to  endure  for  long.  It  is  by  no  means  certain  wlio 
was  the  first  to  break  it.  The  ambition  of  lyeyasu,  who,  like  other  nobles,  had 
been  obliged  to  acknowledge  the  capacity  of  the  father,  but  despised  the  son, 
may  have  been  the  occasion  of  an  open  rupture.  The  outbreak  of  the  war, 
whicli  was  in  any  case  Inevitable,  may  also  have  been  precipitated  by  the  regent's 
fear  of  the  actual  or  supposed  plans  of  lyeyasu.  The  fact  that  the  most  powerful 
princes  of  the  west  and  the  south,  especially  Mori  and  Shimazu  (p.  30),  were  on 
the  side  of  Hideyori,  no  doid)t  strongly  contributed  to  induce  lyeyasu,  the  cham- 
pion of  the  east,  to  take  \i\)  arms. 

After  long  preparations  and  petty  conflicts  in  different  places,  in  wliich  lyeyasu 
displayed  both  greater  power  and  more  patient  forbearance,  matters  came  to  an 
open  ruptm'e  in  1600.  In  a  battle  fought  at  Sekigahara  on  Lake  Biwa,  not  far 
from  Kioto,  lyeyasu  utterly  defeated  the  allies,  partly  with  the  help  of  treachery, 
and  fallowed  up  his  advantage  with  unexampled  energy.  O.saka  and  Fushimi, 
whicli  had  been  strongly  fortified  by  Taikosama  and  formed  the  key  to  Kioto,  fell, 
one  after  another,  together  witli  the  capital  itself,  into  the  hand  of  the  conqueror. 
Many  of  the  hostile  leaders  committed  hara-kiri ;  others,  who  declined  as  Christians 
to  commit  suicide,  were  publicly  executed ;  the  remainder  were  forced  to  submit ; 
while  those  who  favoured  lyeyasu  were  bound  more  firmly  to  his  cause  by  gifts  of 
laud  and  marriage  alliance.'?.  Notwithstanding  this  great  success,  lyeyasu  left 
Hideyori  in  possession  of  his  position  and  dignities,  and  merely  limited  his  income 
by  imposing  upon  him  tlie  duty  of  erecting  castle  buildings  and  other  expensive 
undertakings.  Tlie  newly  discovered  gold  mines  in  Sado  provided  him  with  rich 
resources  for  the  execution  of  his  fmther  plans.  In  1603  l3-eyasu  was  appointed 
shogun.  However,  he  soon  abdicated,  and  procured  the  appointment  of  his  son 
Hidetada  to  this  dignity  in  1605,  retaining  the  actual  power  in  his  own  hands. 
Hidetada  resided  in  Yedo,  while  lyeyasu  kept  watch  upon  his  opponents  from 
Suruga.  In  1614  a  new  conflict  broke  out,  the  result,  no  doubt,  of  the  growing 
popularity  of  Hideyori.     lyeyasu  and  Hidetada  made  an  attack  upon  Osaka,  the 

VOL  n— 3 


34  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapter i 

residence  of  Hidevori,  appaivnlly  without  success.  After  concluding  the  pacifica- 
tion they  marched  hack  toward  Kwanto,  hut  suddenly  wheelmg  round,  reappeared 
hefore  Osaka,  and  took  the  town  after  a  short  struggle,  heing  aided  by  treachery 
within  the  walls.  During  the  storming  of  the  fortress,  Hideyori  disappeared; 
lyeyasu  himself,  who  had  been  wounded  durmg  tiie  operations,  died  in  the  next 
vear{1615).  The  lords  of  the  east  had  now  detiuitely  conquered  the  west,  and 
"the  advantage  thus  gained  they  were  enabled  to  retain  until  the  restoration  of  the 
mikado  government  (186S;  cf.  p.  49). 

(/)   The  Oiucix  Axn  Developmf.nt  of  Fki'iialism 

(n)  Anterior  to  the  Year  Jfjto.  —  Feudalism  in  Japan  is  usually  considered  to 
have  originated  in  tlie  year  1192,  when  Yoritomo  abolished  the  imperial  civil  gov- 
ernors (Ki.kushu),  who' had  been  previously  drawn  from  the  Kug^s  (court  nobility); 
and  replaced  tliem  with  military  governors  (shugo,  protectors)  belonging  to  the 
Buk^  class.  However,  the  actual  beginnings  of  this  organisation  must  belong  to 
that  period  toward  the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  when  the  family  holdings  of 
the  i>easants  (that  is,  under  the  system  of  vassal  tenure  under  taxation  created  by 
the  Taikwa  reforms;  cf.  p.  16)  were  replaced  by  the  great  estates,  exempted  from 
taxation,  of  the  Shoyo  and  Denyo  owners.  The  former  of  these  systems  originated 
in  grants  of  land  to  those  by  whom  it  had  been  brought  under  cultivation,  the  lat- 
ter in  the  arbitrary  appropriation  of  government  lands  by  the  governoi-s  and  their 
suboiiUnate  officials.  From  the  tenth  to  the  twelfth  century,  as  Fukuda  observes, 
the  Shoyos  absorbed  the  larger  proportion  of  all  the  landed  property ;  the  coimtry 
became  the  freehold  projierty  of  the  occupants,  who  were  inde}»endeut  of  the  pro- 
vincial g.iveruors  and  exempt  from  ta.xation.  These  inhabitants  were  known  as 
Ryoshu  (territorial  owners)  or  Honjo  (owners  of  hereditary  estates) ;  they  usually 
lived  in  Kioto,  or  upo»T  their  ancestral  property,  and  handed  over  the  administra- 
tion of  tlieir  estates  to  shoshi,  or  bailiffs.  The  territory  subject  to  the  governors 
(kokuga)  passed  through  a  similar  stage  of  development.  These  othcials  and 
their  subordinates,  like  tlie  Kug^s  of  Kioto,  absorbed  the  peasant  holdings,  bought 
up  the  properties  held  by  families  in  common,  and  possessed  themselves  of  the 
common  forests  and  meadow^s,  which  thus  became  ])rivate  denyo  possessions.  The 
right  of  administering  justice  was  usually  concurrent  with  possession ;  the  conse- 
quence was  that  not  only  the  income  of  the  emperors,  that  is,  the  government,  but 
also  their  judicial  powers,  were  greatly  restricted,  and  wliat  they  lost  the  great 
landowners  giiined. 

During  the  following  centuries,  which  were  occupied  by  continual  civil  war, 
this  condition  of  affairs  was  naturally  considerably  extended.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century  the  wliole  country  was  in  the  hands  of  great  territorial  lords, 
who,  wliatever  their  position,  li;id  risen  from  tlie  military  order,  and  to  whom,  in- 
stead of  to  the  emperor,  the  peasants  were  responsible  for  the  payment  of  taxation 
and  the  performance  of  labour  services.  Where  individuals  of  imjiortance  gained 
and  exercised  high  powers,  the  smaller  ovmers  within  the  boundaries  of  their 
property,  or  within  their  sphere  of  influence,  were  dependent  upon  them.  Hence 
at  the  outset  of  the  seventeenth  century  two  lines  of  feudal  relation  had  been 
formed :  there  was  the  theoretical  relation  of  the  great  owniers  to  the  helpless 
emperor,  and  the  practical  dependence  of  the  smaller  owners  u^wn  their  powerful 


trK'o^eT"']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  35 

overlords.  Of  the  latter  character  was  the  connection  of  the  members  of  the 
Samui-ai  (military  and  noble)  classes  with  their  masters,  though  here  again  a 
further  subdivision  existed,  according  as  a  dependent  was  invested  with  the  pos- 
session of  land,  or  only  received  pay,  usually  made  in  rice ;  he  performed  ser\nce 
according  to  his  rank,  either  alone  or  with  a  following  of  his  adherents,  either  in 
the  ca\-alry  or  as  a  foot-soldier.  Cavalry  service  in  Japan,  as  in  all  feudal  States, 
was  considered  the  more  respectable,  and  can-ied  with  it  the  further  distinction  of 
permission  to  ride  on  horseback  in  times  of  peace. 

{h)  Under  Iijeyasu  and  his  Successors.  —  Such  was  the  general  condition  of 
affairs  when  lyeyasu  became  powerful  enough  to  establisli  the  main  features  of  his 
administration.  In  general  he  introduced  but  few  reforms,  and  contented  himself 
with  accommodating  the  existing  system  to  the  necessities  of  his  government,  and 
witli  making  numerous  changes  in  the  possessions  held  by  the  territcjrial  lords  ;  he 
transferred  them  from  one  province  to  another,  according  as  he  desired  to  reward  or 
to  punish  them,  a  change  which  carried  with  it  diminution  or  increase  of  revenue. 
Officials  in  immediate  connection  with  the  empire  were  alone  excepted  from  this 
measure.  Hideyoshi  had  already  cleared  the  way  for  these  changes  by  his  distn- 
bution  of  the  landowner  into  three  classes :  these  were  the  Kokushu,  the  ownei-s 
of  a  province  at  least ;  the  Kyoshu  (landed  owners),  in  possession  of  land  bring- 
ing in  a  yearly  revenue  of  one  hundred  thousand  koku  or  more  of  rice  (a  koko 
equals  one  and  eight-tenths  hectolitres);  and  the  Yoshu  (the  owners  of  castles 
whose  property  brought  in  an  annual  income  of  less  than  one  hundred  thousand 
koku).  Territorial  owners  were  known  as  Daimyos  (landed  lords),  a  title  which, 
however,  properly  belonged  to  the  first  two  of  these  classes.  The  Kokushu  became 
the  military  governors  of  Yoritomo  ;  after  the  fall  of  the  Hojo  famdy  (al)out  1333), 
the  title  formerly  appropriated  to  tlie  civil  governors  had  been  assumed  by  them, 
though  their  relation  to  the  emperor  had  been  in  no  way  altered  by  the  change ; 
when  for  a  short  period  the  government  returned  to  the  hands  of  the  emperor  and 
the  Kugt^s,  the  friendly  treatment  then  meted  out  to  this  class  was  of  an  illusory 
nature,  possessiag  no  practical  value. 

lyeyasu  added  two  additional  classes  —  the  Hatamoto  and  the  Gokenin  —  to 
the  three  akeady  existing.  The  Hatamoto,  who  numbered  apparently  two  thou- 
sand, possessed  different  positions  and  incomes,  some  being  small  landed  owners, 
while  others  were  paid  yearly  incomes  in  rice  by  the  shogun  ;  of  the  former, 
seven  were  placed  upon  an  ecpiality  with  the  Daimyos,  in  so  far  as  they  were 
obliged  to  reside  alternately  in  Yedo  and  upon  their  property,  whereas  all  the 
others  were  forced  to  remain  permanently  in  Yedo.  The  Gokenin,  about  five 
thousand  in  number,  received  a  small  salary,  and  were  employed  to  fill  low  official 
posts  under  the  shogun.     Next  in  order  to  these  came  the  common  Samurai. 

Veiy  simdar  was  the  condition  of  the  larger  territorial  owners,  since  they  also 
had  a  number  of  vassals  in  direct  dependence  upon  them.  Generally  speaking, 
the  organisation  of  these  private  vassal-trains  was  as  follows :  In  the  first  place, 
the  Karos,  who  often  bore  the  title  of  minister,  were  almost  invariably  in  posses- 
sion of  land  within  the  district  of  their  lords,  who  could  summon  them  with 
their  contingents  to  war.  In  the  case  of  certain  territorial  owners,  lyeyasu  seems 
to  have  appointed  Karos,  and  to  have  sent  them  into  their  territory,  apparently 
with  the  object  of  thus  keeping  watch  upon  the  lords  and  bringing  pressure  to 


nr,  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  [chaj.tcr  i 

in;ir  iiiK)n  them  in  case  of  necessity.  The  Samurai  were  cither  in  possession 
of  land  ur  received  an  income  of  rice,  the  former  of  the  two  positions  being  tlie 
liigher  esteemeiL  They  usually  dwelt  under  the  prince's  roof,  or  in  close  prox- 
imity t*)  liis  castle.  Many  of  these  territorial  owners,  upon  their  transference  to 
other  districts,  were  unable  to  take  with  them  a  large  proportion  of  their  adherents, 
liut  thcv  often  found  numerous  Samurai  iijion  the  spot  who  had  lost  their  former 
loi\l  or  luid  been  uiiabh-  to  depirt  with  liim.  From  these  people  ((iosliis)  a  kind 
of  pi-ovincial  militia  was  formed,  the  eldest  son  of  a  family  inheriting  the  name, 
rank,  and  property  of  his  fatlier,  wliile  the  other  children  remained  upon  the  level 
of  tlie  common  folk.  Tlie  Goshi  was  allowed  to  sell  his  name,  liis  position,  or  his 
land,  with  ti>e  permission  of  the  overlord.  If  he  sold  onlj-  a  portion  of  the  latter, 
lie  retained  his  name  and  his  rank ;  he  lost  both  upon  the  sale  of  his  whole 
projierty.  The  Goshis  were  allowed  to  possess  horses,  and  were  often  people  of 
influence  and  position;  tlie  common  peasants  were  their  servants.  Upon  the  resto- 
ration of  the  mikado  dignity  tliey  alone  retained  their  landed  property,  since  it 
was  assumed  that  they  had  not  received  it  from  the  Tokugawa,  but  had  been  in 
occupation  from  the  remotest  times  (cf.  above,  p.  19).  Intermediate  between  the 
Samurai  and  the  common  peasants  were  the  Kukaku,  a  kind  of  inferior  country 
nobilit}-  who  received  a  yearly  income  of  rice  and  wore  two  swords,  were  not 
allowed  to  ride,  and  lived  on  the  borders  of  the  capital  or  in  the  country. 

The  ]ieasants  paid  their  taxes  to  their  overlord,  the  Karo,  or  the  Samurai, 
to  whom  their  land  had  been  assigned,  but  he  was  not  obliged  to  transmit  such 
payments  to  tiie  territorial  owner.  The  peasants  do  not  seem  to  have  been  ab- 
solutely in  the  condition  of  serfdom.  In  cases  of  gross  idleness  tliey  could  be 
removed  from  their  property,  which  they  could  also  sell  under  certain  conditions; 
ill  time  of  war  they  served  only  as  workmen  or  carriers.  The  unit  of  peasant 
society  was  the  village,  or  mura,  which  usually  consisted  of  fifty  men  (families), 
divided  into  ten  groups  of  five  members.  Taxes  were  neither  assessed  upon  nor 
paid  by  individuals ;  a  fixed  amount  was  debited  against  the  village,  and  the  in- 
habitants were  collectively  liable.  Every  peasant  possessed  his  own  house  and 
arable  land  ;  but  pastures  and  grazing  lands  were  common  property,  while  forest 
and  moor  laud  belonged  in  most  cases  to  the  overlord. 

When  lyeyasu  took  up  the  government,  eighteen  Kokushu  were  in  existence. 
In  due  couree  these  were  increased  by  the  two  princes  of  Ivii  and  Owari,  thirty- 
two  Ilyoshu,  and  two  hundred  and  twelve  Yoshu.  He  introduced,  however,  another 
di.stril)Ution  of  the  territorial  -owners.  There  were  seventy-hve  Tozama  apj)ointed 
on  an  eiiuality  with  the  princes  (apparently  the  earlier  of  the  crown  olhcials). 
All  others  were  entitled  Fudai  (for  a  long  period  a  term  of  courtesy,  or  with  the 
meaning,  old  servants) ;  they  were  invested  with  their  possessions  by  the  shogun, 
and  were  allowed,  or  iirobably  oldiged,  to  take  uj)  positions  under  government. 
For  this  system  of  division  lyeyasu  himself  gave  as  a  reason  that  the  Gofudai  were 
the  class  of  owners  who  had  su])ix)rted  him  before  the  capture  of  the  castle  of 
Osaka  in  1603,  while  the  Tozama  had  only  submitted  to  him  at  a  later  i)criod. 

Of  .still  greater  importance  was  the  distribution  of  the  territorial  owners,  the 
Hatamuto  and  the  ollicial.s,  into  councils,  in  which  they  deliberated  apart  when 
summoned  by  the  shogim.  The  names  of  these  deliberative  bodies,  derived  either 
from  the  names  of  their  meeting  chambers,  or  from  those  of  their  coni]iiint'nt  mem- 
bers, were  as  follows:  (1)  Oroka:uine  princes  of  the  Tokugawa  family  and  the 


iZ^oZ'""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  37 

prince  of  Kaga,  the  lii-hesL  and  most  powerful  of  the  Kokushu.  (2)  Ohiroma : 
twelve  princes  of  the  Tokugawa  family  and  seventeen  Kokushu.  (3)  Tamarinoma  : 
the  seven  most  distinguished  Gufudai,  six  from  the  family  of  the  Minamoto  uo 
Yoritomo,  and  one,  Ikamou  no  Kani,  from  the  Fujiwara  family.  (4)  Ganaginoma : 
seventy-tive  Tosamma.  (5)  Tekauoma :  sixty-seven  Gofudai.  (tj)(;anoma:  forty- 
three  Gofudai.  (7)  Xikunoma:  thirty-one  Gofudai.  (8)  Fudsionoma :  the  llata- 
raoto  and  otticials  of  the  rank  of  the  Bunyo  or  governors.  (9)  Nokonoma:  otticials 
who  liad  been  invested  by  tlie  mikado  with  the  title  of  IToii,  the  sixth  in  rank  at 
the  imperial  court.  (10)  Kikionoma:  subordinate  olHciaks.  (11)  Takiminoma : 
inferior  officials  above  the  rank  of  the  Kumi  gassira,  vice-governors,  and  Narui,  vice- 
inspectors.  These  chambers  were  summoned  when  any  important  questions  arose. 
They  arrived  at  their  decisions  in  isolation  by  a  majority  of  vutes,  and  the  (juestion 
at  issue  was  ultimatel}'  decided  by  the  vote  of  the  majority  of  the  chambers. 
However,  the  government  seems  to  have  paid  special  attention  to  the  views  of  the 
Tamarinoma,  and  to  the  chambers  composed  of  the  Hatamoto  and  the  officials. 
Current  business  was  transacted  by  committees  composed  of  such  members  of  indi- 
vidual chambers  as  were  present  in  Yedo. 

The  relations  of  the  mikado  and  the  Kugt^s  to  the  empire  were  so  arranged  that 
while  they  retained  all  tlieir  titles  and  prerogatives,  they  lost  every  vestige  of  in- 
fluence and  power.  The  income  of  the  imperial  court  and  of  the  Kug&  was 
reduced  as  much  as  possible,  and  they  were  almost  entirely  excluded  from  con- 
nection witli  the  outer  world.  One  hundred  and  thirty -seven  Kug(5s  with  five  titles 
of  the  second  class  and  twenty-seven  of  the  third  class  had  a  3"early  income  of 
about  42,500  koku,  whereas  two  hundred  and  sixty-three  Buk(5s,  including  the 
shogun,  though  possessing  only  one  title  of  the  second  and  four  of  the  third  class, 
had  a  yearly  income  of  30,000,000.  The  revenue  of  the  imperial  court  was  estab- 
lisiied  in  1()15  at  10,000  koku,  and  gradually  increased  to  r20,()00  by  the  year 
170().  In  1G32  the  yearly  incomes  of  all  territorial  lords  amounted  to  18,700,000 
koku,  wliile  tlie  income  of  the  shogun  house,  derived  from  its  immediate  property, 
amounted  to  11,000,000.  lyeyasu  issued  several  proclamations,  particularly  the 
so-called  Eighteen  and  One  Hundred  laws,  the  first  of  which  deals  ])articu- 
larly  with  the  relations  of  the  shogun  to  tlie  imperial  court,  and  the  latter  with 
the  position  of  the  shogun  to  the  territorial  lords,  the  Samurai,  and  the  jieople. 
These  manifestoes  e.xplained  that  the  larger  incomes  of  the  Buki5  class  carrieil  with 
them  the  obligation  of  greater  services  to  the  State,  whereas  the  Kugds  were  allowed 
to  expend  their  smaller  revenues  exclusively  upon  themselves.  Beyond  this  the 
Buki^s  were  obliged  to  provide  cavalry  in  proportion  to  one-half  of  their  revenue,  at 
the  rate  of  five  men  to  every  thousand  koku,  so  that  a  lord  with  a  total  income  of 
200,000  koku  provided  five  hundred  cavalry  in  case  of  war. 

To  understand  the  Japanese  constitution  at  this  time  is  only  possible  when  we 
take  into  account  the  theory  (m  which  lyeyasu  defended  the  virtual  deposition  of 
the  emperor  and  of  the  Kug&,  and  the  transference  of  the  power  to  the  shogun 
and  Buk(5s.  "According  to  an  old  doctrine  of  the  country  of  the  gods  (Japan), 
the  gods  are  the  genii  of  the  heaven,  as  the  emperors  are  of  the  earth.  The  genii 
of  the  heaven  and  of  the  earth  can  be  compared  with  the  sun  and  the  moon.  And 
for  the  same  reason  that  the  sun  and  the  moon  fulfil  their  course,  so  must  the 
emperor  keep  his  noble  heart  unharmed.  For  that  reason,  he  lives  in  his  palace  as 
in  heaven ;  indeed,  corresponding  to  the  nine  heavens,  the  palace  contains  nine  sets 

59o7G 


38  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [naptvr i 

of  rooms  with  twelve  gates  and  eighty  chambers ;  moreover,  his  insignia  are  tlie 
ten  wtues,  and  lie  is  lord  of  ten  thousand  Chariots  (in  Chiua  the  emperor  marched 
out  to  war  with  ten  thousand  chariots).  Every  day  he  is  to  pray  to  heaven  that 
he  be  an  example  to  the  country  in  pliilanthropy,  the  love  of  his  parents,  intelli- 
gence, and  economy ;  he  shall  also  be  assiduous  in  the  practice  of  science  and  the 
art  of  writing.  By  such  means  the  lofty  virtue  of  the  empenjr  is  spread  abroad,  so 
that  the  faces  of  his  subjects  be  not  overspread  with  the  colour  of  grief,  and  that 
peace  and  happiness  ride  everywhere  within  the  four  walls."  (The  Eighteen  Laws, 
No.  1.)  "  As  the  oflice  of  overseer  of  the  two  court  scliools  in  Kioto  (tliis  olticial, 
with  others,  regulated  etiquette  at  the  imperial  court)  has  been  transferred  to  the 
shogun,  the  three  Shinno  (imperial  princes),  the  Shikke  (families  in  which  the 
highest  dignities  were  hereditary),  the  Kug^s,  and  the  territorial  lords,  are  collec- 
tively subordinate  to  him.  By  his  orders  he  regulates  all  dvities  owed  to  the  State, 
and  in  State  questions  he  may  act  without  the  emperor's  assent.  If  the  country 
between  the  four  seas  is  not  at  peace,  then  the  shogun  shall  bear  the  blame." 
(Tlie  Eighteen  Laws,  No.  2.)  "  In  ancient  times  the  emperor  was  wont  to  make 
pilgrimages  to  dillerent  temples,  and  this  in  order  tiiat  he  might  become  acquainted 
with  the  sorrows  of  his  people  upon  the  way.  Now,  however,  the  emperor  has 
reformed  the  government,  and  entrusted  it  to  the  Buk^s.  If  these  be  unaware  of 
the  miseries  of  the  people,  the  .shogun  shall  bear  the  blame.  Therefore  the  ruling 
emperor  shall  no  longer  leave  his  palace,  except  when  he  betakes  himself  to  visit 
in  his  palace  the  emperor  who  has  abdicated."  (Eighteen  Laws,  No.  4.)  "  With 
Minamoto  no  Yoritomo,  who  governed  as  Hao  (the  helper  of  the  emperor),  the 
supremacy  of  Japan  has  passed  to  tlie  hands  of  the  Bukds.  As  the  Kug^s  car- 
ried on  the  government  carelessly,  and  were  unable  to  maintain  order  in  the 
couutrj-,  all  that  could  be  done  was  for  the  emperor  to  order  the  Bukds  to  take 
over  the  ancient  government.  But  with  inadequate  revenues  it  is  imjiossible  to 
govern  a  country,  to  feed  the  people,  and  to  perform  the  public  services.  Thus  tlie 
Kug(5s  would  commit  a  great  wrong  should  they  seek  to  detract  from  the  Buk^s. 
According  to  the  old  saying,  'All  the  country  under  heaven  belongs  to  the 
emperor,'  the  emperor  has  been  ordered  by  heaven  to  feed  and  to  educate  the 
peoi)le ;  for  this  reason  he  orders  othcials  and  warriors  to  care  for  the  peace  and 
prosperity  of  the  country.  It  would  have  been  possible  to  entrust  the  Kug^s 
with  the  performance  of  this  office ;  as,  however,  this  arrangement  is  displeasing 
to  the  people,  the  emperor  has  given  it  to  the  15uk(5s.  If  tlie  land  be  not  at  rest, 
differences  of  rank  between  high  and  low  disappear,  and  uproar  is  the  consequence, 
and  therefore  the  Bukds  shall  conscientiously  perform  the  duties  of  their  office." 
(Eighteen  Laws,  No.  15.)  "If  the  five  harvests  do  not  come  to  maturity,  then  is 
tlie  government  of  tlie  Tcnclii  (the  son  of  heaven,  tlie  emperor)  bad;  but  if  many 
punishments  must  be  inflicted  throughout  the  realm,  then  ye  are  to  know  that  the 
military  powers  of  the  shogun  are  inadequate.  In  either  case  ye  (my  successors) 
sjiall  make  trial  of  yourselves  to  that  end,  and  be  not  careless."  (One  Hundred 
L-iws,  No.  80.)  Cf.  Kempermann  in  the  "  Mitteiluugen  der  deutschen  GeseUschaft 
fiir  Natur-  und  Viilkerkunde  Ostasiens." 

Originally  the  position  of  the  shSgun  compared  with  that  of  the  Kokushu  was 
little  more  than  one  of  primus  inter  pares ;  it  was  only  by  degrees  tliat  he  gradu- 
ally assumed  tlie  dominant  position.  Originally  the  Kokushu  were  exemjit  from 
the  rule  binding  upon  the  landowners  of  spending  a  year  in  Yedo  and  a  year 


ST;,™'""]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  39 

upon  their  properties  alternately,  their  families  being  obliged  to  remain  perma- 
nently in  Yedo;  but  iimler  the  third  shoguu  the  Kokushii  were  in  this  respect 
treated  like  the  smaller  priuoes.  The  only  prerogative  which  they  possessed  was, 
that  as  theoretical  vassals  of  the  mikado  they  were  crown  officials,  and  received 
their  investiture  at  his  hands.  However,  they  could  only  approach  the  mikado 
through  the  shogun,  who  superintended  the  confirmation  of  titles  upon  the  terri- 
torial lords  by  the  emperor.  Any  direct  communication  between  the  imperial 
court  and  the  territorial  lords  was  strictly  forbidden.  Even  when  travelling  from 
their  districts  to  Yedo  or  back,  they  were  not  allowed  to  pass  through  the  cajjital ; 
if  they  desired  to  visit  the  capital  or  its  suburbs,  they  were  required  to  obtain  a 
special  permit  from  the  shogun,  and  even  then  they  were  not  aUowed  to  approach 
within  a  certain  distance  of  the  emperor's  palace.  For  a  marriage  between  a  mem- 
ber of  a  Buk(i  family  and  one  of  a  Kug^  family,  the  express  permission  of  the 
shogun  was  e([ually  necessary.  To  become  a  medium  for  the  transmission  of  gossip 
upon  political  affairs  to  the  imperial  court,  was  to  commit  a  crime  punishable  with 
the  utmost  severity. 

In  other  respects  all  possible  measures  were  taken  to  keep  the  territorial  lords 
in  a  state  of  dependence.  Upon  the  redistribution  of  districts,  friends  and  earlier 
foes  were  so  intermingled,  that  the  former  could  keep  an  eye  upon  the  latter,  and 
apart  from  this,  the  property  of  the  shogun  was  scattered  throughout  the  coimtry 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable  him  to  visit  other  districts  Nvithout  tri)uble.  Strong 
garrisons  were  kept  up  in  Kioto  and  Fushimi,  as  also  in  several  districts  of  the 
province  of  Suruga ;  all  the  passes  leading  to  Kwanto  were  provided  with  guards, 
and  the  chief  trading  and  commercial  centres  (such  as  Osaka,  Sakai,  Nagasaki, 
eighteen  in  number)  were  in  the  power  of  the  shogun.  Officials  of  the  shogun 
now  undertook  those  tours  of  inspection  upon  which  the  emissaries  of  the  mikado 
had  previously  been  sent  every  five  or  seven  years,  and  in  cases  where  the  high 
position  of  tlie  territorial  lords,  such  as  the  Kokushu,  made  this  kind  of  supervision 
impossible,  friends  and  presumable  enemies  were  entrusted  with  the  task  of  keep- 
ing guard  upon  one  another.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  defence  of  the  island  of 
Kyushu  was  entrusted  to  Satsuma  and  his  opponent,  Hizen,  who  relieved  one 
another  every  year.  Moreover,  the  whole  country  was  covered  with  a  net-work  of 
officials  and  spies  of  the  Bak'  fu  bureaucracy.  Thus  lyeyasu  and  his  successors 
made  every  possible  effort  to  keep  the  territorial  lords  within  bounds.  The  system 
eventually  collapsed,  not  so  much  before  foreign  attacks,  as  because  those  classes 
whom  its  founder  had  specially  designed  to  be  its  supporters,  first  undermined  and 
then  overthrew  it.  The  shogunate  fell  because  it  was  abandoned  by  those  who 
should  have  had  the  greatest  possible  interest  in  ensuring  its  permanence. 

K.   The  Tokugawa  (1603  to  1868) 

If  the  regulation  of  the  position  of  the  emperor,  the  Kug^s,  and  the  territorial 
lords  had  been  difficult,  a  yet  more  arduous  task  confronted  the  founder  of  the 
dynasty  when  he  came  to  grapple  with  the  settlement  of  questions  of  famUy  pre- 
cedence and  of  the  succession.  lyeyasu  left  five  sons,  the  princes  of  Echizen,  Kii, 
Owari,  ]Mito,  and  the  second  son,  Hidetada,  whom  he  had  appointed  as  his  successor 
during  his  lifetime,  and  invested  with  the  power.  He  arranged  that  the  succession 
should  follow  the  direct  line  of  Hidetada's  family,  and  that  if  no  heii-  should  be 


40  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD  [c/.aj.frr  j 

fortlicomiii}!  one  shoulil  Ik?  chosen  f.-oni  tlie  house  of  Kii  or  that  of  Owari.  These 
houses,  ami  tliat  of  Hidetmla,  were  eulitleil  "  Go-sau-kt5,"  as  being  the  tluee  most 
im|Kirtaut  liouses.  At  a  Liter  \Kn'iod  tlie  title  was  also  exteuiletl  to  iiiehule  the  houses 
of  Kii,  Owari,  and  Mito,  ihouj^h  it  did  not  in  this  cjise  imiily  the  possession  of 
claims  to  the  succession.  On  the  other  hand,  the  jirince  of  ilito  obtained  the  right 
of  demanding  or  proclaiming  in  certain  ca-^es  the  deposition  of  a  shogun  who  had 
not  jierformed  the  duties  of  his  olliee,  while  under  other  conditions  the  position  of 
regent  was  reserved  to  the  prince  of  Echizen.  Thus  the  prince  of  Mito  was  also 
the  oidy  territorial  lord  who  jiossessed  the  right  of  direct  communication  with  the 
empL'ror.  it  is  by  no  means  clear  that  Echizen,  the  eldest  son,  and  ^lito,  the  young- 
est, were  excluded  from  the  succession ;  the  first  had  been  originally  adopted  by 
Hidevoshi,  and  had  thus  ceased  to  l)elong  to  his  father's  family  according  to 
Japanese  ideas,  while  the  latter  had  married  the  daughter  of  a  former  enemy.  lye- 
yasu  himself  is  said  to  have  characterised  his  son  Mito  as  a  very  im]K)rtant,  but 
extremely  dangerous  personality,  and  to  have  compared  him  to  a  sharp  swoni, 
which  is  only  harmless  so  long  as  it  remains  in  the  sheath.  Two  hundred  and 
fifty  vears  later  the  foresight  of  the  founder  of  this  dynasty  was  to  be  conlirined  ; 
in  any  case,  the  house  of  Mito  materially  contributed  to  Ijring  about  the  downfall  of 
the  shoguuate. 

The  question  of  the  succession,  already  sufficiently  difficult,  became  still  further 
complicated  by  the  fact  that  in  1715  the  family  of  llidetada  became  extinct  in  the 
direct  line.  The  prince  of  Kii,  who  had  been  appointed  shogun,  hastened  to  invest 
his  second,  third,  and  fourth  sons  with  the  titles  of  princes  of  Taiasu,  Shimizu,  and 
Hitotsubashi ;  he  then  arranged  that  these  three  families,  to  whom  he  gave  the 
common  title  "  Go-san-kio "  (the  three  lords),  should  ^irovide  a  successor  in  the 
event  of  his  first  sou's  descendants  becoming  extinct  in  the  direct  line.  This  regu- 
lation also  proved  ineffectual  A  younger  son  of  the  house  of  Mito,  who  had  been 
adopted  by  a  prince  of  Hitotsubashi,  was  appointed  shogun  ;  the  last  of  a  long  line, 
his  loss  of  the  supremacy  in  no  way  redounded  to  liis  honour. 

lyej-asu  died  at  his  castle  of  Sumpu,  in  Suruga,  on  March  8, 1616,  and,  accord- 
ing to  his  wish,  was  buried  a  year  later  in  Xikko.  This  is  a  mountainous  dis- 
trict, richly  wooded  and  adorned  with  every  kind  of  natural  beauty,  about  ninety 
miles  north  of  Yedo,  where  Buddhist  and  Shintoist  temples,  erected  by  the  holy 
Shodo  Shonin,  had  existeil  from  the  close  of  the  eiglith  century.  A  representative 
of  the  mikado  and  of  the  shogun,  together  with  a  great  number  of  the  Kug(js,  the 
territorial  lords,  and  their  military  comrades,  were  present  at  the  burial  of  the 
deceased,  upon  whom  the  mikp.do  conferred  a  special  title  of  honour  to  mark 
the  occasion.  Tlie  dead  man  was  created  Sho-iclii-i,  To-sho,  Dai  Gon-gen ;  that 
is,  noble  of  the  first  class,  of  the  first  rank,  great  light  of  the  east,  great  incarna- 
tion of  Buddha.  After  the  death  of  the  former  abbot  and  the  abdication  of  his 
successor.  Go  Mizuno,  the  fifth  son  of  the  mikado  was  appointed  high  priest  of 
Nikko,  in  the  year  16.54,  under  the  title  of  IJiunoji  no  Miya.  He  and  his  succes- 
sors, wlio  were  afterwards  princes  of  the  imperial  hou.se,  usually  resided  at  Yedo, 
in  the  temjile  of  I'yeno,  and  visited  Xikko  tliree  times  a  year.  The  last  of  these 
royal  jiriesis,  Kita  Shirakawa  no  miya,  who  was  educated  in  Germany,  was 
abducted  by  the  northern  party  during  the  civil  war  of  1868,  and  set  up  as  an  oppo- 
sition mikado,  Vmt  shortly  afterward  succumbed  to  the  attacks  of  the  victorious 
southcraers.     Of  the  successors  of  lyeyasu,  one  only,  his  graudson,  lycmitsu  (1623 


^  ^^:#^;::jr5f fffi-^  :^5 


w 


r«'l-i-<;*i-'l=:'l+c.£^<,«j.6n^- 


X. 


iZ7o2""''']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  41 

to  1651 ;  ob.  1652),  was  buried  in  Xikko.  All  tbe  other  shoguns  were  buried  at 
Yedo,  either  within  the  precinct  of  the  temple  of  Uyeno  or  within  that  of  Shiba. 
The  temple  buildings  of  Nikko  (see  the  plate,  "  The  Cemeter}-  and  Temple  Build- 
ings of  Nikko  in  Japan "),  are  certainly  the  greatest,  the  richest,  and  the  most 
beautiful  in  Japan,  and  are  distinguished  by  the  artistic  finish  of  the  buildings  and 
the  decorations  of  their  interior,  as  well  as  by  the  beauty  of  the  surrounding  land- 
scape. The  interest  of  the  spot  and  of  its  builduigs  is  further  increased  by  the 
numerous  dedicatory  presents  in  and  about  it  which  have  been  brought  from  every 
part  of  the  country,  and,  in  some  cases,  even  from  ICorea. 

Hidetada,  the  first  successor  of  lyej'asu,  followed  in  his  father's  footsteps,  and 
maintained  the  institutions  introduced  by  him.  lyemitsu,  the  grandson  of  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty,  was,  undoubtedly,  the  most  important  of  the  fourteen 
shoguns  who  followed  lyeyasu.  He  laid  a  stronger  hand  upou  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment, obliged  the  great  landowners  to  render  a  formal  recognition  of  his  undisputed 
supremacy,  and  made  himself  and  his  successors  mastei-s  of  Japan.  The  visit 
which  lie  ])aid  to  the  mikado  in  Kioto,  in  1623,  was  the  last  paid  by  any  sho- 
gun  until  the  year  186.3.  It  was  under  his  rule,  in  1641,  that  the  Dutch  and 
the  Chinese  were  sent  to  Nagasaki,  and  all  other  foreigners  were  expelled  from  the 
country,  while  emigration  was  forbidden  to  the  Japanese.  The  coinage  and  the 
weights  and  measures  in  use  were  reduced  to  a  common  standard,  the  delimitation  of 
the  frontiers  was  begun  and  completed,  maps  and  plans  of  the  districts  and  castles 
belonging  to  the  territorial  lords  were  made,  the  genealogical  trees  of  these  latter 
were  drawn  out,  and  all  names  obliterated  which  might  have  aroused  disagreeable 
political  recollections  or  have  given  rise  to  inconvenient  claims.  ^Moreover,  the 
two  State  councils,  the  upper  and  the  lower  chambers  were  reorganized.  Finally, 
lyemitsu  made  his  capital  of  Yedo,  not  only  the  most  beautiful,  but  also  the  most 
cleanly  and  the  best  fortified  town  in  the  kingdom.  The  castle,  with  its  triple  line 
of  walls  and  moats,  was  then  considered  as  impregnable,  and  even  to-day  rouses 
the  admiration  of  the  visitor.  lyemitsu  was  also  the  first  to  employ  the  title  of 
"  taikun  "  (great  lord),  as  the  expression  of  his  absolute  power  in  his  intercourse 
with  otlier  coimtries,  such  as  Korea. 

Of  his  successors  we  need  only  mention  Yoshimune  (1716-1745),  the  last  of 
the  direct  descendants  of  lyej-asu.  He  gave  much  attention  to  the  improvement 
of  agriculture  and  manufactures,  and  removed  the  jn-ohibition  upon  the  introduc- 
tion of  European  books,  though  this  still  held  good  of  such  as  dealt  with  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  Of  the  remaining  successors  it  need  only  be  said  that  they  confined 
their  actions,  generally  speaking,  to  the  lines  already  laid  down.  However,  their 
power  of  independent  action  was  completely  destroyed  by  the  bureaucracy,  which 
took  into  its  hands  more  and  more  of  the  administration.  Government  depart- 
ments degenerated  in  consequence,  and  the  fall  of  the  shogunate  was  the  idtimate 
result. 

Tukuzo  Fukuda,  in  his  work  upon  the  social  and  economic  development  of 
Japan,  defines  the  government  of  the  Tokugawa  as  a  period  in  which  the  govern- 
ment was  that  of  a  policeman  with  unlimited  powers.  This  statement,  however,  is 
true  only  of  the  second  half  of  the  government  of  the  shoguns,  and  of  that  only  in 
so  far  as  the  administration  was  careful  to  mamtain  existing  institutions  and  to 
throw  obstacles  in  the  way  of  all  innovations,  wliich  the  bureaucracy  in  Japan,  as 
everj-where,  considered  as  so  many  threats  against  the  existence  of  the  State.     The 


42  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_ch„j,tcr i 

heaviest  oppression  has  uever  been  more  tliaii  a  teiupoiary  obstacle  to  national 
ileveloi)meut ;  and  so  in  Japan  under  the  sliogunate,  development,  far  from  com- 
iug  to  a  standstill,  followed  a  roundabout  course,  and  society  atlvancetl  by  devious 
l>aths  fmm  the  old  onler  to  the  new.  The  most  obvious  conHrmation  of  this  fact  is 
the  iKirt  played  by  the  towns,  or,  more  correctly,  by  the  mercantile  class  of  the 
conmuuiily. 

Tlie  vigorous  rule  of  the  tii-st  shoguus,  and  especially  of  the  third,  had  convinced 
the  territorial  lords  that  the  dynasty  of  the  Tokugawa  was  entirely  capable  of  main- 
taining its  supivmacy,  and  that  any  attacks  upon  it  would  recoil  upon  the  heads  of 
their  proniotors.  At  the  same  time  the  measures  of  the  shoguuate,  especially  those 
respecting  the  hereditary  rights  of  the  great  families,  had  inspired  the  conviction 
that  the  existence  of  the  territorial  nobility,  so  far  from  being  endangered,  was 
secured  even  more  permanently  than  before.  Tiie  great  nobles  were  tlierefore  able 
to  concentrate  their  attention  upon  the  peaceful  development  of  their  districts. 
The  common  Samurai  were  in  a  far  more  evil  case  (cf.  above,  p.  19),  especially  in 
the  matter  of  their  yearly  salary  of  rice.  Their  business  was  war,  and  any  other 
occupation  was  forbidden  to  them.  As,  however,  their  salaries  were  usually  inade- 
quate for  their  support,  the  consequence  was  that  in  the  course  of  time  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  Samurai  became  deeply  involved  in  debt.  They  were  then  obliged 
either  to  lay  aside  their  swords,  renounce  their  j)rofession  and  enter  .some  otlier,  or 
while  retauiing  their  swords,  to  leave  the  service  of  their  overlords  and  to  join  the 
class  of  the  Konins,  the  masterless  Samurai,  who  were  the  terror  not  only  of  the 
peaceful  citizens,  but  also  of  the  government.  As  regards  the  peasants  (cf.  above, 
p.  36),  the  position  of  those  settled  upon  the  land  of  the  shoguu  was,  upon  the  wlmle, 
preferable  to  the  lot  of  those  within  the  districts  of  the  territorial  lords.  While 
the  former  were  treated  with  kindness  and  consideration,  the  latter  were  williout 
defence  against  the  extortions  of  the  officials  of  their  prince.  The  average  holding 
of  a  peasant  was  small ;  the  least  quantity  of  land  amounted  to  about  a  hectare,  and 
was  but  seldom  increased,  consequently  their  agriculture  was  rather  of  the  charac- 
ter of  market  gardening. 

Fukuda  a.sserts  that  the  towns  had  developed  from  and  around  tlie  permanent 
castles  of  the  territorial  lords,  for  the  reason  that  the  formation  of  towns  in  Jajiau 
dates  from  the  period  of  war  after  the  twelftli  century.  The  statement  is  correct 
only  from  one  pouit  of  view.  In  a  State  which  had  already  existed  for  a  thousand 
years,  men  and  houses  must  have  collected  in  large  numbers  at  the  most  important 
points  upon  the  several  lines  of  communication.  Naturally  the  new  territorial 
lords  would  choose  such  positions  for  the  central  points  of  their  districts,  and 
would  settle  and  erect  their  fortified  castles  in  them ;  not  less  naturally  the 
inhabitants  would  gather  more  closely  round  the  pn^tecting  castles,  and  possibly  in 
tiie  course  of  time  two  or  three  villages  may  thus  liave  been  united  into  one  com- 
munity. At  any  rate,  the  towns  of  early  Japan  iiever  attained  any  power  of  self- 
government;  they  were  not  even  considered  as  independent  communities,  and  the 
period  of  tlieir  growth  and  prosperity  begins,  in  almost  every  case,  at  the  time 
following  the  rule  of  lyeyasu.  Centuries  of  civil  war  by  no  means  favoured  the 
increa.se  of  merchants  and  handicraftsmen,  and  of  these  the  population  of  the  towns 
was  chiefly  composed.  The  system  of  caste  wliich  prevaileil  in  .lapan  must  also 
have  hindered  commercial  development.  Tlie  warrior  caste  was  the  first;  with  it, 
if  not  theoretically,  at  any  rate  in  practice,  were  conjoined  the  castes  of  scholars. 


iTK-cn'r"']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  43 

physicians,  artists,  priests,  and  others ;  then  came  the  farmers,  the  handicraftsmen, 
and  finally  the  merchants.  Below  these  were  the  dishonourable  castes  (actors, 
jugglers,  dancing  women,  etc.)  and  the  unclean  castes  (knackers,  tanners,  execu- 
tioners, etc.). 

After  theu'  rise  the  towns  lay  eitlier  on  the  demesne  of  the  landed  lords,  upon 
whose  whims  and  ideas  their  growth  materially  depended,  or  on  the  demesne  of 
the  shoguns,  who  had  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  the  most  important  trading 
centres,  — Yedo,  Osaka,  Kanagawa,  Nagasaki,  Sakai,  Hakodate,  and  Xiegala.  Hence 
the  shoguuate  was  obliged  to  confront  the  task  of  extending  trade  and  procuring 
the  recognition  of  the  traders'  importance.  Even  during  the  period  of  foreign 
influx  the  shoguns  had  made  every  effort  to  secure  to  themselves  the  largest 
possible  share  of  the  profits  derived  from  commercial  intercourse  with  other  lands, 
and  this  object  they  entirely  attained  when  they  removed  the  Dutch  and  the 
Chinese  to  Nagasaki.  At  the  same  time  exports  and  imports  were  so  regulated  in 
amomit  that  the  balance  of  trade  might  be,  as  much  as  possible,  in  favour  of  Japan. 
Foreign  wares  were  sold  at  so  high  a  price  as  to  be  within  the  reach  only  of  tlie 
richest  classes,  whde  the  exportation  of  anything  that  the  country  wanted,  or 
seemed  to  want,  was  restricted  or  prohibited  entirely.  Thus  in  17-52  the  exporta- 
tion of  gold,  wliich  had  previously  been  subject  to  repeated  restrictions,  was 
entirely  forbidden;  in  16S5  the  exportation  of  sdver,  which  had  been  employed  to 
pay  for  the  imports,  was  limited  to  two  thousand  pounds,  an  amount  further 
reduced  to  five  hundreds  pounds  in  1790;  in  168.5  exports  of  copper  were  limited 
to  two  thousand  piculs  (about  one  thousand  kilogrammes) ;  from  1715  onward, 
only  two  Dutch  ships  were  allowed  to  touch  at  Japan,  and  from  1790  only  one. 
Communication  with  the  Chinese  was  limited  in  a  similar  manner. 

On  the  other  hand,  every  effort  was  made  to  provide  facilities  for  internal 
trade,  especially  after  the  year  1 694,  when  guilds  (kumiai)  were  created  in  Osaka 
and  Yedo,  at  first  ten  in  each  town,  a  number  afterward  increased  to  twenty  dur- 
ing the  years  1720  to  1730.  These  were  free  societies,  occupied  with  mercantile 
and  shipping  business,  and  seemed  to  have  been  chiefly  active  in  promoting  the 
sale  of  the  manufactures  produced  on  the  demesnes  of  the  territorial  lords.  Con- 
sequently an  unusually  severe  blow  was  dealt  at  their  existence  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteen']!  century,  when  the  lords  demanded  and  obtained  the  permission  to 
.sell  their  products  at  the  great  commercial  centres  by  means  of  their  own  merchants. 
Possibly  it  was  this  regulation  which  induced  the  government  in  1813  to  place  the 
guilds  up  m  another  footing.  They  now  became  close  corporations  of  merchants 
and  manufacturers;  their  numbers  and  the  numbers  of  their  members  were  defined 
by  law.  They  were  not  allowed  to  elect  new  members,  but  upon  the  deatli  of  an 
individual  could  admit  only  his  blood  relations,  and  they  held  the  monopoly  of  the 
sale  of  that  particular  article  with  whicli  they  were  concerned.  In  1841  this 
arrangement  was  abolished,  after  many  complaints  had  been  made  of  the  manner 
in  which  prices  had  been  forced  up;  but  it  was  reintroduced  in  1851,  apparently 
because  the  government  thought  they  could  not  dispense  with  the  general  super- 
vision exercised  by  the  guilds. 

In  other  resjiects,  during  the  rule  of  the  Tokugawa,  conditions  remained  practi- 
cally unaltered.  Ancestor  worship  continued,  as  did  the  patriarchal  system,  and  the 
responsibilitv  of  the  patriarch  for  the  actions  of  members  of  the  family.  The  law 
of  inheritance,  which  gave  a  disproportionately  favoured  position  to  the  eldest  son. 


44  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  ivhapte,- 1 

renminod  unaiiereil.  The  majority  of  posts  iu  the  service  of  the  sho^ms  and 
of  the  territorial  lords  continued  to  be  hereditary.  Custom  demanded  thai  a  son 
should  succeed  to  the  profession  or  the  handicraft  of  liis  father.  It  was  cxtmordi- 
narily  difficult  to  pass  from  one  class  to  another.  All  these  restrictions  must  have 
constituted  so  many  obstacles  to  the  free  development  of  the  individual  and  con- 
sequently to  the  progress  of  society. 

Z.  The  Fall  of  the  Shogunate 

((()  The  Last  Tohtgaiva  Shogiins.  —  Soon  after  the  shogimate  had  passed  to  the 
Tokugawa,  a  certain  opposition  began  to  arise  within  this  family  itself  to  the  policy 
of  usurjiation  by  which  the  mikado  had  been  deprived  of  his  rights.  This  move- 
ment remained  for  a  long  period  exclusively  literary,  and  its  chief  representatives 
and  supjxirters  were  to  be  found  among  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Mito.  The 
early  history  of  tliis  house  is  a  good  example  of  the  manner  in  which  the  fortunes 
of  the  landeil  nobility  changed  during  the  age  preceding  the  definite  pacification  of 
the  kmgdom.  The  territory  afterward  included  in  this  principality  was  governed 
from  tlie  tenth  century  by  scions  of  the  Taira  family.  It  was  overcome  in  1427 
by  Yedo  Michifusa,  who  was  the  first  to  assume  the  name  of  Mito.  In  the  year 
1590  the  Yedo  family  were  driven  out  by  the  Satake.  Yoshinobu,  a  member  of 
the  latter  house,  who  had  joined  the  side  of  Hideyori,  was  transferred  to  Akita  Ijy 
lyeyasu  in  1602.  The  fifth  son  of  lyeyasu  was  appointed  prince  of  Mito  iu  his 
place;  when  he  died,  upon  the  journey  to  Mito,  the  tenth  son  took  up  the  position. 
He  was  afterward  transferred  to  Suruga  in  1609,  Ijut  became  prince  of  Kii  about 
ten  years  later,  and  was  then  succeeded  by  the  eleventh  sou,  Yorifusa,  who  was 
born  iu  1603  (cf.  above,  p.  39). 

Yorifusa  died  in  1661,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  second  son,  Mitsukuni.  He 
in%'ited  learned  men  to  his  court,  among  them  apparently  a  number  of  Chinese 
who  had  Hed  to  .Japan  before  the  Manchus,  and  with  their  help  he  publishetl, 
among  other  works,  the  "  Dainihonshi "  (the  history  of  greater  Japan,  from  Jimmu 
Tenno  as  far  as  the  year  1393,  in  two  hundred  and  forty  books);  this  is  still  con- 
sidered as  a  work  of  capital  importance  for  Japanese  history.  He  also  puVilished 
the  "  Reigiruites  "  (concerning  the  ceremonies  at  the  imperial  court,  in  five  hundred 
and  ten  books).  These  works  and  a  large  collection  of  Chinese  and  Jajianese 
books,  to  which  the  prince  continued  to  make  additions  imtil  his  deatli  (1700), 
largely  contrilnited  to  direct  the  attention  of  scholars  to  early  Japanese  history ; 
hence  Mitsukuni  is  justly  considered  as  the  founder  and  promoter  of  the  mo\'e- 
ment  which  is  usually  characterised  as  a  revival  of  the  pure  Shinto  teaching,  and 
undoubtedly  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  iirei)aring  the  way  for  tlie  restoration 
of  the  mikados.  The  men  who  were  chietiy  influential  for  their  work  iu  this 
direction  were  Kada  (ob.  1736),  Mabushi  (ob.  1769),  and  Motoori  (ob.  1801);  the 
latter  published  the  Kojikiden,  that  is,  explanations  of  the  Kojiki,  a  work  wliich 
attracted  the  greatest  attention  not  only  among  sdiokus,  but  also,  and  iiarticularly, 
among  the  landed  nobility.  The  "  Dainihonslii  "  was  continued  by  the  princes  of 
Mito,  and  printed  in  1851  after  a  long  period  of  circidation  in  manuscript.  The 
successors  of  Mitsukuni,  besides  being  patrons  of  literature,  were  also  sound  and 
economical  admiuistrators  of  the  country,  so  that  the  princes  of  Mito  acipiired 
a  rei.utatiun  as  excellent  rulers  in  contrast  to  the  shoguns.     In  1829  Xariakira, 


STof/;""]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  45 

the  brother  of  his  predecessor,  Narinaga,  became  prince ;  he  was  destined  to  play  a 
leading  ]wrt  in  the  struggle  against  the  shogunate. 

The  increasing  poverty  of  the  Samurai,  the  growing  degeneracy  of  the  shogun 
government  due  to  the  rise  of  a  bureaucracy,  the  rapid  spread  of  foreign  ideas  and 
the  concuiTent  dimiuution  in  the  power  of  the  shoguns,  togetlier  with  the  more 
ardent  desire  of  the  territorial  lords  for  partial  or  complete  independence,  —  these 
influences  found  expressi(jn  ia  the  formation  of  parties  at  the  imperial  court  as  well 
as  at  the  court  of  the  shogun.  The  situation  Ijecame  even  more  strained  as  the 
repeated  appearance  of  foreign  vessels  off  the  Japanese  coasts  (the  first  of  these 
visitors  was  the  Russian  squadron  off  Yezo  iu  1792)  increased  the  fears  of  a  hostile 
attack.  Allien  apprehensions  of  this  nature  drove  the  government  of  the  shogun 
in  1842  to  request  the  landed  nobility  to  take  measures  for  coast  defence,  the  only 
response  was  a  general  outcry  occasioned  by  the  shortness  of  money  and  tlie  need, 
for  assistance. 

(b)  The  Openiiif)  of  Japan  to  the  Forei/jner.  —  Some  years  after  the  appoint- 
ment of  Nariakira,  collisions  had  taken  place  ui  Mito  between  the  political  schools 
(sects)  of  the  country,  one  of  which  stood  for  the  mikado,  another  for  the  shogun, 
while  the  third  remained  in  a  vacillating  frame  of  mind.  These  disturbances 
resulted  in  an  open  revolt  against  the  government  of  the  shogun,  which  was,  how- 
ever, suppressed  with  comparative  ease.  None  the  less,  after  so  long  a  period  of 
peace,  such  a  movement  was  necessarily  regarded  as  a  sign  of  serious  import.  In 
every  principality  were  to  be  found  those  divisions  of  opinion  which  existed  in  Mito. 
During  tliis  period  of  ferment  in  1853  occurred  the  arrival  of  the  Commodore 
Matthew  Galbraith  Perry,  who,  in  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  North  America, 
demanded  that  Japan  should  be  thrown  open  to  his  countrymen.  During  the 
progress  of  the  discussions  which  his  appearance  had  occasioned,  lioth  within  the 
government  and  among  the  territorial  hjrds,  the  shogun  lyeyoslii  died,  Iiaving  been 
apparently  murdered.  In  him  the  government  lost  an  energetic  and  far-seeing 
prince,  and  his  successor,  li-kamon  no  kami,  the  hereditary  regent,  who  then  con- 
ducted the  goyernment  for  lyesada  during  his  minority,  was  a  man  of  gi-eatl}'  infe- 
rior capacity.  As  li-kamon,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Gofudai  Daimyos,  was 
determined  to  maintain  the  old  shogunate  constitution  and  to  avoid  any  step  that 
miglit  bring  a  foreign  enemy  into  alliance  with  the  old  native  opposition,  he 
concluded  the  treaty  of  Kanagawa  with  Commodore  Perry,  l)y  which  the  har- 
bours of  Simoda  and  Hakodate  were  thrown  open  to  the  United  States  (March 
31,  1854). 

This  step  provided  the  mikado  and  his  adherents  with  a  common  war-cry, 
"  Jo-i :  "  ("  Drive  out  the  strangers  I "),  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  was  directed  rather 
against  the  shogunate  than  against  the  foreign  intruders.  While  negotiations  were 
in  jirogress  witli  Mr.  Townsend  Harris,  the  resident  muiister  of  the  United  States, 
for  the  conclusion  of  an  additional  treaty,  the  young  shogun  died  in  1859.  It 
seems  that  he,  like  his  father  before  him,  was  murdered,  and  the  crime  was  attri- 
buted to  the  instigation  of  the  prince  of  Mito.  On  this  occasion  a  motive  for  the 
murder  can  be  found.  By  the  laws  of  the  kingdom,  one  of  the  three  Gosankio 
princes  would  now  have  to  be  chosen  as  shogun,  and  the  prince  of  Hitutsbashi  was 
a  son  of  Nariakira.  But  li-kamon  once  again  gave  proof  of  superior  strength,  and 
succeeded  in  procuring  the  appointment  of  the  priace  of  Kii,  who  was  then  twelve 


46  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapter i 

yeai-s  old.  The  prince  of  Mito  was  coudemned  to  close  confinement  iu  his  palace, 
and  the  princes  wlio  seemed  to  have  supported  him  were  obliged  in  some  cases  to 
abdicate,  and  were  punislied  in  others  with  iniprisonineut.  Tlie  regent  aj)peared  to 
have  broken  down  all  resistance.  However,  in  .March,  18G0,  he  was  attacked  by  a 
baud  of  the  retainei-s  of  Mito  and  murdered.  His  successor,  Ando  Tsusliima  no 
kaini,  met  a  similar  fate.  A  year  later  he  was  also  attacked,  and  only  escaped  at 
the  cost  of  a  severe  wound.     Shortly  afterward  he  resigned  his  ottice. 

In  the  meanwhile,  in  the  year  1858,  conventions  were  concluded  with  the 
United  States,  England,  France,  Kussia,  and  Portugal,  and  with  Prussia  in  1861, 
whereby  Kanagawa,  Nagasaki,  and  Hakodate  were  thrown  open  to  foreign  trade ; 
tlie  opening  of  further  harbours  was  contemplated;  diplomatic  representatives  were 
admitted  to  Yedo,  and  consuls  to  the  treaty  ports ;  while  foreign  subjects  were  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  consuls.  These  steps  gave  the  mikado  and  the  terri- 
torial nobility  new  reasons  for  dissatisfaction  with  the  sliogun  and  an  excuse  for 
hostile  action  against  the  foreignei'S.  The  export  trade  developed  rapidly,  and  the 
consequent  rise  in  the  price  of  every  article  caused  great  iiritation  among  the 
Samurai  and  excited  them  to  the  murder  of  a  number  of  foreigners.  The  flames 
were  further  fed  by  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Ihissians  to  get  possession  of  the 
island  of  Tsusliima  in  1861,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  English  intervention 
forced  them  to  retii-e  from  the  island.  On  the  5th  of  July,  1861,  the  English 
embassy  in  Yedo  was  attacked  by  a  band  of  desperadoes.  The  English  minister, 
Mr.  Rutherford  Alcock,  was  unable  to  secure  the  payment  of  the  indemnity  which 
he  demanded,  and  at  the  same  time  the  shogun's  government  declared  tliat  the 
general  feelmg  of  the  country  would  not  permit  the  opening  of  the  other  harboure 
which  had  been  proposed.  Alcock  returned  to  England,  followed  by  a  Japanese 
embassy.  However,  the  Japanese  government  found  itself  unable  to  fulfil  the  con- 
ditions on  which  the  English  had  thought  it  necessary  to  insist  in  granting  the 
period  of  grace  wliich  the  Japanese  demanded  for  the  performance  of  their  exist- 
ing treaty  obligations.  Meanwhile,  the  English  embassy  had  been  again  molested, 
antl  two  of  the  marines  wlio  had  been  told  off  to  guard  it  were  killed  in  an  affray 
on  the  2Gth  of  June,  1862 ;  and  on  the  14th  of  September,  1862,  a  number  of 
English  were  attacked  on  the  Tokaido  by  the  members  of  the  following  of  Shimazu 
Saburo,  the  father  of  the  prince  of  Satsuma.  Some  were  woundetl  and  one  (Mr. 
Kichardson)  was  killed. 

\VTiile  these  events  were  taking  place  iu  and  around  Yedo,  the  enemies  of  the 
shogun  in  Kioto  had  not  remained  idle ;  large  bands  of  wandering  Samurai  had 
collected,  apparently  with  the  object  of  protecting  the  mikado  and  making  a  move- 
ment against  the  foreigners.  The  landed  nobility  of  Satsuma,  Choshu  (Nagato,  the 
family  of  Mori)  and  Tosa,  who  had  theie  united,  were  entrusted  by  the  mikado 
with  the  conduct  of  the  movement  against  his  enemies.  Tlie  coalition  of  these 
three  princes,  which  was  to  become  of  liigii  importance  during  the  following  years, 
was  named  "  Sat-cho-to  "  by  the  Japanese,  from  the  initial  syllables  of  the  tliree 
names.  The  old  Xariakira  had  died  in  September,  1861;  however,  the  mikado 
was  zealously  supported  in  all  his  plans  by  the  above-named  i)rinces  togetlier  with 
the  i)rince  of  Echizeu.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1863,  the  newly  erected  eml>as.sy 
on  the  ( Jotenyama  in  Y'edo  was  burned  to  the  ground  by  Ronins,  an  outbreak  caused 
by  the  fact  that  the  mikado  had  forbidden  the  transference  of  the  jilace  to  the  Eng- 
lish, while  tile  latter  refused  to  surrender  their  rights.     Meanwhile,  negotiations 


f.SlCa'^]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  47 

were  proceeding  for  the  iudeninities  demanded  by  England  for  the  murder  of 
Richardson  and  the  second  attack  upon  the  embassy.  By  arranging  or  permitting 
an  emigratiou  of  the  whole  Japanese  population  fiom  Yokohama  in  the  month  of 
May,  the  Japanese  authorities  had  attempted  to  put  pressure  upon  the  English 
charg^  d'affaires,  Colonel  Xeale,  and  upon  the  other  foreigners.  It  was  not  until 
this  attempt  together  with  others  had  failed  that  they  resolved  ou  the  24lh  of 
June  to  pay  the  indemnities  demauded.  On  the  following  day,  however,  at  the 
mikado's  orders  they  demanded  the  closing  of  Yokohama,  a  demand  which  was 
renewed  upon  the  25th  of  October  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  foreign  represent- 
atives. The  Japauese  government  was  not  without  excuse  for  this  extraordinary 
step  in  so  far  as  in  the  letter  of  the  President,  Alillard  Fillmore  (1850-1853),  which 
Commodore  Perrj'  had  delivered,  the  opening  of  Japan  was  expressly  described 
as  au  experiment,  an  explanation  repeated  by  the  parties  to  the  wording  of  the 
contract  of  1858. 

On  the  30th  of  September,  1863,  the  Choshu  men  in  Kioto  made  an  attempt, 
which  was  defeated  without  bloodshed  by  the  troops  of  the  shogun,  to  seize  the 
person  of  the  mikado.  They  then  evacuated  the  town  and  retired  into  the  district 
of  their  master  with  the  seven  Kug^s  who  had  been  implicated  in  the  movement. 
Two  of  these  Kug^s,  Iwakura  and  Sawa,  became  important  after  the  restoration  of 
the  mikado's  position,  as  prime  minister  and  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  A  few 
days  before  this  event  the  batteries  of  the  prince  of  Choshu  opened  lire  in  the 
Straits  of  Shimonoseki  upon  an  American  trading  steamer  which  was  there  lying 
at  anchor,  and  a  fortnight  later  upon  a  French  gunboat,  the  "  Aviso  Kienchang," 
and  the  Dutch  corvette  "  Medusa,"  as  they  were  passing  through.  This  was 
an  attempt  of  the  prince  to  carry  out  the  mikado's  order  for  the  expulsion  of  the 
foreigners.  Some  of  the  prince's  ships  and  batteries  were  destroyed  by  the  action 
of  the  French  and  the  American  fleets,  but  these  powers  were  not  able  to  reopen  the 
straits  to  communication.  The  representatives  of  England,  France,  the  United 
States,  and  the  Netherlands  met  in  Yokohama  to  discuss  the  situation  on  the  25th 
of  July,  1863.  Colonel  Xeale  then  led  the  English  squadron  to  Kagoshima  to 
demand  satisfaction  from  tlie  local  territorial  lord  for  the  murder  of  Eichardsou  at 
the  hands  of  his  people.  The  refusal  of  this  dignitary  was  followed  by  the  bom- 
bardment of  Kagoshima  ou  the  15th  of  August.  Though  this  cannot  be  described 
as  a  militaiy  success,  yet  it  served  to  convince  the  leading  powers  in  Satsuma  of 
the  necessity  of  coming  to  an  understanding  willi  England.  On  the  11th  of 
December,  1863,  tlie  ambassadors  of  the  prince  in  Yokohama  paid  down  the  indem- 
nity demanded.  Attempts  made  by  the  French  government  to  conclude  a  conven- 
tion for  the  reopening  of  the  Straits  of  Shimonoseki  with  a  Japanese  embassy  which 
had  come  to  them  upon  other  business  proved  a  failure,  as  also  did  the  per- 
sonal efforts  of  two  young  men  of  Choshu,  Ito  and  Inouye,  who  were  afterward 
destined  to  play  a  gi-eater  part  in  Japan  (cf.  the  summary  of  the  last  ministry  suj)- 
plemental  to  p.  52).  In  the  ilrst  days  of  September,  1864,  a  united  squadron  of 
the  four  powers  ultimately  destroyed  the  fortresses  in  the  straits  and  forced  the 
prince  to  submit  to  the  foreign  demands.  The  episode  ended  with  the  payment  of 
an  indemnity  (£750,000)  by  the  Japauese  government  to  the  four  powers. 

(c)  The  Fall  of  the  Shogunate.  —  Xotwithstandiug  the  European  intervention, 
these  events  had  oiUy  been  so  many  links  in  the  war  carried  on  by  the  western  and 


48  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [n.apteri 

soulluMU  princes  against  the  shogun.aiKl  in  the  meantime  events  in  Kioto  had  devel- 
oiied  fiiitlier.  On  tlie  I'Oth  of  August  the  men  of  Choshu  ailvanced  again  toward  the 
town  and  made  a  second  attempt  to  seize  the  person  of  tlie  mikado.  In  tlie  street 
fighting  which  foUowed  the  town  was  set  on  fire  and  largely  destroyed.  But  the 
ti\.ops  nf  the  shogun  were  joined  by  the  men  of  Satsuma,  whom  the  higli-handed 
proceedings  of  Clioshu  had  oflendeii,  and  succeeded  in  driving  o(T  their  oj.poneuts. 
Those  of  the  assailants  who  had  not  been  killed  conunitted  hara-kiri.  The  prime  of 
Choshu  was  banished  as  a  rebel,  and  tlie  imperial  prmces  were  called  out  against 
him.  Events  had  thus  changed  in  favour  of  the  sliogun ;  however,  he  wanted  money, 
men,  and  resolution;  above  all  there  was  disunion  and  disloyalty  in  liis  party,  and 
even  in  liis  own  family.  Mito,  Kii,  (.)wari,  and  Echizen  were  inclined  to  treachery, 
and  it  was  only  from  "the  northern  princes  that  the  sliogun  could  hope  for  ener- 
getic support.  Tims  the  struggle  tended  to  develop  into  a  conflict  of  south  and 
west  against  east  and  north.  It  was  a  re])etition  (cf.  p.  33)  of  that  eailier  struggle 
for  existence  between  the  two  parts  of  the  kingdom  in  which  the  northern  had 
hitherto  been  the  conqueror. 

The  objection  of  tlie  mikado  to  the  presence  of  foreigners  in  the  country,  and 
to  the  concessions  made  to  foreigners  in  the  conventions,  had  hitherto  been  the 
chief  obstacle  with  which  the  Europeans  had  to  deal  in  their  relations  with  Jai^an, 
hence  the  recognition  of  the  conventions  by  the  mikado  appeared  to  he  a  political 
necessity.  This  success  was  attained  by  the  common  action  of  the  representatives 
during  November,  1866,  though  the  general  feeling  of  the  couutr)'  toward  tlie 
foreigners  remained  without  improvement.  In  September,  1866,  sliortly  after  the 
infliction  of  a  decisive  defeat  upon  the  troops  of  tiie  sliogun  by  those  of  Choshu, 
the  shogun  lyemochi  died,  and  the  death  of  the  mikado  Komei  followed  iu 
January  of  the  next  year.  Tyemochi  was  succeeded  by  Hitotsubashi,  and  Komei 
by  the  present  mikado,  Mutsuhito.  these  changes  in  the  leading  personalities  did 
not,  however,  cause  any  alteration  in  the  political  situation;  on  the  contrary,  the 
feeling  between  the  two  parties  was  the  more  intensitied.  An  agreement  was 
brought  about  between  Satsuma  and  Choshu,  cliiefly  by  the  intervention  of  the 
elder  Saigo,  who  was  revered  as  a  national  hero.  This  step  increased  the  pres- 
sure put  upon  the  weak  and  vacillating  Hitotsubashi.  He  declared  liimself  in 
favour  of  the  view,  which  had  been  for  a  time  gaining  groimd  among  the  more 
enlightened  of  Japanese  politicians,  that  the  government  should  be  in  future  con- 
trolled by  one  head,  and  that  head  the  mikado.  Ultimately,  on  November  16, 
1867,  lie  resigned  his  ottice  of  shogun,  at  any  rate  with  reference  to  the  conduct  of 
domestic  policy,  while  retaining  the  administration  of  foreign  affairs,  and  demanded 
that  the  whole  question  of  the  constitution  should  be  laid  before  a  general  assembly 
of  the  territorial  lord.s.  His  opponents  declined  to  consider  the  ]iro])osal,  and  on 
January  3,  1808,  they  seized  the  person  of  the  mikado.  Tlie  sliogun,  wlio  had 
hitherto  been  resident  in  Kioto,  abandoned  the  capital,  retired  to  Osaka,  and  at 
the  end  of  January,  1869,  made  an  advance  upon  Kioto.  On  the  30tli  of  tlie 
month  he  was  defeated  at  Fushinii,  partly  by  treacliery,  and  fled  to  an  American 
warship  lying  in  the  roadstead  of  Osaka,  and  from  thence  to  a  Japanese  vessel 
bound  for  Vedo.  Proscribed  as  a  rebel,  he  submitted  witliout  a  blow  to  the  troops 
of  the  mikado,  which  were  advancing  on  Yedo.  His  life  was  spared,  but  the  clan 
of  the  Tokngawa  was  deprived  of  almost  all  its  revenue,  and  its  territory  was 
limited  to  tlic  district  about  Sumpu. 


^^™l'»""]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  49 

Such  of  the  Tokugawa  and  of  the  northern  Daimyos  as  remained  in  Yedo 
were  defeated  on  July  4  at  the  storming  of  I'yeno.  The  imperial  prince  there 
resident  was,  however,  carried  off  to  the  nortli,  and  set  up  by  the  local  princes  as 
a  kind  of  opposition  mikado.  (3n  November  6  the  resistance  in  this  district  was 
broken  down  by  the  capture  of  the  castle  of  Wakaniatsu,  the  residence  of  the 
prince  of  Aizu.  The  Heet  of  the  sliogun  had  shown  great  vacillation,  and  had 
neither  taken  part  in  the  war  nor  made  submission  to  the  mikado.  On  October  4, 
after  taking  on  board  some  of  the  land  forces,  it  left  the  Bay  of  Yedo  for  Yezo, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  admiral  Euomoto.  The  most  important  places  in  the 
south  of  the  island  were  rapidly  conquered  and  a  republic  proclaimed.  A  con- 
siderable interval  elapsed  before  the  mikado's  forces  advanced  upon  Yezo.  How- 
ever, after  a  series  of  battles  Enomoto  surrendered  the  fort  of  Kamida  at  Hakodate, 
the  last  stronghold  of  the  defence,  to  the  mikado's  troops,  on  June  26, 1869.  His 
life  and  those  of  his  followers  were  spared. 

Thus  dishonourably,  almost  without  resistance,  fell  the  dynasty  of  the  Toku- 
gawa shoguns,  which  for  nearly  four  hundred  years  liad  given  peace  and  prosperity 
to  the  country.  Its  fall  was  due  to  its  own  weak  and  miserable  condition,  and 
also  to  the  fact  that  it  was  deserted  by  those  who  should,  for  their  own  interest, 
have  lent  it  their  support.  The  dynasty  and  its  adherents  were  lacking  in  the 
determination  which  distinguished  their  opponents,  the  princes  of  the  south  and 
west.  As  in  all  former  struggles  in  Japan,  victory  ultimately  remained  with  that 
party  which  had  succeeded  in  securing  the  person  of  the  mikado.  None  the  less, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  in  history  that  the  moral  influence  of  a 
ruling  dynasty  which  had  been  powerless  for  seven  hundred  years,  and  the  heads 
of  which  had  been  excluded  from  any  practical  intercourse  with  the  outer  world 
for  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  should  yet  have  counted  for  so  much  in  the  con- 
flict. As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  rather  the  southwest  that  had  conquered  the 
north,  than  the  mikado  who  had  defeated  the  shogun. 

31.  The  Moderx  Period 

(a)  The  Restoration  of  the  Mikado  Rule.  —  The  movement  against  the  sho- 
gunate  had  begun  with  the  en', "  Down  with  the  foreigner ! "  This  cry  undoubtedly 
expressed  the  desires  of  the  majority  wh(j  took  part  in  the  movement.  As  fate  woidd 
have  it,  the  attacks  upon  the  foreigners  united  them  by  the  tie  of  mutual  s}-mpathy 
at  the  veiy  outset  of  the  movement.  On  February  4,  a  number  of  people  from 
Bizen,  marching  through  Kobe,  opened  fire  upon  the  foreigners  who  were  watching 
a  ]ilay  ;  on  March  8,  eleven  sailors  of  a  French  waiship  were  treacherously  nnir- 
dered  in  8akai  by  men  of  Tosa;  and  on  JIarch  22,  two  of  the  soldiers  belonging  to 
the  mikado's  body-guard  attacked  an  English  minLster  as  he  was  on  his  way  to  an 
audience  with  his  retiiuie.  These  outbreaks  led  to  two  consequences :  they  forced 
the  foreign  representatives,  whose  views  cannot  liave  invariably  coincided,  to  unite 
for  purposes  of  common  defence,  and  they  obliged  the  counsellors  of  the  mikado, 
whetlier  before  or  behind  the  scenes,  definitely  to  state  their  intentions.  To  the 
honour  of  the  advisers  it  must  be  said  that  many  of  them  did  not  hesitate  to  declare 
their  anxiety  for  the  maintenance  of  good  relations  with  the  foreigners  and  for  the 
introduction  of  Western  ci\-ilization,  and  that  they  were  also  ready  to  support  their 
views  at  the  expense  of  their  pei-soual  safety.  As  in  previous  years  the  foreigners 
VOL.  n  —  4 


50  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chaj.ur i 

liuil  been  exposed  to  tlu'  attacks  of  the  discontented  party,  so  the  couusellore  of  the 
mikailo  now  fo\ind  themselves  in  a  similar  position  ;  more  than  one  sufi'ered  death 
or  severe  wounds  for  wiiat  the  adherents  of  the  Jo-i  party  considered  as  a  siu 
a<miust  patriotism.  The  mikado's  cauusellers  had  indeed  a  heavy  task  before 
them.  Their  first  step  had  been  to  revive  the  Taikwa  constitution  of  the  year 
64.1  A.  a  (cf.  p.  16).  Shortly  afterward,  at  the  bejjinuing  of  Ai)ril,  1S68,  the 
mikadii  took  a  solemn  oath  befoi-e  his  whole  court  that  a  deliberative  assembly 
should  be  summoned ;  a  few  days  afterward  he  reviewed  the  troops  and  the  fleet- 
in  Dsaka,  and  on  January  o,  1S69,  he  received  the  foreign  representatives  at  Vedo. 

That  the  barriers  which  had  previously  secluded  the  mikado  had  now  been 
broken  down  was  a  great  step  in  advance,  but  the  situation  both  at  home  and 
abroad  was  strained  and  fuU  of  danger.  In  1867,  by  orders  of  the  shogun  govern- 
ment of  Kioto,  a  jHjrsecution  of  the  native  Christians  was  begun  in  the  district  of 
Nagasaki,  where  remnants  of  the  old  Christian  community  had  remained  un- 
noticed. The  persecution  was  resumed  with  increased  severity  when  the  mikado 
returned  to  the  head  of  affairs,  and  long  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  foreign  represent- 
atives were  necessar\-  before  the  old  prohibitions  against  Christianity  were  reme)ved 
in  1878.  A  yet  moreditficult  ]in)bk':n  was  the  relation  of  the  government  to  the 
reactionary  parly  in  the  country.  On  the  removal  of  Mutsuhito  from  Kioto  to 
Yedo  (which  had  now  received  the  name  of  Tokio,  the  eastern  capital),  the  imperial 
IxKly-gnard  (Shimpei)  declined  to  remain  behind  in  the  old  ca])ilal.  They  accom- 
panied the  mikado  to  Tokio,  where  their  presence  soon  gave  rise  to  a  movement 
hostile  to  foreign  influence  and  progress.  The  government  had  the  greatest 
trouble  ui  removing  them  from  Tokio,  and  the  war  minister  who  conducted 
their  return  was  murdered  by  his  own  followers  u{*n  the  road,  under  suspicion 
of  being  friendly  to  the  foreigners.  However,  the  government  found  that  no 
support  was  to  be  obtained  from  the  assembly  of  the  deputies  of  the  Samm-ai 
class,  the  first  of  which  met  in  April,  1860,  and  the  second  in  June,  1870.  This 
assembly  displayed  great  inexperience  and  imwavering  opposition  to  any  progres- 
sive movement. 

None  the  less,  the  work  of  reform  continued,  and  in  a  manner  that  must  have 
been  totally  unexpected  by  the  instigator  and  promoters  of  the  movement  against 
the  shoguns.  In  JIarch,  1869,  the  princes  of  Satsuma,  Choshu,  Tosa,  and  Hizen, 
the  chiefs  of  the  southwestern  confederation,  despatched  a  communication  to  the 
mikado,  placing  their  districts  and  their  subjects  at  his  dis])osal.  The  offer  was 
accepted,  after  the  majority  of  the  other  Daimyos  had  joined  the  movement  with 
some  hesitation.  The  Daimyos  were  at  first  appointed  imperial  governors  over 
their  districts  (Han),  but  in  August,  1871,  they  were  removed  from  office  and 
recalled  with  their  families  to  Yedo.  The  country  was  then  divided  into  provinces 
(Kin),  under  tlie  government  of  imperial  prefects.  I'pon  their  appointment  as 
governors,  the  territorial  nobles  had  lost  the  larger  part  of  their  income,  which  had 
been  appropriated  for  purjioses  of  government;  a  definite  commutation  for  their 
former  incomes  and  those  of  the  Samurai  was  now  arranged.  In  tlie  case  of 
the.se  latter  (according  to  the  census  of  1872,  they  numbered  634,761  men,  and  a 
slightly  larger  numiter  of  women,  out  of  a  total  population  of  rather  more  than 
3.3,000,000),  their  pensions  were  capitalised  at  the  rate  of  seven  years'  purchase 
if  lieredilary,  ami  five  yeii-s'  i)urchase  if  for  life.  To  some  the  capital  amount  was 
jiaid  at  once ;  others  received  bonds  for  the  amount  bearing  interest  at  eight  per 


i-S^o^et'""']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  51 

cent.  Notwitlistanding  the  fact  that  somewhat  more  advantageous  conditions 
were  secured  by  hxter  necessities,  most  of  the  Samurai  were  tiuaucially  ruined  by 
this  measure.  With  the  abolition  of  the  supremacy  of  the  Daimyos  over  their 
districts,  disappeai-ed  also  the  personal  connection  which  lijul  subsisted  between 
themselves  and  their  adherents  ;  the  Samurai  were  allowed  to  lay  down  their 
swords,  and  to  enter  any  profession  that  they  preferred.  At  the  same  time,  those 
differences  were  abolished  wliicli  had  hitherto  existed  between  different  classes  of 
the  population  (the  dishonourable  and  the  unclean  castes  included),  and  a  new 
order  of  nobility  was  created,  whicli  was,  however,  purely  honorary.  The  peas- 
ants' holdings  became  their  personal  property,  and  the  old  laws  ordaining  a  certain 
rotation  of  crops  were  abolished  in  1871.  In  1872  the  sale  of  lauded  property,  and 
in  1875  the  division  of  it,  was  permitted.  Nominally,  at  any  rate,  the  obligation 
to  belong  to  a  guild  was  removed  in  the  case  of  the  merciiaut  and  the  craftsman. 
Trade  and  manufacture  were  thrown  open  to  all.  The  responsibility  of  the  head 
of  the  family  for  its  behaviour  and  the  mutual  responsibility  of  its  members  were 
also  aliolished.  Together  with  relief  from  these  duties,  the  head  of  the  family 
naturally  lost  many  of  his  rights. 

Sucli  comprehensive  alterations  naturally  could  not  be  carried  out  without 
much  friction  and  continual  misunderstandings.  The  government  of  the  shogun 
was  not  really  replaced  by  the  mikado,  who  continued  to  be  a  gp:!cr:illy  revered 
symbol  of  supremacy,  but  by  the  government  of  the  southwest  pri.-.ces,  or  rather 
of  their  advisers.  The  new  government  soon  became  a  government  of  clans ;  at  its 
head  stood  individuals  who  used  the  means  and  the  power  of  their  clan  to  carry 
our  their  plans.  In  addition  to  this,  the  government  was  shared  by  a  number  of 
Kuges,  who,  like  the  members  of  the  warrior  nobility,  had  been  equalized  with 
other  classes.  The  two  most  powerful  clans,  Satsuma  and  Choshu,  quarrelled,  in 
1871,  over  the  distribution  of  posts  under  the  new  administration,  the  Satsuma 
considering  that  it  had  been  unfairly  treated  in  the  division.  The  settlement  of 
this  quarrel  led  to  the  creation  of  an  imperial  army.  Peasant  revolts  broke  out  in 
Bungo,  Shinano,  Echigo,  and  other  places.  In  1871  a  conspiracy  was  discovered 
in  Tokio,  headed  by  certain  Kuges ;  in  1SS4  a  revolt  of  the  Samurai  broke  out  in 
Hizen,  under  the  leadership  of  the  former  minister  of  justice,  Etc  Shimpei ;  and 
the  year  1877  was  occupied  by  the  revolt  in  Satsuma,  whicli  was  with  difficulty 
suppressed.  Tiie  leader  of  this  latter  movement  was  the  former  general  and  state 
counsellor,  Saigo,  the  ideal  of  all  the  Samurai  (p.  48). 

(6)  Japan'st  Forcif/n  Polu'i/  from  187 Jf.  to  1893.  — Questions  of  foreign  jiolicy 
also  jjroved  highly  embarrassing  to  the  government.  The  undertaking  against 
Formosa,  which  was  brought  to  an  end  in  1874  by  an  agreement  with  China, 
prodviced  ill-feeling  between  the  two  States,  which  was  increased  in  1880,  when 
Ja])rtn  incorporated  the  Liukiu  Islands,  whicli  had  paid  tribute  to  China  from  1372, 
and  also  to  Satsuma  from  1609. 

It  was,  however,  the  question  of  Korea  wliich  led  to  war  between  China  and 
Japan.  Shortly  after  the  restoration  of  the  mikado  government  the  Japanese  gov- 
ernment demanded  from  the  Korean  the  resumption  of  their  payments  of  tribute,  a 
demand  which  was  rejected  with  scorn.  Feeling  in  Japan  ran  high,  and  the  expe- 
dition against  Formosa  was  partly  undertaken  to  distract  the  popular  excitement. 
In  September,  1875,  when  the  sailors  of  a  Japanese  warship,  which  was  occupied 


52  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_chnpter  i 

in  surveyin-;  llio  coast,  were  captured,  the  national  pride  again  flared  up,  although 
the  fort  to  wliich  the  assaUauts  belonged  was  stormed  on  the  following  day,  and 
almost  the  whole  garrison  slaughtered.  A  Japanese  ambassador  was  sent  to 
Peking  to  request  definite  information  upon  the  position  of  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment Willi  reference  to  Korea,  and  when  the  Chinese  declined  all  responsibility  for 
the  affairs  of  that  d.strict  a  Japanese  expedition  was  sent  to  Korea.  Negotiations, 
however,  preceded  any  outbreak  of  hostilities.  On  February  21,  1876,  a  conven- 
tion was  signed,  in  which  Japan  pmctically  recognised  the  independence  of  Korea, 
and  that  country  threw  open  three  harbours  to  Japanese  trade.  The  peaceful 
nature  of  these  ojierations  was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  revolt  of  the  Satsuma 
(p.  51).  The  peace  lasted  until  the  year  18S2,  when  the  United  States,  and  shortly 
afterward  England  and  Germany,  followed  the  example  of  Japan,  and  concluded 
conventit)ns  with  Korea.  In  July,  1882,  a  revolt  broke  out  in  Seoul,  instigated 
by  the  father  of  the  king,  Tai  wen  kun,  and  directed  against  the  king  and  the 
Japanese ;  the  Japanese  embassy  was  obliged  to  flee,  but  returned  a  few  weeks 
afterward,  and  in  the  convention  of  Chemulpho  Japan  obtained  the  right  to  keep 
troops  in  Seoul  for  the  protection  of  her  ambassadors.  Chinese  troops  set  the 
king  free  and  captured  Tai  wen  kun  after  a  short  time ;  he  was  transported  to 
China,  but  allowed  to  return  to  Korea  a  few  years  later.  In  1884  fresh  dis- 
turbances broke  out  in  Seoul.  Ou  this  occasion  the  mo\-ing  influence  was  the 
radical  party  in  connection  with  the  Japanese,  the  object  being  to  get  posses- 
sion of  the  person  of  the  king,  and  to  depose  the  queen,  who  was  virtually  head 
of  the  government.  These  events  gave  the  Japanese  government  the  opportu- 
nity of  sending  Ito  to  China  as  their  ambassador.  On  April  18,  1885,  Ito  and 
Li  Hung  Chang  concluded  the  convention  of  Tientsin,  both  sides  pledging  tliem- 
selves  to  withdraw  their  troops  from  Korea,  and  in  the  event  of  either  being 
obliged  by  circumstances  to  despatch  troops  to  that  country,  undertaking  to  give 
the  other  party  due  notice.  The  peace  continued  for  some  years,  although  the 
commercial  rivahy  of  the  two  powers  maintained  a  state  of  tension  in  Korea. 
The  persistence  of  the  opposition  in  Japan,  where  a  constitution  and  parlia- 
mentary representation  had  been  introduced  since  1890,  in  demanding  a  more 
determined  foreign  policy,  placed  the  government  more  than  once  in  an  embar- 
rassing situation.  The  tactless  procedure  of  the  radical  deputy,  Oishi,  wlio  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  Seoul  in  1893,  would  even  then  have  brought  about  a 
lireach  but  for  the  diplomacy  of  Li  Hung  Cliang. 

(r)  The  War  against  Cliiua,  189^  to  ISOo.  —  In  the  year  189-4  a  revolt  of  the 
Tonghaks,  a  fanatical  religious  sect,  ])roke  out  in  Korea.  The  government,  being 
unable  to  deal  with  the  movement,  applied  to  the  Chinese,  who  sent  a  small  divi- 
sion of  troops  to  their  aid,  and  duly  informed  the  Japanese  government  of  their 
action.  Jajian  immediately  replied  that  she  could  not  recognise  the  Chinese  de- 
scription of  Korea  as  a  tributary  State,  and  would  herself  also  send  troops  to  Korea. 
The  first  Chinese  troops  landed  at  Assan,  ou  the  east  coast  of  Korea,  on  June  8, 
and  the  first  Japanese  in  Chemulpho  on  June  12, 1894.  The  revolt  of  the  Tonghaks 
was  quickly  suppressed ;  but  when  the  Chinese  sent  information  of  the  fact,  as  well 
as  of  their  intention  to  withdraw  their  troops,  Japan  replied  that  she  had  no  inten- 
tion of  evacuating  Korea  until  she  had  come  to  an  understanding  with  China  about 
the  reforms  to  be  introduced  there. 


TiiK  Japankse  Cabinets  from  Pecemrer   1S86  to  the  Beginning  of   1902. 


Duration 

December  1886 

to 

March  1888 

AprU  1888 

to 
October  1889 

October  1889 

to 

December  1889 

December  1889 

to 

AprU  1891 

May  1891 

to 
July  1892 

President 

Hirobumi  Ito 
C. 

K.  Kuroda  t  S. 

S.  Sanjo  +  K. 

A.  Yamagata 
C. 

M.  Matsukata 
S. 

Imperial 
Household 

Hirobumi  Ito 
C. 

U.  Hisikata 
S. 

H.  Hisikata 
S. 

H.  Hisikata 
S. 

H.  Hi-sikata 
S. 

Foreign 
Affairs 

Ka.  Inouye  C. 
S.  Dkuma  H. 

S.  Okuma  H. 

S.  Okuma  H. 

Shuzo  Aoki  C. 

B.  E{Ye)nomoto 
T. 

Home 
Affairs 

A.  Yiiinagata 
C. 

A.  Yaningi\ta 
C. 

A.  Yamagata 
C. 

A.  Yamagata 

C. 
Y.  Saigo  S. 

Y.  Shiiiagawa  + 

C. 
T.  Soyeshinia  H. 
B.  KoDo  t  To. 

Exchequer 

M.  Matsukata 
S. 

M.  Matsukata 

M.  Matsukata 

S. 

M.  Matsukata 
S. 

M.  Mataukata 
S. 

War 

I.  Oyaiiia  S. 

I.  Oyama  S. 

I.  Oyama  S. 

I.  Oyama  S. 

T.  Takashima 
S. 

Navy 

Y.  Saigo  S. 

Y.  Saigo  S. 

Y.  Saigo  S. 

Y.  Saigo  S. 
S.  Kabayama  S. 

S.  Eabayama  S. 

Law 

Akiyoslii  Yamada 
t  C. 

Akiyoshi  Yaniada 

+  c. 

Akiyoshi  Yaiiiada 
+  C. 

Akiyoshi  Yaniada 
t  V. 

F.  Tanaka 

Aichi 

B.  Kono  t  To. 

Education 

Y.  Mori  t  S. 

Y.  Mori  +  S. 

B.  E(Yc)nomoto 

T. 

B.  E(Ye)nomoto 
T. 

A.  Yoshikawa 
Awa. 

K.  Oki+  H. 

Agriculture 

and 

Trade 

K.  Tani  To. 
H.  Hisikata  S. 
K.  KnroJa  +  S. 

Knorii  Inonyc 
C. 

M.  I  warn  lira 
To. 

M.  Mutsu  t 
Kii. 

M.  Mutsu  +  Kii 

B.  Kono  +  To. 

T.  Sano  H. 

Commerce 

B.  E(Y<')nomoto 
T. 

B.  Knomoto  T. 
S.  Goto  +  To. 

S.  Goto  t  To. 

S.  Goto  t  To. 

S.  Goto  t  To. 

Colonies 

riutM  lo  «liirli  miniltcrf  belong  arc  indicated  In  llic  f..llowin|;  .blircn«tion«:  C.  =  Chosliiu,  II.  =:  Ilin-n,  III.  =  lllgo, 


(Partly  from  the  Periodical  "East  Asia"  and  after  Dr.  Takeshi  Kitasato.) 


Anguat  1892 

to 
August  1896 

Sept.  1896 

to 
Dec.  1897 

January  1898 

to 

June  1898 

July  1898 

to 

Ootober  1898 

Nov.  1898 

to 

October  1900 

October  1900 

to 

May  1901 

June  1901 

Hirobnmi 
Ito  C. 

M.  Matsu- 
kata  S. 

Hirobnmi 
Ito  C. 

S.  Okuma  H. 

A   Yamagats 
C. 

Hirobumi 
Ito  C. 

T.  Katsura 
C. 

H.  Hisikata 
S. 

H.  Hisikata 
S. 

II.HisikatrtS 
M.TanakaTo 

M.  Tanaka  To. 

M.  Tanaka 
To. 

M.  Tanaka 
To. 

M.  Tanaka 
To. 

11.  Mutsu  + 
Kii. 

S.  Okuma  H. 
T.  Nishi  S. 

T.  Nishi   S. 

S.  Okuma  H. 

Shiizo  Aoki 
C. 

Komci  Kato 
Aichi. 

A.  Sone  C. 
J.  Komura  S. 

Ka.  Inouye  C. 
Y.  Nomura  C. 
T.ItagakiTo. 

S.  Kabayama 
S. 

A.  Yoshikawa 
Awa. 

T.  Itagaki 
To. 

Y.  Saigo  S. 

Kencho 

Suyematsu 

Buzen. 

Tadakatsu 
Utsumi  K. 

Kunitake 

Watanabo 
Sh. 

M.  Matsu- 
kata  S. 

Kaoru 
Inouye  C. 

Masahisa 
llatsuda  H. 

M.  Matsukatn 
S. 

Kunitake 

Watanabo 
Sh. 

Kunitake 
Watanabe  Sh. 

I.  Oyania 
S. 

T.  Takashima 
S. 

T.  Katsura 
C. 

T.  Katsura 
C. 

T.  Katsura 
C. 

T.  Katsura   C. 

Gentaro 

Kodama  C. 

Gentaro 
Kodama  C. 

K.  Nire  S. 
Y.  Saigo  S. 

Y.  Saigo  S. 

Y.  Saigo  S. 

Y.  Saigo  S. 

G.  Yamanoto 

S. 

G.  Yamanoto 

S. 

G.  Yamanoto 

S. 

A.  Yamagata 

S. 

A.  Yoahikawa 

Awa. 

K.  Kiyoura 
Hi. 

A.  Sone  C. 

G.  Ohigashi 
Omi. 

K.  Kiyoura 
Hi. 

Kentaro 

Kaneko 
Fukuoka 

Keigo  Kiyoura 
Hi. 

Ki  Inouye  + 

Hi. 
K.  Saionji  K. 

S.Hachi.suka 

Awa. 
A.  Hamao  Ta. 

K.  Saionji  K. 

M.  Toyama 

t  T. 

Yukio  O.saki 

Lse 

K.  Inukai  Ok. 

S.  Kabayama 
S. 

Masahisa 
llatsuda  H. 

Dairoku 

Kikuchi 

Mimasaka. 

B.  E(Yc)no- 
moto  T. 

B.  E(Ye)no- 
nioto  T. 

S.  Ukuma  H. 
Shindo  Ya- 
mada  t  Hi. 

Miyoji  Ito 
H. 

Ma.sami  Oishi 

To. 

K.  Kaneko 

Fukuoka 

Arasuke  Sone 
C. 

Yiizo  Hayashi 
To. 

Tosuke  Hirata 
Akita. 

K.Kurodat  S. 
S.Shiranet  C. 

Y.  Noniura 
C. 

Kencho 

Suyematsu 

Buzen. 

Yuzo  Hayashi 
To. 

A.  Yoshikawa 
Awa. 

Toru  Hoshi  T. 

Kei  Hara 

^Vakamatsu. 

A.  Yoshikawa 
Awa. 

T.  Takashima 
S. 

T.  Takashima 
S. 

K.  =  Kioto  (Kui:eJ,  Ok.  —  Okayama,  S.  —  Satauma,  Sh.  =  Shinano,  T.  =  Tokio  (Tokugawa),  Ta.  —  Tajima,  To.  —  Tosa. 


! 


a„ii Korea  ']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  53 


Japttiit  China^~\ 


Ou  the  refusal  of  China  to  discuss  the  question,  the  English  steamship  "  Kow- 
shing  "  was  sunk  on  July  25  by  a  Japanese  war  ship,  though  no  ])revious  declara- 
tion of  war  had  taken  place,  as  the  Chinese  troops  wliich  she  had  on  board  for 
Assau  declined  to  sui-render ;  and  on  July  28  the  Chinese  troops  were  attacked  by 
the  .Ta])auese  at  Assan  and  defeated.  The  Japanese  followed  up  llieir  first  advan- 
tage with  great  determination ;  a  ministry  was  formed  of  their  adherents  in  Seoul, 
which  concluded  an  alliance  with  Japan,  and  invited  the  Japanese  to  expel  the 
Chinese  from  the  country.  On  December  15  the  Japanese  captured  Phyeng  yang, 
ou  the  17th  the  Chinese  fleet  was  defeated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu,  and  on  Oc- 
tober 25  the  Japanese  crossed  this  river  and  defeated  the  Chinese  for  the  second 
time.  A\Tiile  the  army  which  had  accomplished  this  success  advanced  into  Man- 
churia, where  the  campaign  was  soon  brought  to  a  standstill  hj  the  approach  of 
winter,  a  second  Japanese  army  landed  on  the  east  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Liau- 
tung  at  the  end  of  October,  captured  Talieuwan  ou  November  2,  and  stormed  Port 
Arthur  on  the  21st.  This  succession  of  defeats  obliged  the  Chinese  government 
to  open  negotiations  for  peace ;  however,  the  two  Japanese  emliassies  sent  out  in 
November,  1894,  and  February,  1895,  were  recalled  apparently  f(jr  lack  of  fidl 
powers  to  treat.  At  the  end  of  January,  1895,  a  Japanese  division  crossed  into 
Weihaiwei  in  Pechili  On  the  .30th  the  land  forts  of  this  military  harbour  were 
captured,  and  on  February  14  the  harbour  and  the  Chinese  fleet  withm  it  were 
attacked  by  land  and  sea,  and  surrendered  to  the  Japanese. 

The  Chinese  government  now  determined  to  send  Li  Hung  Chang  to  Japan  to 
conduct  the  negotiations.  After  long  hesitation  the  Japanese  declared  themselves 
ready  to  receive  him.  On  March  18,  1895,  Li  lauded  in  Shimoneseki,  and  was  re- 
ceived by  the  prime  muiister,  Ito,  and  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Munemitsu 
JIutsu  (cf.  the  plate,  "  Japanese  Cabinet  from  1886  to  1902  "),  the  real  pro- 
moter of  the  war.  The  first  demands  of  the  Japanese,  who  demanded  the  sur- 
render of  the  forts  of  Taku,  Tientsin,  and  the  railway  from  Shanhaikwan  to 
Tientsin,  before  they  would  grant  an  armistice,  seemed  an  insurmountable  ob- 
stacle to  any  negotiations.  However,  when  Li,  on  March  24,  was  wounded  by 
a  Japanese  assassin,  the  mikado  proposed  an  armistice  upon  the  basis  of  the 
status  quo.  On  April  17  peace  was  signed  at  Shimoneseki,  China  recognizing 
the  independence  of  Korea,  ceding  Formosa,  the  Pescadores,  and  Liautuug  to 
Japan,  and  promising  payment  of  an  indemnity  of  200,000,000  taels  (more  than 
£50,000,000).  Meanwhile,  the  success  and  the  demands  of  the  Japanese  had 
given  rise  to  serious  anxiety  in  Europe.  The  possession  of  Liautuug  made  Japan 
jinictieally  mistress  of  China,  and  consequently  destroyed  the  balance  of  power  in 
East  iVsia.  Russia,  Germany,  and  France  united  in  representations  to  Tokio  (Eng- 
land having  declined  to  join  their  action).  Japan  then  agreed  to  give  back  Liau- 
tuug on  May  5,  in  return  for  an  additional  30,000,000  taels  by  way  of  indemnity. 
The  treaty  of  Shimoneseki  was  formally  completed  by  both  parties,  and  Formosa, 
the  governor  of  which  declared  himself  independent  at  the  head  of  the  Formosan 
republic,  was  occupied  without  difliculty  by  the  Japanese. 

In  Korea  events  had  developed  moie  unfa\-ourably  for  the  conquerors.  Even 
during  the  war  revolts  had  broken  out  against  the  Japanese  in  different  places, 
and  with  the  conclusion  of  peace  the  feeling  against  the  interference  of  the 
Ja]ianese  in  the  government  became  strongly  marked  in  court  circles  and  among 
the  higher  government  otlicials.     An  attempt  which  was  made,  on  October  8,  1895, 


54  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chaj^ter i 

by  certain  Japanese  in  concert  with  the  radical  Koreans,  and  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Jai-iiuese  embassy,  U)  prwluce  an  alteration  in  the  feeling  of  the  countiy  by  the 
uuinler  of  the  ijueen,  proved  a  failure.  On  February  11,  189(5,  the  king  and  the 
crown  vassals  tied  from  the  royal  palace,  took  refuge  in  tlie  Russian  embassy,  and 
remained  there  until  February  20, 1897.  During  this  period  agreements  were  con- 
cluded between  Japan  and  Russia  in  May,  1896,  at  Seoul,  and  in  July  of  the  same 
yeiir  at  St.  Petersburg,  by  which  each  of  the  two  powers  was  permitted  to  maintain 
troops  to  the  strength  of  one  thousand  men  in  Korea  for  the  protection  of  its  in- 
terests, and  each  pledged  itself  in  no  way  to  interfere  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
country.  Tlius,  as  far  as  Korea  was  concerned,  the  war  between  China  and  Japan 
had  enabled  tlie  jwwerful  Russia  to  take  the  place  of  the  helpless  Cliina,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  main  object  of  the  war  in  the  eyes  of  the  Japanese 
military  i)arty  had  been  to  anticipate  Russia  in  East  Asia,  and  to  check  her  ad- 
vance in  that  direction. 

(rf)  Japan  during  Recent  Years.  —  Considerable  alterations  were  made  in  the 
relations  between  Japan  and  foreign  countries.  The  old  conventions,  concluded 
upon  the  principle  that  foreigners  were  extra-territorial,  were  replaced  by  others 
which  brought  the  foreigners  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Japanese  courts.  Efforts 
to  bring  about  an  alteration  of  the  agreement  in  this  direction  began  immediately 
after  the  mikado's  restoration.  An  embassy  was  sent  out  in  1871  for  this  purpose 
to  the  United  States  and  to  Europe,  but  returned  without  success.  One  of  the 
ministere  for  foreign  affairs,  Okuma,  lost  a  leg  owing  to  the  attack  of  an  assassin 
dining  the  progress  of  the  negotiations.  These  led  to  no  definite  result,  while  popu- 
lar feeling  and  attacks  upon  the  government  increased  in  Japan  ;  finally  England 
in  1894  consented  to  conclude  a  convention  in  accordance  with  tlie  wishes  of  the 
Japanese.  The  other  powers  followed  her  example.  Thus  since  1899  a  new 
principle  became  operative  whereby  foreigners  were  brought  under  Japanese 
jurisdiction,  and  Japan  was  allowed  entire  freedom  in  the  imposition  of  cus- 
tom duties,  with  the  exception  of  those  which  had  been  already  aiTanged  by 
convention  upon  certain  articles.  The  fears  aroused  by  the  introduction  of  these 
innovations  have  as  yet  remained  unfulfilled.  At  the  beginnmg  of  1902  Japan 
made  a  further  step  toward  equality  with  the  western  powers  by  concluding  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  England  on  the  30th  of  January,  thus  being 
the  first  of  the  yellow  races  permitted  to  enter  into  a  contract  with  a  white  power. 
Only  the  future  can  show  whether  this  moral  support  is  likely  to  be  followed  by 
the  practical  result  of  checking  the  eager  advance  of  Russia  into  Manchuria  and 
upon  Korea. 

ITpon  the  occasion  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Boxer  revolt  in  China  in  the  year 
1900,  Japan  was  j)revented  by  the  jealousy  of  individual  powers  and  by  financial 
difficulties  at  home  from  ])la)ing  that  part  which  her  geogi-aphical  position  and  her 
Chinese  interests  assigned  to  her  of  right ;  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  on  this 
occasion  the  military  organisation  of  the  comitrj-  proved  to  be  as  sound  as  before, 
and  that  the  energy  of  the  Japanese  leaders  and  their  troops  materially  contributed 
to  tlie  timely  relief  of  the  besieged  embassies  in  Peking.  The  attitude  of  Japan 
upon  the  occasion  of  the  unsuccessful  attempt  at  reform  of  Kang  Yu  Wei  in  the 
autumn  of  ISOS  is  not  so  easy  to  explain;  at  any  rate,  the  presence  of  tlie  prime 
minister,  Maniuis  Ito  (cf.  supplement  to  p.  ,52),  though  not  at  that  moment  in 


tSTo^ea""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  55 

office,  gives  good  ground  for  the  theoiy  that  the  attempt  was  supported  by  Japan- 
ese advice. 

The  historian  who  attempts  to  explain  the  rapid  collapse  of  the  feudal  system 
in  Japan  upon  considerations  drawn  from  the  condition  of  the  country,  must  re- 
member that  if  not  all,  yet  the  majority  of  official  posts  were  hereditary  both  in 
the  district  of  the  shogun  and  in  that  of  the  individual  territorial  lords,  a  fact 
which  largely  contributed  to  lower  the  official  capacity  of  these  potentates.  The 
real  power  had  for  a  long  time  been  in  the  hands  of  the  petty  nobility,  who 
stood  behind  the  scene  and  pulled  the  strings  which  moved  the  official  figures. 
These  were  the  men  who  had  brought  about  the  revolution,  who  have  turned  it 
to  their  owu  advantage,  and  to-day  contluct  the  business  of  the  empire  with  no 
attempt  at  concealment.  Although  the  revolution  was  set  on  foot  by  the  nobility, 
yet  its  character  was  necessarily  democratic,  if  not  demagogic.  After  the  victory 
over  the  shoguns,  the  privileges  of  tlie  territorial  lords,  the  court  nobUity,  and  also 
of  the  Samurai  class  came  to  a  rapid  end,  and  if  the  mikado  was  spared,  such 
clemency  was  actuated  mauily  by  the  fact  that  his  influence  was  indispensable  to 
success.  But  even  at  that  time  loud  cries  were  raised  for  the  proclamation  of  a 
republic.  Generally  speaking  the  position  of  compromise  adopted  by  the  terri- 
torial lords  has  brought  them  rather  gain  than  loss  :  in  place  of  a  pretence  of 
power  which  they  could  only  exercise  within  the  walls  of  their  castle  and  under 
the  restraints  of  the  most  narrowing  ceremonial,  they  have  ac(juired  a  ricli  income, 
the  title  of  nobility,  and  power  to  work  or  not  as  they  please. 

The  great  class  of  the  Samurai  came  worst  out  of  the  revolution,  in  which  they 
lost  their  incomes  and  their  influence,  such  as  it  was,  and  also  their  occupation. 
Hence  it  is  by  no  means  surprising  that  this  class  manifested  the  greatest  dissatis- 
faction with  the  course  of  the  movement  from  which  most  of  them  had  expected 
very  different  results  ;  it  was  therefore  necessary  to  find  them  occupation  as  being 
the  most  capable  element  in  the  population  and  the  most  inclined  to  revolutionary 
courses.  This  fact  has  materially  influenced  the  foreign  policy  of  the  government, 
and  was  a  leading  motive  in  their  decision  upon  the  war  with  China  and  the  expe- 
dition to  Formosa.  Even  at  the  present  day  this  class  remains  the  most  influ- 
ential, and  must  be  considered  as  leading  the  new  social  development  both  on  the 
intellectual  and  on  the  material  side.  Partly  by  reason  of  their  own  energy,  and 
partly  owing  to  the  support  of  the  government,  which  itself  consists  of  former 
membere  of  the  Samurai,  tlie  men  of  this  class  (now  known  as  Shizoku)  appear  at 
the  head  of  most  economic  enterprises  and  edit  most  of  the  leading  journals  in 
the  countrj-.  The  condition  of  the  merchant  handicraftsman  and  peasant  has  in 
general  advanced  very  little,  and  is  to-day  rather  characteristic  of  old  than  of  new 
Japan. 

We  shall  therefore  be  committing  no  injustice  if  we  characterise  this  latest 
phase  of  development  as  one  confined  within  the  limits  of  a  comparativel}'  small 
circle,  which  has,  however,  been  able  to  absorb  many  foreign  elements  and  to 
impose  them  upon  the  country.  Japan  never  had  a  native  civilization  of  any 
importance  whatever.  What  she  borrowed  from  China  brought  upon  the  countiy 
the  Taikwa  reforms,  that  is,  the  government  of  a  strongly  centralised  imperial 
power  which  gradually  degenerated  into  military  feudalism,  remaining  a  monarchy 
only  in  name.  What  she  has  borrowed  from  the  West  brought  about  the  fall  of  the 
feudal  system  and  the  nominal  restoration  of  the  imperial  power,  together  with 


56  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [Chapter i 

goveruraeut  by  clans,  from  whiih  ueiihor  a  free  nor  a  party  government  has  yet 
been  successfully  developed,  while  tlie  liual  consetjuence  was  the  parliamentary 
system  of  1SS9.  The  results  which  will  eventually  follow  all  these  influences  can- 
not as  yet  be  predicted.  In  spite  of  the  obvious  external  changes  iu  the  country, 
many  of  its  essential  features  are  still  those  of  old  Japan.  The  new  constitution 
has  not  succeeded  iu  producing  any  far-reaching  innovations  either  in  family  life 
or  in  commercial  intercourse.  The  family  and  not  the  iudividual  remains  the 
unit,  and  as  Fukuda  truly  observes,  the  individual  even  at  the  present  time  is  only 
conceivable  as  a  member  of  some  family.  The  guilds  and  their  otiicial  monopolies 
have  been  removed;  but  private  companies  for  trade  and  manufacture  exist  to-day 
with  the  sjinie  objects  and  jirobably  with  tlie  same  rights,  though  these  are  not 
expressly  stated.  ¥e\v  changes  have  taken  place  iu  the  country  population ;  as  in 
early  times,  so  now,  it  has  no  independence  of  its  own,  and  though  the  system  of 
units  of  five  families  has  decayed,  yet  it  has  been  replaced  by  other  associations  of 
a  no  less  corporate  nature  and  possessing  an  othcial  status. 

In  one  point  only  is  there  any  material  difference  between  the  present  and  the 
past  In  the  lower  classes,  especially  in  the  country  population,  the  old  beliefs 
and  superstitions  are  maintained  almost  in  their  entirety,  notwithstanding  otticial 
attempts  at  their  destruction ;  whereas  in  the  so-called  upper  classes  a  complete 
indifference  toward  religion  has  taken  the  place  of  the  earlier  ofhcial  worship 
which  was  a  fusion  of  Buddiiism,  Shintoism,  and  Confucianism.  Buddhism  has 
fallen  into  disrepute  partly  owing  to  the  action  of  the  government ;  Shintoism, 
after  fultilling  its  political  task  of  reviving  the  imperial  idea,  has  relapsed  as  a 
religion  into  insiguiticance ;  and  the  indifferentism  of  the  modern  Japanese  cannot 
be  said  accurately  to  represent  the  teaching  of  Confucian  morality.  Ancestor  wor- 
ship alone,  which  is  closely  connected  with  Confucianism,  and,  with  the  Shuito 
belief,  still  possesses  some  vitality ;  this  may  be  said  to  form  the  foundation 
of  Japanese  ethics.  Wiether  Christianity  is  destined  to  take  the  place  of  these 
decaying  religious  is  doubtful ;  in  any  case,  it  will  not  be  European  uor  American 
Christianity,  but  a  faith  founded  upon  a  thoroughly  Japanese  basis  with  a  strong 
leaning  to  rationalism. 

2.   CHINA 

A.  The  Name 

The  earliest  name  by  which  the  Chinese  themselves  have  called  their  country 
is  certainly  "Tien  Hia"  (Under  the  Sky);  "  Sz'  Hai  (Everything  within  the  Four 
Seas)  and  "  Chung  '  Kwoh  "  (the  Kingdom  of  the  Centre)  are  also  early  names. 
Heavenly  kingdom  is  the  translation  of  "  Tien  Chau ; "  that  is,  heavenly  dynasty, 
or  the  country  over  which  the  dynasty  appointed  by  Heaveu  rules.  "  Chung 
Hwa  Kwoh  "  (the  Flowery  Laud  of  the  Centre)  is  usually  a  literary  expression, 
and  is  to  be  referred  to  the  fact  that  the  Chinese  consider  themselves  the  most 
highly  educated  (Hwa)  nation  in  the  world.  "  Nui  ti "  (the  Inner  Land)  is  used 
chiefly  to  distinguish  Chhia  from  foreign  barbarian  countries.  "  Li  Min "  (tlie 
Black-haired  Itace)  is  an  expression  often  used  to  designate  the  people  ;  the  name 

'  I'roiiouDced  Tuliuog.  In  all  Chinese  names  the  initial  sound  represented  bv  Ch  is  to  be  iironounecd 
ns  T.«h. 


fr^v?/""]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  57 

of  "  The  Hundred  Families  "  also  occurs.  The  country  is  also  designated  by  the 
naiue  of  "  Chung  Kwoh  yiu  "  (People  of  the  Central  Kingdom)  and  as  "  Han  yin  " 
or  "  Han  isze  "  (Men  or  Sous  of  Han).  Under  the  ChLn  dynasty,  2:^1  B.  c,  the  cus- 
tom appears  to  have  come  into  force  of  calling  the  countrj*  and  its  inhabitants  by 
the  name  of  the  reigning  dynasty ;  however,  the  duration  of  this  dynasty  was  too 
sliorl  and  the  hatred  of  its  founders  too  great  for  this  title  to  become  permanent. 
On  the  other  hand,  as  we  have  already  observed,  the  names  of  other  dynasties,  such 
as  the  Han,  the  Tang,  and  the  present  Manchurian  Ching  dynasty,  have  become 
common  expressions ;  "  Tang  yiu  "  (Men  of  Tang)  and  "  Ching  yin  "  (Men  of  Ching) 
are  constantly  recurring  exjiressions.  The  present  dynasty  calls  tlie  kingdom  by 
its  own  title,  "  Ta  Ching  Kwoh  "  (the  Great  Pure  Kingdom) ;  a  common  expression 
is  also  "  Ching  Chau  "  (the  Pure  Dynasty).  "  Hwa  Hsia  "  (the  Glorious  Hsia)  is  a 
name  to  be  referred  to  the  ancient  Hsia  dynasty  (2205  to  1769  B.C.),  but  came  into 
use  only  at  a  later  period.  The  "  Kitai "  of  the  liussians  and  the  "  Kaihay  "  of  the 
I'ersians  are  names  derived  from  the  Kitan  Tatars  who  ruled  in  North  China  from 
937  to  1125  mider  the  name  of  the  Liau  (Liao)  dynasty.  The  Indian  Buddhists 
call  Ciiina  "  Chin  tan  "  (the  Morning  Dawn).  Manzi,  or  Manji,  is  the  name  of 
Southern  China,  and  has  also  been  extended  to  include  the  whole  of  China  since 
the  Sung  dynasty  were  driven  out  of  the  north  by  the  Mongols  and  took  up  their 
residence  in  Hang  Chau  in  1227  A.  D.  as  the  southern  Suug  dynasty.  Manzi  was 
the  object  of  the  expedition  of  Columbus  (cf.  Vol.  I,  p.  349).  "  Tung  tu"  (the 
Land  of  the  East)  is  employed  as  a  name  for  China  only  by  Mohammedan  authors. 
The  origin  of  the  name  "  China "  is  still  entirely  doubtful.  That  it  is  to  be 
referred  to  the  Chin  dynasty  is  extremely  unlikely,  in  view  of  the  evidence  quoted 
by  Fertliuaud  Freiherr  von  Richthofen.  The  same  author  denies  the  connection 
of  the  name  with  the  Sinim  of  the  Old  Testament  (Isaiah),  the  old  Persian 
Matshin,  the  Great  Tshin,  which  was  certainly  a  name  for  China  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  with  Tshina,  which  occurs  in  the  legal  code  of  Alauu  and  in  the  Mahab- 
harata.  On  the  other  hand,  the  various  peoples  of  antiquity  knew  China  as  Yin, 
Chin,  Tsin,  Tshin,  Tshina,  and  Tzinistan.  Piichthofen  considers  that  the  name  from 
which  all  these  appellations  were  derived  was  spread  along  the  maritime  trailing 
routes,  and  derives  it  from  "Yi  nan"  (South  of  the  Sun),  by  which  name  the 
Chmese  of  antiquity  designated  Tongking  and  Cochin  China,  and  perhaps  also 
Cambodia.  The  fact  that  Marco  Polo  speaks  of  the  sea  at  Zayton  (Kwang  chau 
fu,  between  Amoy  and  Fuchau)  as  the  sea  of  Tscliin,  seems  evidence  in  favour  of 
this  theory.  The  name  employed  by  the  Eomans,  "  Seres,"  may  possibly  be  derived 
from  sze,  sse,  sser  (the  Chinese  word  for  silk). 

B.  The  Couxtry  and  its  Popclatiox 

(«)  Configuration.  —  The  enormous  empire  of  China,  with  the  two  adjoining 
countries  Manchuria  and  Mongolia  (Dzungaria,  Hi,  and  East  Turkestan),  has  an 
area  of  9,881,100  square  kilometres,  of  which  5,369,100  belongs  to  China  proper, 
942,000  to  Manchuria,  and  354,000  to  Mongolia.  The  country  is  situated  in  the 
east  of  Asia  between  50°  and  19°  lat.  N.,  and  75°  and  132.5°  long.,  east  of  Green- 
wich. With  the  exception  of  the  coast  line  belonging  to  the  peninsula  of  Korea 
and  Piussian  East  Siberia,  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  empire  is  bounded  by  the 
three  seas  known  as  the  China  Sea,  the  Eastern  Sea,  and  the  Y^ellow  Sea,  all  of 


58  HISTORY    OP^    THE    WORLD  [Chapter  i 

which  are,  strictly  sjwaking,  part  of  the  Paeitic.  On  the  uuiih  and  northwest  China 
is  iH.unileil  hy  Russia ;  on  tlie  southwest  by  Tibet,  which  is  tributary  to  it ;  on  the 
south  by  Ton<i;kiii>;  ami  Siani  (see  the  niais  "  China"). 

The  only  mountain  range  which  luis  exercisetl  any  material  influence  ujwn  the 
historical  development  of  the  coiuitry  is  the  Nan-ling  (Southern  Kange),  an  ofifshoot 
of  the  llinialava;  this  mountain  cliain  passes  through  Yunnan,  forms  the  northern 
iHiunilary  of  Kwangtung  and  Kwangsi,  traverses  Clickiaug,  and  after  reaching  tlie 
sea,  is  bi-oken  into  the  Chusau  Islands  and  other  groups,  thus  cutting  off  the  south- 
east from  tlie  rest  of  China  with  a  precipitous  barrier  broken  by  a  few  passes ;  to 
this  fact  is  due  the  long  independence  and  exclusiveuess  of  this  district.  The 
surface  of  China  as  a  whole  slopes  from  the  west  to  the  east ;  the  mountainous 
country  lies  between  the  meridian  passing  through  Canton  to  the  frontiers  of  Tibet, 
while  east  of  this  meridian  and  south  of  the  Yangtsze  Kiang  the  hill  country 
begins;  to  the  northeast  of  this  river  lies  the  great  jilain,  the  most  fruitful  part  of 
the  comitiy.  The  characteristic  feature  of  Pechili,  .Shansi,  .Shensi,  and  Kansu  is 
the  yellow  loam  soil  which  was  first  described  in  1864  by  Raphael  Pumpelly,  antl 
is  supposed  to  be  the  deposit  of  fresh-water  lakes.  Itiehthofen  is  more  i>robably 
correct  in  his  view  that  the  loam  was  precipitated  under  atmospherical  action, 
with  the  exception  of  those  places  in  the  steppes  where  it  appears  as  the  deposit 
of  salt  lakes  (lake  loam).  The  loam  is  broken  by  precipitous  gorges,  whicli  often  , 
reach  a  depth  of  many  hundred  feet  and  form  a  serious  obstacle  to  communication. 
They  are,  however,  a  certain  advantage  to  the  population,  inasmuch  as  numerous 
dwellings  and  (jfteu  whole  villages  have  been  excavated  in  their  walls.  AVhere 
there  is  a  sutticiency  of  rain  the  loam  is  extremely  fertile ;  but  the  inhabitants 
have  neither  the  means  nor  the  knowledge  for  scientific  irrigation. 

In  the  geography  of  China  rivers  are  of  nnich  greater  importance  than  mountains, 
especially  the  three  great  streams  which  traverse  the  empire  from  west  to  east,  the 
Hoangho,  Yangtsze  Kiang,  and  the  Chukiang.  The  Hoangho  (Yellow  River)  has 
so  often  burst  its  banks  and  flooded  the  country  as  to  have  been  called  "the 
jilague  of  China,"  and  is  said  to  have  completely  changed  the  lower  part  of  its 
bed  no  less  than  nine  times ;  it  rises  in  the  plain  of  Odoutala  south  of  the  Kuenlun 
Mountains,  and  passes  through  North  China  for  a  distance  of  more  than  4,800 
kilometres.  The  district  which  it  wateis  is  about  1,211,700  square  kilometres  in 
extent.  The  course  of  the  Hoangho  was  apjjarentl}'  followed  by  the  first  immi- 
grants whose  descendants  we  now  know  as  Chinese,  and  in  its  valley  the  larger 
l)art  of  ancient  and  medieval  Chinese  history  has  been  worked  out.  Since  1852 
tiie  Hoangho  has  emptied  itself  into  the  (iulf  of  Pechili,  ihougli  formerly  it  flowed 
into  the  Yellow  Sea  south  of  the  peninsula  of  Shantung.  The  nature  of  its  bed 
makes  it  of  no  importance  as  a  navigable  waterway. 

The  Y'angtsze  Kiang  (so  named  only  in  its  lower  reaches  from  Nanking 
onward,  toward  Yangchau)  is  known  in  its  upper  course  as  Kin  slia  kiang 
(River  of  the  Golden  Sands),  its  central  portion  being  called  merely  Kiang  or 
Takiang  (River,  or  (ireat  River),  and  from  Wuchang  onward  it  is  usually  known 
a.s  Chaug-kiang  (the  Long  Ifiver).  It  rises  in  tlic  Tangla  IMountains,  hanlly  160 
kilometres  from  the  .sources  of  the  Ht)augho  and  tlie  Kuenlun  range.  Its  betl,  which 
is  fully  5,100  kilometres  in  length,  passes  through  the  central  Chinese  provinces  of 
Szei-hwan,  ITupei,  Ngan-hwei,  and  Kiaugsu.  It  watere  a  district  of  more  thfin 
1,402,00(1  square  kilometres.     It  is  also  tlie  most  important  line  of  communication 


M 


TSING  TAT 

Tbe  CpiTuon    spttlcinral  i 
Kiaocliati   Bny 


J'orJIirt'   DoitdMiail  ^  C 


if^. 


iTJ^oZ""'']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  59 

in  China ;  towns  such  as  Nanking,  Hankau,  Wuchang,  Ichang,  and  Chungking  are 
situated  upon  this  stream.  As  far  as  Hankau  it  is  sufficiently  deep  to  permit  the 
passage  of  large  steamers,  and  its  importance  will  be  iucreased  in  this  respect  by 
the  construction  of  canals  to  pass  the  rapids  between  Ichang  and  Chungking. 

The  Chukiaug  (the  Pearl  Eiver)  rises  in  Yviiiiian,  and  is  formed  by  the  coiitiueuce 
of  the  East,  North,  and  West  rivers,  of  which  triliutaries  the  latter,  the  Sikiang,  is 
the  most  important.  The  Chukiang  passes  through  South  China,  and  reaches  the  sea 
near  Canton;  it  waters  a  district  estimated  at  more  than  332,000  square  kilometres. 

(b)  Tlie  Poptdatian.  —  Nothing  certain  is  known  of  the  origin  of  the  Chinese 
people.  The  theory  that  would  refer  their  original  ancestors  to  the  time  of  the 
Tower  of  Babel  cannot  be  established  by  evidence,  which  is  equally  lacking  for 
the  theories  proposed  by  Terrien  de  la  Couperie  and  Eobert  Keuuaway  Douglas, 
which  would  consider  them  as  descended  from  the  Accadians,  relying  among  otlier 
evidence  upon  the  similarity  of  the  earliest  Chinese  writing  to  the  cuneiform  script. 
More  probable  is  the  view  of  Pdchthufen,  that  the  original  home  of  the  first  immi- 
grants into  China  was  in  the  valley  of  the  Tarim,  where  they  may  have  come  into 
contact  with  Accadian  and  Indian  civilization.  Such  an  origin,  if  proved,  does  not, 
however,  explain  the  gi-eat  difl'erence  of  the  Chinese  from  all  the  other  peoples 
of  Asia  (as,  for  instance,  in  the  entire  absence  of  a  priestly  or  military  professional 
class) ;  still  less  does  it  explain  the  similarities  (for  example,  the  appaient  existence 
of  a  certain  amount  of  astronomical  knowledge  at  so  early  a  period  as  that  of  the 
Hsia  dynasty).  Equally  ditiicult  is  it  to  discover  evidence  of  their  origin  from 
ethnographical  inquiry.  According  to  E.  Baelz  the  main  part  of  East  Asia  (the 
gi-eater  part  of  China,  Japan,  Korea,  Formosa,  Mongolia,  and  Tibet)  is  inhabited 
by  a  population  of  about  500,000,000  of  Mongolian  race,  to  which  must  be  added 
the  peoples  of  Further  India  with  the  ^Malays.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  draw  a 
definite  line  of  demarcation  between  these  and  the  Mongolians.  In  North  Asia, 
Manchuria,  in  the  district  of  the  Sungari  Eiver,  in  part  of  Korea  and  in  a  part  of 
the  west  coast  of  Japan,  the  Manchu-Korean  type  is  predominant.  In  China  we 
also  meet  with  the  Miotse  and  the  little  known  Lolo ;  in  Southern  China  and  Japan 
infusions  of  Polynesian  blood  can  be  traced,  whUe  a  slight  infusion  of  the  woolly 
haired  negro  appears  at  rare  intervals.  The  true  ^longolian  is  predominant  in 
Centnd  ami  Southern  China  ;  further  south  the  Malay  type  becomes  more  prominent, 
as  does  the  Manchu-Korean  in  the  north. 

These  facts  are  indisputable,  but  they  do  not  help  us  to  solve  the  riddle  of  the 
origui  of  the  Chinese  or  of  the  races  which  existed  in  the  East  at  the  time  of  tlieir 
migrations.  Of  such  independent  races  which  have  either  been  exterminated  or 
absorbed  by  the  Chinese,  there  may  have  been  a  great  number,  though  it  is  impro- 
bable that  any  one  of  these  races  was  considerable  in  its  numbers.  Mention  is 
made  of  the  San  Mian  in  the  Shuking,  tlie  historical  record  of  the  time  of  Yao  and 
Yu  (2145-2046  and  2255-2206  b.  c);  and  in  a  speech  made  by  King  Wu  of  Chau 
(1134-1116  B.  c.)  against  Chau  hsin  of  Shaug  before  the  battle  of  Mu,  he  refere  to 
eight  auxiliary  peoples,  the  Y'ung,  Shu,  Chiang.  :Mao.  Wei,  Lu,  Phang,  and  Pho. 
At  a  later  period,  between  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  b.  c,  mention  is  made 
of  eight  tribes  of  the  Dsung  (Yung)  who  were  western  barbarians  in  Shantung, 
Chili,  Honan,  Shansi,  Shensi,  and  on  the  frontier  of  the  kingdom.  The  Ti,  who 
were  northern  barbarians,  dwelt  in  Shansi  and  Chili,  the  I  baibarians  of  Shantung 


CO  HISTORY    OF     THE    WORLD  lc/.„j>h>- 1 

I'xti'iuli'il  as  far  as  tlie  llaii  Kiver,  and  tlie  Man  lived  i>n  the  central  and  upper 
Van"ts/A',  chietlv  on  the  right  hank.  IJut  the  number  of  the  tribes  that  had  not  then 
been  subdued  must  have  been  much  greater ;  even  at  the  jn-eseut  day,  more  than 
two  thousand  six  hundred  years  later,  tribes  of  original  inhabitants  in  complete  or 
partial  indeiiendence  are  constantly  found  in  the  southern  and  western  proviuces 
of  the  empire.  That  such  tril)es  as  tlie  Li  (Limin  or  Limu,  prolwbly  descendants 
of  tlie  Miaotsze  to  whom  Kublai  Khan  [Shi  Tsu]  is  said  to  have  assigned  a  part  of 
Formosa  in  1292)  should  have  held  their  ground  in  the  interior  i>f  Formosa  and 
Hainan  is  the  less  remarkable,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  even  at  the  present  day 
whole  tribes  of  original  inliabitauts  have  been  able  to  maintain  their  independence 
in  the  provinces  on  the  mainland,  where  the  Chinese  supremacy  has  endured  for 
hundreds  or  thousands  of  years. 

The  Miaotsze  are  divideil  into  sung  (savage)  and  shuh  (domesticated)  according 
to  the  amount  of  Chinese  civilization  which  they  have  acquired,  and  live  to  the 
numlier  of  fully  eighty  different  tribes  in  Kwaugtung,  Kwangsi,  Hunan,  Yunnan, 
and  Kweichau.  They  are  supposed  to  be  relations  of  the  Siamese  and  Burmese, 
and  possibly  the  Hakkas  belong  to  the  same  race  ;  these  foreigners  are  said  to  have 
immigrated  into  the  two  Kwaugs  apparently  at  the  time  of  the  Mongol  dynasty  of 
Kiangsu  or  Shantung,  in  1205-1308.  It  was  not  imtU.  1730  that  the  Miaotsze 
in  Yunnan  and  Kweicliau  were  subjected  to  the  Chinese  supremacy,  whereas  in 
Kwangsi  iudepeiidenl  tribes  still  maintain  their  existence.  The  Yao  or  Yau  yin, 
also  said  to  be  members  of  the  Miaotsze,  lived  in  Kwangsi  until  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury and  then  migrated  to  the  peninsula  of  Liauchau,  where  they  still  continue  a 
lialf-iiulepeudent  existence ;  in  1S32  they  began  a  revolt  which  was  only  suppressed 
with  difficulty.  The  other  great  group  of  original  inhabitants  which  has  main- 
tained itself  within  the  country  is  that  of  the  Lolo  in  Szechwau  and  Yunnan,  who 
are  thought  to  be  related  to  the  Kakyes,  Shans,  and  Burmese ;  they  are  also  divided 
into  tribes  whicli  have  made  a  nominal  submission  to  the  Chinese  and  tribes  which 
decline  to  allow  the  Chinese  a  passage  through  their  mountains,  whence  they 
make  raids  upon  the  surrounding  districts. 

The  fact  that  liistorical  documents  and  ethnology  give  us  no  definite  starting- 
jHjint  for  our  investigations  makes  it  necessary  to  turn  to  other  sources  of  infoi-nia- 
tion  upon  the  degree  of  ci\^ization  attained  at  the  time  of  their  migration  by  tiie 
ancestors  of  the  mixed  people  who  now  inhabit  the  modern  district  of  Chuia.  Tlie 
most  reliable  evidence  is  to  be  found  in  tlie  earliest  style  of  Chinese  writing;  this  is 
of  a  hieroglyphic  nature,  and  contains  axiumber  of  signs  (said  to  be  six  hundred  and 
eight,  tliough  really  more)  wliich  are  undoubtedly  ideographic.  The  resemblance 
between  the  original  form  of  the  signs  and  the  objects  which  thej'  represented  is 
clearly  recognisable.  The  invention  of  this  writing  is  said  to  belong  to  the  legendary 
iwriod ;  the  hieroglyphic  signs  ceased,  as  early  as  the  fourth  century  B.  c,  to  be  rep- 
resentations of  definite  objects,  and  had  become  purely  conventional.  The  meaning 
of  the  earliest  ideographs  was  usually  modified  by  the  addition  of  signs  representing 
the  west,  a  sheep,  a  cow,  and  a  woman  ;  the  west  and  to  return  mean,  to  pass  sentence 
as  a  judge ;  the  west  and  the  earth  mean,  victim  of  the  ruler ;  the  west  and  a  woman 
mean,  to  wish  or  desire ;  the  west  and  the  sign  implying  valuable  mean,  to  buy  or 
to  sell  (objects  of  value  from  the  west  ?) ;  a  shee])  and  the  sign  for  great  mean, 
good  or  excellent ;  a  sheep  and  the  sign  for  the  pronoun  I  mean,  self-respect  or 
l>ride  Ctlie  jpossi'ssinn  of  slieep  being  a  sign  of  distinction);  a  sheep  and  a  man 


^rAv^f/""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  61 

mean,  false  (sheep  stealer  ?) ;  a  sheep  and  a  prmce  or  a  guide  mean,  a  herd  or 
crowd  (_tlie  prince  being  the  possessor  of  flocks)  ;  a  sheep  and  tlie  sign  for  words 
mean,  to  investigate  carefully,  to  discuss  a  matter ;  a  sheep  and  wings  mean,  to 
hover,  to  look  back,  dignified,  serious  (a  winged  ram  ?)  ;  a  sheep  and  the  sign  for 
ill  mean,  to  itch  or  to  scratch ;  a  cow  and  the  sign  for  covering  mean,  securit}-, 
imprisonment;  two  cows  mean,  friend;  a  cow  and  the  sign  of  avarice  mean,  to 
appropriate  (cattle-lifter  ?) ;  a  woman  and  the  sign  for  truth  mean,  insinuating, 
persuasive,  cunning  in  speech ;  one  woman  above  another  means,  beautiful ;  a  hand 
over  a  woman  means,  secure,  firm,  in  peace ;  a  roof  over  a  woman  means,  quietness, 
peace,  or  to  be  at  rest ;  two  women  together  mean,  to  dispute  or  to  quarrel ;  corn 
above  a  woman  means,  to  be  bowed  under  a  heavy  burden,  to  bear  a  weight,  or  to 
be  in  office,  to  send  some  one  to  do  something ;  a  woman  with  the  sign  for  dirt 
means,  a  wife  and  to  obey ;  a  woman  and  the  sign  for  to  take  mean,  to  marry ; 
a  man  and  a  field  mean,  a  husband. 

If,  with  the  help  of  the  objects  represented  in  the  hieroglyphic  writing, 
together  with  the  collocations  above  mentioned,  the  attempt  be  made  to  draw  a 
picture  of  the  conditions  which  prevailed  at  the  time  when  tliese  signs  were  in 
use,  we  may  conclude  that  a  nation  migrated  into  the  country  from  the  West, 
retaining  many  recollections  of  their  old  home,  though  tliese  were  somewhat 
clouded ;  or  that  they  were  a  people  who  derived  whatever  civilization  they 
had  from  the  West,  a  people  also  who  were  in  the  stage  of  transition  from 
nomadic  to  agricultural  life  and  settled  habitations.  Riches,  however,  at  that 
time  consisted  chiefly  of  flocks  and  herds,  and  the  possession  of  these  implied 
power  and  influence.  The  most  common  crimes  were  sheep-stealing  and  cattle- 
lifting,  and  the  health  or  the  straying  of  sheep  was  the  subject  upon  which 
intei-est  was  chiefly  concentrated.  The  woman,  whom  the  man  perhaps  even 
then  carried  off  by  force  for  marriage,  was  regarded  as  an  inferior  and  jealous 
creature,  to  be  kept  in  stern  subjection ;  her  business  was  the  household  cares  and 
the  menial  duties  of  the  establishment.  The  man  cultivated  the  field ;  he  was  free 
and  respected;  the  woman's  lot  was  toil  and  seclusion.  A  highly  developed  wor- 
ship (of  spirits  or  ancestors)  seems  to  have  existed;  at  any  rate,  the  great  number 
of  sacrificial  vessels,  in  many  cases  of  the  same  form  as  those  used  at  the  present 
day,  point  to  a  comprehensive  and  extremely  minute  ceremonial. 

C.  The  Mythical  Period 

According  to  Chinese  tradition,  the  world  was  developed  from  chaos,  which 
was  formed  like  an  egg ;  from  this  came  forth  first  the  quickening  power,  tlie  great 
breath,  the  life  (Tai  Chi),  by  the  influence  of  which  tlie  germ  of  life  within  was 
awakened  to  life,  when  it  divided  into  the  male  and  female  principle  (Yin  and 
Yang).  The  male  principle,  which  was  jiure,  bright,  and  light,  rose  up  and  formed 
the  heaven;  the  unclean,  dark,  and  heavy  female  principle  sank  downward  and 
formed  the  earth.  Both  of  these  principles  are  henceforward  continually  operative 
in  the  work  of  destniction  and  renovation.  After  this  division,  there  arises  from 
the  parts  (or  is  created)  Panku,  who  is  often  represented  with  hammer  and  chisel 
as  forming  tlie  earth  ;  at  the  same  time  there  is  a  tradition  of  him  that  after  his 
death  his  breath  became  the  wind,  his  voice  the  thunder,  his  left  eye  the  sun,  and 
his  right  eye  the  moon,  his  blood  the  rivers,  his  hair  the  trees  and  plants,  his  flesh 


C2  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  {ci,n,,u-r i 

the  {ground,  his  sweat  the  rain,  ami  the  parasites  upou  his  hudy  the  men.  I'aiiku  is 
the  aueestor  of  tlie  tirst  race  of  rulers,  the  heavenly  emperors,  of  whieli  there  were 
thirteen  generations;  these  were  followed  by  the  earthly  race  of  eleven  generations, 
and  the  human  race  of  nine  generations.  These  iu  turn  were  suceectled  by  the  age 
of  the  Hve  dragons  (brothei-s),  eomjwsed  of  Shih  ti,  with  fifty-nine  generations,  of 
Ho  lo,  with  three  generations,  of  Lientung,  with  six  generations,  of  Su  ming,  with 
four  genei"ations,  and  of  Sun  lei,  with  twenty-two  princes,  who  exerted  a  formalive 
influence  \\\wi\  mankind  by  their  examples. 

The  eighth  age  is  that  of  Yin  ti  (thirteen  rulers),  the  most  iirominent  of  whom 
are  Yu  chao  (the  one  living  in  a  nest^  and  Sui  yen.  Sui  yen,  as  the  Chinese  Pro- 
metheus, produced  fire  by  rubbing  two  sticks  together,  and  is  also  said  to  have 
discovered  a  means  of  communicaticm  by  tying  knots  in  string ;  while  Yu  chao 
taught  men  to  build  dwelling-places  at  the  time  when  they  had  begun  to  eat  flesh 
instead  of  living  upon  a  vegetarian  diet,  and  had  thus  jnade  enemies  of  the  ani- 
mals, which  had  hitherto  been  friendly  to  them. 

The  ninth  age,  that  of  Shan  tung,  includes  five  rulers,  most  of  whom  were 
conceived  and  born  in  .some  miraculous  way.  Fu  h(s)i  (said  to  have  lived  from 
2852  to  2738  b.  c),  who  is  represented  with  the  body  of  a  snake  and  the  head  of  an 
ox,  or  of  a  man  with  two  horny  excrescences,  taught  men  to  fish,  to  tame  the  six 
domestic  animals,  and  to  use  them  for  the  support  of  life.  The  dragon-horse 
brought  him  on  its  back  the  writing  of  the  Lo  river,  which  is  said  to  have  led  to 
the  discovery  of  the  eight  diagrams  (Pakwa).  Fu  hi  is  said  to  have  shared  with 
Tsangki,  whom  other  authorities  place  six  hundred  years  later,  the  honour  of 
discovering  the  first  alphabet ;  the  introduction  of  family  names  and  of  musical 
instruments  is  also  ascribed  to  him.  His  successor,  Slien  nuug  (Yen  ti ;  said  to 
have  lived  from  2737  to  2705),  the  divine  husbandman  with  the  human  body  and 
the  ox's  head,  was  the  inventor  of  the  ploughshare  and  discoverer  of  the  five 
cereals,  the  use  of  which  he  taught  the  people ;  he  also  discovered  the  medici- 
nal properties  of  plants  and  introduced  markets  and  commerce  by  barter.  He 
was  succeeded  by  seven  more  generations.  The  distinguishing  feature  of  this  last 
age  is  the  fact  that  the  supreme  power  becomes  hereditary  in  one  family. 

The  duration  of  the  mythical  period,  that  is,  until  Huang  ti  (2404  h.  c),  is  esti- 
mated by  some  Chinese  authors  at  2,264,777  years,  and  by  others  at  one  million 
jears  longer. 

D.  The  Legexdaky  Period 

According  to  some  authorities,  the  legendary  period  continues  until  the  age 
of  Yu,  that  is,  until  the  begiiming  of  the  Hsia  dynasty,  2205  H.  c. ;  according  to 
others,  until  the  beginning  of  the  Chau  dynasty,  1112  B.  G.  As  Karl  Arendt  observes 
in  his  "  Synchronistic  Tables  of  llulers  for  the  History  of  the  Chinese  Dynasties,"  the 
dates  given  by  the  different  historians  and  annals  show  great  discrepancies.  For 
instance,  the  Bamboo  Books,  which  were  discovered  in  279  A.  D.  and  consist  of 
tablets  of  bamboo  found  in  the  grave  of  King  Hsiang  of  We,  who  died  in  319  B.C., 
containing  the  mythical  and  tlie  legendary  history  as  well  as  the  annals  of  Chin  of 
We,  reduce  the  dates  at  the  commencement  by  two  hundred  and  thirteen  years. 
It  is  not  until  850  B.  c.  that  chrontdogical  harmony  begins. 

The  age  of  Sub  yi  includes  the  following  riders:  Huang  ti,  2704  to  2595  B.C., 
resident  in  Chili;  Sha  Hao,  his  sou,  2594  to  2511  B.  c,  resident  iu  Shangtung ; 


Sli™'""]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  63 

Chuan  hsu,  2510  to  2433  B.C.,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  resident  in  Pechili;  Ti 
Ku,  his  nephew,  2432  to  23G3  b.  c,  resident  in  Honan ;  Ti  Chi,  2362  to  2358  b.  c, 
sou  of  the  preceding,  deposed ;  Yao,  2357  to  2258  b.  c,  his  brother,  resident  in 
Shansi ;  Shun,  2258  to  2206  B.  c,  step-son  of  Yao,  resident  in  Shansi.  Fu  hi,  Shen 
muig,  Huang  ti,  Yao,  and  Shun  are  often  referred  to  as  the  "Five  Emjiemrs,"  a 
uauie  wliich  is  also  applied  to  the  whole  age,  althougii  it  contains  a  larger  number 
of  rulers.  The  greater  part  of  the  history  of  this  period  is  purely  legendary.  The 
development  of  the  people  proceeded  very  slowly.  Upon  the  evidence  of  the 
Chinese  themselves,  civilization  must  have  been  at  a  very  low  level,  as  under 
Huang  ti  the  employment  for  a  boat  of  a  tree  trunk,  which  had  been  hollowed  out 
and  Ktted  with  a  mast,  is  mentioned  as  a  new  di-scovery.  This  king  was  also  said 
to  have  been  the  first  to  distiuguish  the  five  colours  (green  or  red,  blue,  black, 
yellow,  and  white),  according  to  those  of  the  birds  and  the  flowers.  An  imjKirtant 
event,  which  marks  the  beginning  of  a  long-enduring  agricultural  system  resting 
upon  a  political  and  social  basis,  is  the  division  of  the  arable  land  mto  plots  of  nine 
fields,  each  consisting  of  one  hundred   mau  (675.68   acres).     These  fields  were 

divided  into  three  rows,  each  row  consisting  of  three  fields,  thus,  ii,  the  eight 

outer  fields  belonging  to  the  people,  while  the  central  plot  was  appropriated  to  the 
government,  the  necessities  of  which  were  represented  by  a  special  class  of  officials, 
who  were  also  entrusted  with  the  supervision  of  the  fields  belonging  to  the  people. 
One  such  field  was  called  ii  lin,  three  lin  =  one  ping,  three  plug  =  one  li,  five  li  = 
one  i,  ten  i  =  one  du,  ten  du  =  one  shy,  ten  shy  —  one  chau.  From  the  chau  (the  depart- 
ment or  province)  the  later  vassal  principalities  seem  to  have  been  developed. 

To  the  rule  of  Shun  belong  the  works  of  Yu,  which  formed  the  content  of  the 
first  paragraph  in  the  third  section  of  the  Shuking,  entitled  "  The  Tribute  of  Yu ; 
Yu  Yukung."  Many  authorities,  following  the  examples  of  Chinese  expositors, 
consider  them  as  the  narratives  of  a  great  fiood  and  of  the  drainage  works  under- 
taken by  Yu.  Eichthofen  and  others  are  probably  more  correct  in  considering 
this  section  as  of  especial,  though  not  of  exclusively  geogi'aphical,  importance. 
Yu,  who  secured  by  his  energy  the  favour  of  the  emperor  Shun,  received  his 
two  daughters  in  marriage,  and  wlien  the  emperor's  son  showed  himself  luiworthy, 
was  appointed  his  successor,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Shansi. 

Yu  was  the  first  emperor  of  the  Hsia  dynasty,  which  includes  seventeen  legiti- 
mate rulers,  and  lasted  from  2205  to  1766  B.C.  The  period  from  2118  to  2079, 
during  which  the  usurper  Han  Cho  ruled,  is  the  most  eventful  portion  of  this  age. 
Tai  Kang,  the  grandson  of  Yu,  a  dissolute  prince,  was  deposed  in  2160,  after  a 
reign  of  twenty-nine  years ;  he  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  brother,  Clunig 
Kaug.  Ti  Hsiang,  the  son  of  this  ruler,  was  conquered  in  2199  by  Hau  Cho,  who 
murdered  every  member  of  the  Yu  family.  The  empress,  however,  succeedeil  in 
escaping,  and  while  in  flight  she  gave  birth  to  a  son,  Shao  Kang,  who,  after  many 
adventures,  killed  the  usm-per  in  the  year  2079.  Ti  Kuei,  the  last  emperor  of  this 
dynasty,  and  his  wife,  Mei  Hi,  are  depicted  as  dissolute  tyrants,  whose  rule  was 
ended  in  1783  by  Lu,  prince  of  Shang,  a  descendant  of  Huang  ti.  However,  it 
was  not  until  1766  that  Lu  ascended  the  throne  as  Cheng  Tang,  and  became  the 
first  emperor  of  the  Shang  dynasty  (also  known  as  Yin  since  1401),  which  lasted 
until  1122  B.  C.  Little  is  known  of  the  twenty-eight  princes  of  tliis  dynasty,  most 
of  whom  are  merely  mentioned  by  name  in  the  annals.     Cheng  Tang   (1766- 


64  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_chupur j 

1754)  who  look  up  his  resiileiioe  iu  Ilonan,  was  a  powerful  and  upright  monarch. 
I'mler  his  successor  tlie  capital  was  coustantly  transferred  to  did'erent  places  in 
Honau,  and  to  Shantung,  Pechili,  and  Shensi  (near  Singanfu). 

The  last  emperor,  Chau  hsin  (1154-1122),  like  the  last  of  the  Hsia,  was  a 
cruel  tyrant,  and  his  consort  Tan  ki  was  of  a  none  the  less  degenerate  character. 
He  was  overthrown  by  Wu  wang  of  Chau.  The  hostility  between  the  two  fannlies 
seems  to  have  been  of  long  standing,  and  had  at  any  rate  existed  since  1327,  when 
Tan  fu,  the  "old  duke"  (Ku  kung),  had  given  his  district  the  name  of  Chau.  His 
gmiidson  Wen  wang  (King  Wen),  or  Hsi  ])0  (chief  of  the  west),  made  an  attempt, 
according  to  Cliiue.^e  authors,  though  in  vain,  to  convert  the  emjieror  to  better 
methods;  he  died  in  1135.  His  son  Wu  wang  finally  opposed  Chau  hsin, and  con- 
quered liini  in  the  battle  of  Mu  in  1122,  after  which  the  emperor  burnt  himself 
alive  in  his  jialace,  together  with  his  wives  aud  his  treasures.  Wu  wang  ascended 
the  throne  in  1122;  with  him  begins  the  Chau  dynasty  (until  249  B.C.).  The 
beginning  of  tlie  historical  period  is  usually  placed  in  the  year  875  B.C.  On 
August  29  of  this  year  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  is  mentioned  as  having  taken  place 
during  the  government  of  the  emperor  Yu  wang,  which  enables  the  date  to  be 
accurately  established.  There  is,  however,  no  reason  why  the  historical  jjeriod 
should  not  begin  with  the  outset  of  the  Chau  dynasty. 

E.  TiiK  Hkhgiox,  Philosophy,  and  Civilization  of  the  Ancient  Chinese 

{a)  The  Religion.  —  The  ancient  Chinese  religion,  the  origin  of  which  is 
unknown,  teaclies  of  a  supreme  being,  the  heaven,  Tien,  incarnate  as  a  supreme 
ruler,  Sliang  ti.  The  religion  is,  however,  very  far  from  being  a  pure  monotheism  ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  peoples  the  universe  with  heavenly,  earthly,  and  human  spirits 
wliich  can  exercise  influence  and  receive  worship.  To  the  heavenly  spirits  belong 
the  sun,  the  moon,  the  ]>lanets,  and  some  of  the  constellations ;  to  the  earthly 
spirits,  tlie  mountains,  seas,  streams,  rivers,  springs,  trees,  etc.  There  is,  moreover, 
a  special  guardian  spirit  of  the  empire,  together  with  sph'its  of  the  soil.  At  an 
earlier  period  for  every  principality,  and  now  for  every  town  and  locality,  there  are 
guardian  .spirits  of  agriculture,  of  the  crops,  of  the  herds,  etc..  To  the  class  of  human 
spirits  belong  the  spirits  of  the  deceased  in  their  relations  witlr  the  family,  tliat  is, 
the  ancestors  and  the  spirits  of  famous  men.  The  religion  never  had,  and  does  not 
now  possess,  a  priesthood.  The  emperor  is  tlie  high  priest,  and  is  obliged  to  perform 
iu  pei-son  certain  religious  duties,  such  as  that  of  olTeriug  prayer  in  the  temple  of 
heaven,  while  there  are  others  which  he  may  leave  temporarily  or  permanently  to 
his  official  representatives.  In  his  double  capacity  as  emperor  and  father  of  his 
people  he  assumes  responsibility  to  the  heaven  for  the  behavioiu-  of  his  subjects, 
and  national  misfortunes  are  considered  as  due  to  remissness  on  his  part. 

(A)  Tlie  Philosophy.  —  Together  witli  the  religion,  ]MipuIar  participation  in 
which  depends  solely  upon  the  practice  of  ancestor  worslii]>,  and  the  ceremonial 
thereby  implied,  two  philosophical  schools  of  thought  have  existed  from  an  early 
period.  On  the  one  hand,  the  system  of  uituitive,  metaphysical  philosophy,  from 
which  Taoism  has  been  developed ;  and  an  ethical  political  system,  now  known  as 
Confucianism.  However,  neitlier  Lao  tsze  nor  Kung  fu  tsze  (in  T.atin  form 
Confucius)  were  the  creators  of  the  teaching  ascribed   to  them,  or  named  after 


iT^l^ea""']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  65 

them.  On  the  contrary,  both  have  expressly  declared  themselves  to  be  merely 
the  preachers  and  the  exponents  of  the  teachings  of  earlier  sages.  As  regards 
Confucianism,  an  additional  proof  of  this  truth  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  his 
so-called  classical  works,  commonly  known  as  the  "  Five  King "  and  "  Four 
Shu,"  and  also  often  as  the  "  Thirteen  King,"  belonged  to  a  much  earlier  time 
than  tlie  life  of  Kung  fu  tsze. 

The  great  classics  can  be  enumerated  as  follows:  1.  The  Iking  (book  of 
changes),  which  was  destined  to  expound  the  eight  trigrams  composed  of  whole 
and  broken  lines,  and  the  sixty-four  hexagrams,  further  developed  from  these, 
which  were  used  for  purposes  of  foretelling  the  future.  These  symbols,  which 
belong  to  the  mythical  period  (cf.  p.  61),  are  certainly  older  than  the  thirteenth 
century  B.  c.  Wen  wang  of  Chau,  the  father,  and  Chau  kung,  the  brother,  of  the 
first  emperor  of  this  dynasty,  are  said  to  have  produced  the  explanations  of  these 
symbols  preserved  in  the  Iking.  The  remaining  ten  sections  of  the  work  are, 
probably  in  error,  ascribed  to  Kung  fu  tsze.  2.  The  Shu  king  (the  book  of  histo- 
rical records),  contains  the  remnants  of  a  much  larger  collection  of  historical  events 
and  examples,  extending  from  2.357  to  627  b.  c.  The  composition  of  this  work  is 
also  ascribed  to  Kung  fu  tsze ;  but  the  first  mention  of  his  authorship  occurs  in 
the  second  century  b.  c,  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  his  death.  Moreover, 
Kung  fu  tsze  during  his  life  never  played  that  part  which  was  afterward  assigned 
to  him  by  Shi  Huang  ti  (220-210  ;  cf.  below,  p.  75),  at  a  time  when  scholars 
desired  a  leader  round  whom  they  could  form  a  party.  After  his  death,  a 
temple  was  erected  to  htm  on  the  order  of  the  duke,  in  Lu,  the  principality  of 
his  birth,  in  which  sacrifice  was  offered  four  times  a  year.  But  it  was  not  until 
the  year  1  a.  d.  that  the  emperor  Ping  Ti,  of  the  older  western  Han  dynasty,  con- 
ferred upon  him  a  supplementary  title  of  honour,  and  offerings  were  made  to  him 
in  all  the  imperial  schools,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  year  57  a.  d.  UntU  609  A.  D. 
he  shared  this  honour  with  Chau  kung,  the  duke  of  Chau,  and  the  first  temple 
was  dedicated  to  him  outside  the  province  of  Lu,  in  628.  However,  no  dynasty 
has  done  so  much  in  his  honour  as  the  reigning  Manchu  dynasty.  3.  The 
Shi  king  (the  book  of  songs),  contains  three  hundred  and  five  songs,  whicli 
may  perhaps  be  called  national  odes  and  festival  songs  for  different  occasions, 
belonging  to  the  period  of  1765  to  585  b.  c.  The  Slii  king  is  also  assigned 
to  Kung  fu  tsze,  no  doubt  erroneously.  In  any  case,  the  Shi,  and  also  the 
Shu,  existed  long  before  his  time.  4.  The  Chau  li,  the  State  institutions  (the 
State  calendar)  of  the  Chau  dynasty,  is  said  to  belong  to  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury B.  c.  Like  most  of  the  other  books,  it  was  lost  during  the  Chin  dynasty, 
and  not  rediscovered  until  the  year  40  a.  d.  5.  The  Hi  (book  of  ceremonies),  in  its 
present  form  consists  of  two  texts  which  were  rediscovered  in  the  second  century 
A.  D.  The  Hi  is  mentioned  by  Meng  tsze.  But  a  book  of  this  name  certainly 
existed  at  the  time  of  Kung  fu  tsze,  if  not  before  him.  6.  The  Liki  (also  a  book 
of  ceremonies),  is  a  work  apparently  belonging  to  the  second  century  a.  d.,  contain- 
ing earlier  explanations  of  the  questions  treated  of  in  the  Hi.  In  this  work  is 
contained  the  so-called  calendar  of  the  Hsia  dynasty,  which,  if  it  were  genuine, 
would  provide  us  with  astronomical  dates  two  thousand  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  7  to  9.  The  Chun  chiu  (chronicle  of  Kung  fu  tsze),  properly  autumn  and 
spring,  that  is,  the  book  of  annals,  contains  the  chronicles  of  the  Chinese  kingdom 
from  722  to  484  b.  c,  arranged  according  to  the  reigns  of  the  princes  of  Lu.     This 

VOL  n— 5 


06  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  Ichapur  i 

work,  ascribed  by  Meug  Isze  to  Kuujj  fu  tsze,  is  a  dry  aud  incomplete  chronicle, 
a  uune  skeleton,  which  lias  been  clothed  wilii  interest  by  the  additions  of  the 
three  expositors,  Tso  ciiiu  niing,  Kung  yung,  and  Kii  liang.  10.  The  Lun  Vu,  con- 
tains the  conversations  of  Kung  fu  tsze,  proverbial  sayings  of  the  sage  collected 
liv  his  pupils.  11.  The  works  of  Meng  tsze,  according  to  some  authorities  the 
work  of  the  philosopher  liiiuself,  who  lived  from  371  to  288  n.  c,  wiiile  others  con- 
sider it  as  the  composition  of  his  pupils.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  a  collection  of  the 
sayings  of  this  master.  12.  The  Hsiao  king  (book  of  filial  love),  is  said  to  have 
been  composed  by  Tsze  sze,  the  grandson  of  Kung  fu  tsze,  from  conversations  helil 
by  Kimg  fu  tsze  with  one  of  his  pupils.  It  treats  of  questions  concerning  the  ful- 
Hluient  of  the  duties  of  filial  atfection,  aud  also  of  the  relations  between  master 
and  servant.  13.  The  dictionary  Urhuya  of  the  year  500  B.C.,  also  contains  por- 
tions wiiich  are  supposed  to  date  from  the  thirteenth  century.  14.  The  Taiiio 
(great  teaching),  also  ascribed  to  the  grandson  of  Kung  fu  tsze,  teaches  the  duty  of 
practising  virtues,  educating  the  people,  and  continuing  in  perfection.  15.  The 
Chung  Yung  (the  unalterable  mean),  a  work  of  the  grandson  of  Kung  fu  tsze, 
teaches  that  whatever  man  has  received  from  heaven  is  his  nature,  aud  that  he 
who  acts  in  harmony  with  it  walks  in  tlie  path  of  virtue,  and  that  man  can  only 
learn  this  path  by  instruction.  Every  one,  especially  the  prince,  must  exert  influ- 
ence by  example,  and  to  be  able  to  use  these  influences  he  must  strive  for 
jierfeclion.  The  way  to  this  end  lies,  however,  in  the  mean.  16.  The  Tshu  shu 
(the  Bamboo  Books),  the  origin  of  which  lias  already  been  mentioned  (p.  62).  These 
bamboo  tablets,  inscribed  with  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  signs,  contained, 
besides  annals,  a  copy  of  the  Iking  and  thirteen  other  works,  in  part  of  a  highly 
imaginative  character.  A  book  that,  though  not  authentic,  is  highly  esteemed 
for  the  large  mass  of  tradition  it  relates,  is  the  Kung  tsze  kia  yu  (sayings  of  Kung 
fu  tsze  among  his  pupils),  dating  from  the  third  century  B.  c. 

Most  of  the  works  above  mentioned,  with  the  e.xception  of  the  Iking,  the  works 
of  Meng  tsze,  and  the  Urhya,  were  lost  in  the  general  destruction  of  books 
which  took  place  under  Shi  Huang  ti  (cf.  p.  75),  and  some  of  them  were  not 
rediscovered  for  a  considerable  period.  In  many  cases  they  were  recovered  in  an 
incomplete  state,  or  in  dilTerent  and  discrepant  texts.  The  industry  of  collectors 
and  expositors  has  restored  as  much  as  was  possible.  But  Chinese  critics  consider 
many  of  the  passages,  officially  recognised  as  genuine,  to  be  doubtful  or  false. 
However,  the  classical  works  of  the  Chinese  in  their  present  state  must  be  ct)n- 
sidered  as  representing  a  faithful  picture  of  the  ages  in  wliicli  they  were  composed, 
or,  any  rate,  of  those  ages  as  they  appeared  to  the  later  Chinese. 

The  other  school  of  thought,  Taoism,  possesses  no  ancient  works  beyond  the 
half-legendary  Tao  teli  king,  ascribed  to  Lao  tsze,  the  book  of  the  way  and  of 
virtue.  Lao  tsze  (the  old  youth),  whose  true  name  is  said  to  have  been  Li  K,  is 
said  to  have  been  born  in  604  B.C., and  to  have  disappeared  in  517,  after  a  meet- 
ing with  Kung  fu  tsze,  which  can  hardly  be  historical.  In  the  Tao  teh  king  are  to 
be  fomid  many  quotations,  introduced  with  the  words  "a  sage,"  "an  old  man,"  a 
fact  which  proves  that  tlie  teaching  of  Lao  tsze  cannot  have  been  new.  What  Lao 
tsze  advocates  as  resulting  from  the  wisdom  of  earlier  periods  is  complete 
abstinence  and  introspection.  The  meaning  of  the  word  "Tao"  has  never  been 
explained  or  understood.  Like  the  Hellenistic  "Logos,"  it  is  at  once  the  effi- 
cient aud  the  material  cause.     Lao  tsze  says  of  tlie  Tao,  "It  was  undetermined  and 


trFcoF.u""-']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  67 

perfected,  existing  before  the  heaven  and  the  earth.  Peaceful  was  it  and  incom- 
prehensible, alone  and  unchangeable,  filling  everything,  the  inexhaustible  mother 
of  all  thmgs.  I  know  not  its  name,  and  therefore  I  call  it  Tao.  I  seek  after  its 
name,  and  I  call  it  the  Great.  In  greatness  it  Hows  on  for  ever,  it  retues  and 
returns.  Therefore  is  the  Tao  great."  Another  i^assage  has  led  critics  to  sup- 
pose Hebrew  influence.  "  We  look  for  the  Tao,  but  we  see  it  not ;  it  is  colourless. 
We  hearken  for  it,  we  do  not  hear  it ;  it  is  voiceless.  We  seek  to  grasp  it,  and  can- 
not comprehend  it ;  it  is  formless.  That  which  is  colourless,  soundless,  and  form- 
less cannot  be  described,  and  therefore  we  call  it  One."  The  fact  that  colourless, 
.soundles.s,  and  formless  in  the  Chinese  text  are  represented  by  Ji,  hi,  wei,  has  led 
Aliel  Ri^mnsat,  Victor  von  Strauss,  and  Joseph  Edkins,  in  opposition  to  the  views 
of  almost  all  other  Chinese  scholars,  to  assert  that  Lao  tsze  was  attempting  to 
express  the  Hebrew  Jehovah.  It  is  more  probable  that  Indian  influence,  though 
this  fact  is  equally  impossible  to  prove,  gave  the  impulse  to  the  development  of 
this  intuitional  teaching.  As  regards  his  cosmogony,  Lao  tsze  takes  his  stand  upon 
the  ancient  Chinese  teachuig.  "  The  Tao  brought  forth  One,  One  brought  foith 
Two,  Two  brought  forth  Three.  Three  brouglit  forth  evervtliing.  E\i'rythiiig 
leaves  behind  it  the  darkness  out  of  which  it  came,  and  goes  forward  toward  the 
light,  while  the  breath  of  the  void  makes  it  perfect;"  that  is,  from  the  original 
cliaos,  which  contains  the  germs  of  life,  but  as  being  incorporeal  is  called  the  void, 
there  are  now  developed  the  male  and  female  princijiles,  which  create  dead  matter, 
rejiresented  by  its  three  highest  appearances  as  heaven,  earth,  and  man,  to  which 
the  breath  gives  life. 

To  summarise  the  further  developmeu*'/  of  Taoism,  its  most  flourishing  period 
was  that  of  contest  against  Confucianism  and  sharp  criticism  of  Kung  fu  tsze. 
Kwang  tsze,  Lieh  yu  kan  (in  Latin,  Licius),  and  perhaps  also  Chang  Chu,  place 
rather  too  great  an  emphasis  upon  Epicurean  and  Cynic  tendencies,  but  as  thinkers 
stand  high  above  Kung  fu  tsze  and  also  above  ]Meng  tsze  (!\Ieng  ko,  Mencius,  371 
to  289  H.  c),  who  is  himself  far  in  advance  of  his  master.  But  as  early  as  the  period 
of  Meng  tsze,  Taoism  seems  to  have  taken  upon  itself  the  alchemist  and  necro- 
mantic character,  which  has  since  been  its  dominant  feature.  It  thus  became  a 
very  superKcial  system  of  teaching,  and  the  Tao  priests  turned  their  attention  from 
the  pursuit  of  philosophy  to  the  exploitation  of  superstition.  Where,  in  spite  of 
these  disadvantages,  the  doctrine  was  able  to  influence  princes  and  statesmen,  it 
has  always  proved  an  obstacle  to  healthy  development. 

Taoism,  though  originally  on  a  higher  intellectual  plane  than  Confucianism, 
thus  sunk  far  below  it,  while  the  dry  worldly  wisdom  of  Kung  fu  tsze  and  his 
school  maintained  its  old  position,  and  to  the  present  day  exercises  undiminished 
influence  up  )n  the  Chinese.  Confucianism  teaches  the  art  of  becoming  a  good 
father,  otflcial,  minister,  landed  noble,  and  emperor,  of  fulfilling  the  ihities  con- 
nected with  a  man's  position,  and  of  seeing  that  subordinates,  children,  and  people, 
as  well  as  officials,  perf(jrni  their  duty  likewise.  Beginning  with  the  love  of  the 
child  loY  his  father,  and  concluding  with  the  love  of  the  emperor  for  his  people, 
tlie  pliilosopliy  of  this  school  embraces  the  whole  range  of  human  relations, 
and  has  thereby  gained  a  hold  upon  the  life  and  conduct  both  of  individuals 
and  of  the  community  which  has  remained  unshaken  to  the  present  day  (cf. 
p.  68,  above). 


68  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [c/.aj,trr  i 

(c)  The  Cii-ilizalion  of  the  Ancient  Chiiu'se.  —  Taoism  and  Confucianism  are 
proofs  of  a  high  degree  of  intelleclual  development.  Tlie  great  exponents  of  these 
schmils  l>ear  witness,  and  the  fact  is  confirmed  by  the  evidence  of  the  Chinese 
ehissicii,  that  this  develojmient  began  long  before  the  days  of  Lao  tsze  and  Kuug 
fu  tsze.  It  must  have  been  fi>unded  on  a  widespread  civilization  and  a  relative 
high  degree  of  culture.  In  the  Cliau  li,  I  li,  and  Li  ki  we  find  proofs  of  the  exist- 
ence of  a  comprehensive  and  detailed  system  of  administration.  The  rights  and 
duties  of  every  class  of  the  population  are  prescribed  to  the  smallest  details.  Everj- 
season  has  its  appointed  tasks.  Full  provision  is  made  for  the  observance  of  all 
ceremonies  connected  with  funerals,  receptions,  the  dedication  of  temples,  festivals, 
drinking  feasts,  archery,  etc.  The  relations  of  parents  to  children  and  children  to 
parents  are  detailed  in  full  form  and  cereniouy. 

Great  attention  was  paid  to  the  equipment  and  evolutions  of  the  troops,  to 
which  orders  were  transmitted  by  signal.  Two-wheeled  chariots,  both  open  and 
closed,  and  harnessed  with  one,  two,  three,  and  four  horses  side  by  side,  were  in 
common  use.  In  war,  chariots  were  used  drawn  by  two  horses  and  carrying  three 
people,  —  the  charioteer,  a  spearman,  and  an  archer.  The  emperor  takes  the  field 
with  ten  thousand  chariots.  Cavahy  does  not  seem  to  have  been  employed  in  the 
earliest  period,  though  pictures  of  cavalry  couHicts  are  found  belonging  to  the 
second  century  A.  D.  The  arms  in  use  were  the  spear,  the  halberd,  the  sword, 
the  club,  and  the  axe,  the  bow  and  arrow  and  crossbow.  The  defensive  armour 
apparently  consisted  of  a  small  shield,  and,  in  early  times,  of  leather  harness.  This 
last  was  afterward  rei)laced  by  chain  and  mail  armour. 

In  the  arts  of  peace  the  Chinese  had  also  made  great  progress  a  thousand  years 
at  least  before  the  Christian  era.  There  are  in  existence  at  the  present  day  vessels 
of  bronze  which  date  from  the  Hsia,  Shan,  and  Chau  dynasties.  The  book  called 
"  Po  ku  tu  lu,"  the  first  edition  of  which  belongs  to  the  years  1119  to  1126,  and 
the  "  Si  tsing  Kan  kien,"  a  work  published  by  order  of  the  emperor  Kien  lung  in 
1759,  and  describing  his  collection  of  anti(iuities,  contain  numerous  illustrations  of 
these  vessels.  They  disjilay  excellent  workmanship  and  ricli  ornamentation.  Ani- 
mals are  often  represented;  numerous  examples  of  palaces,  great  and  small,  are 
met  with.  A  large  number  of  beautiful  works  of  art  in  nephrite  are  also  in  exist- 
ence, especially  sacrificial  vessels  and  plates,  with  ornaments  for  the  extremities  of 
chariot  poles.  The  art  of  silk  weaving  seems  to  have  been  liiglily  developed,  and 
the  attention  devoted  to  it  at  the  courts  of  the  emperor  and  the  princes  must  have 
exercised  a  beneficial  influence  upon  its  progress.  Little  is  known  of  the  art  of 
jiottery  as  practised  by  tlie  Chinese.  Proofs  exist  of  the  production  of  pots  and 
tiles  of  clay  in  the  second  and  third  centuries  B.  C,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
earthenware  had  been  made  at  a  much  earlier  period.  Porcelain  ware,  on  the 
other  hand,  does  not  appear  before  the  sixth  or  seventh  century  of  the  Christian 
era  (cf.  p.  113). 

We  have  no  certain  knowledge  concerning  the  invention  of  written  characters. 
It  apjiears  from  the  Chau  li,  which  probably  belongs  to  the  twelfth  century  B.C., 
that  in  the  ninth  year  of  that  century  the  historians  of  the  different  principalities 
met  together  in  the  ca]Mtal  for  the  ])ur]iose  of  reducing  jiroininciation  and  wiitten 
signs  to  a  conunon  standard.  According  to  a  lexicographer  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury A.  I).,  the  Tai  tung,  the  first  powerful  jirinces  of  the  Chau  dynasty,  reduced  the 
prevailing  confusion  to  oixler  and  uniformity.     In  the  "  Unalterable  Mean,"  a  work 


—   a      3 


H  X:     '» 


KXI'I.ANATIOX    OF   THE   OLD   CHINESE   SCUUTli;!-;    IN    RELIEF 

At  tla-  liiiit  iif  the  muiiiitaiu  raiim-  Wii  ilio  sliiui  (Ts'e  yiiii  sbaii),  in  the  department  of  Kia 
sillily  (Shaiilmi;.'),  lies  llie  extensive  burial  jilaee  of  the  \Vu  family,  which  tlnurishej  iu  the  seeond 
centurv  A.  I).  The  tombs  are  uf  the  highest  importance  for  our  knowledge  of  early  Cliinese 
sculpture. 

\Vu  ting  (Kao  Tsung,  132'4-1266) ;  twentieth  emperor  of  the  Shang  dyna.sty ;  i-eputed  anee$tor  of 

the  Wu  family 

I 
A\  u  (nnnii'S  unknown) 


Wu  .><lie  knng         Wu  Suei  tsuuK  (heang)         Wu  King  liing         Wu  K'ai  niing,  general 
+  151  A.  l>.  in  tlie  provinee  Wu 


I 


Wu  Chung  chang  Wu  Ki  iliang         Wu  ki  li  Wu    .Sincn    ihang         Wu  slau  ho 

(  (Pan)  •  115,  1 145         (.Iung)tl«9 

Wu  Tse-Kiao  as   coniniaudcr    of 

Tuen-hang  ( Kansu) 

The  monuments  erected  by  the  four  sons  vO  their  common  father  (whose  name  is  not  given), 
and  the  memorial  to  Wu  Pan,  who  died  prematurely,  have  aroused  the  attention  even  of  the  niodcTU 
(■hiiu--se,  on  acc<iunt  of  the  b;is-reliefs,  which  give  an  accurate  description  of  life  and  manners 
uutler  the  later  or  K:xstern  Han  dynasty.  In  I7S6,  casts  were  m.'ide  of  the  sculptures  in  relief  by 
lloiing  J  (Siao  suuji),  which  were  added  to  by  Li  K'o  cheng  and  Liu  C'hao  yung  in  ITSSt  and 
again  in  1820. 

As  regards  the  chamcter  of  this  relief  work,  Edward  Chavannes  observes  :  "  The  figuivs  and 
objects  are  Hat,  but  are  raised  about  two  millimetres  above  the  surface  of  the  background;  one 
might  s;iy  th.it  they  had  been  cut  out  with  a  iiinking-iron  and  then  fastened  upon  a  level  surface. 
Shadows  and  detail  are  indicated  by  grooves."  Cf.  also  the  section  ujion  ••  La  pierre  sculptee  ' 
in  Paleologue's  "  L'art  chinois  "  (Paris,  1887). 

The  b;is. reliefs  reproduced  overleaf  are  upon  the  si.xth  stone  of  the  nearer  burial  vault,  which 
is  ■>  metres  in  length  and  0.8  metre.s  in  height.  The  illustration  is  diviiled  into  two  parts  of 
une<|ual  size. 

Upfu-r  Divisiim :  The  last  two  carriages  on  the  left  are,  as  the  inscriptions  tell  us,  those  of 
the  »cril)e  and  of  the  military  commander.  At  the  left  extremity  are  three  nobles  on  liorseback  ; 
one  of  the  horses,  boldly  but  rudely  designed,  is  turning  its  head  back.  On  the  right  (beyond  the 
limit  of  our  reproduction)  a  man  is  holding  "a  shield  and  sword,  ami  a  second  a  cross-bow  ;  a 
kneeling  woman  appears  to  be  a-sking  mercy. 

Lower  lJirii<i()ii :  A  battle  is  in  progress  on  level  ground,  on  a  bridge,  and  on  a  river  with 
boats,  at  the  same  time.  On  the  riglit  (barely  visible  in  our  illustration)  are  to  be  seen,  its  the 
inscriptions  tell  u.s,  the  carriages  of  the  chief  of  police,  of  the  ta.xgatherer,  and  the  scribe;  on  the 
left,  tliose  of  the  chief  receiver  of  taxes  and  of  the  chief  of  the  scribes. 

(.M.niiily  after  Edouard  Cliiivnnnes,  "  La  Sculpture  sin-  Pierre  en  Cliiiie  a\i  Tcnijis  .lis  Deux  Dynasties 
llun."     Palis,  ls!i;l.) 


iZ^'ore'J'"'']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  69 

belonging  to  the  tiflh  century  B.C.,  mention  is  made  of  ilie  fact  that  it  was  the 
emperor's  prerogative  to  arrange  use  and  custom,  establish  stan(hird  weights  and 
measures,  and  determine  the  signs  of  the  al})habet.  From  that  time  onward  it  is 
said  that  all  the  chariot  wheels  throughout  the  kingdom  were  of  the  same  shape, 
and  tliat  all  writing  was  executed  with  the  same  signs.  Tablets  of  bamboo  were 
used  for  writing  even  after  the  period  of  Kung  fu  tsze.  The  uigns  were  first  cut 
into  these  and  then  painted  over  with  a  composition  of  lacquer.  The  invention, 
or,  at  any  rate,  the  general  use,  of  the  camel's-hair  brush  dates  from  the  year  220 
B.  C.  At  a  later  period  silk  and  otlier  cheaper  materials  were  employed.  The  use 
of  paper  made  of  the  bark  of  trees,  hemp,  rags,  and  old  nets,  does  not  appear  before 
105  A.  D. ;  and  it  can  be  proved  that  silk  also  was  hi  use  until  the  year  418  a.  d. 

Of  special  interest  for  our  knowledge  of  early  Chinese  civilization  are  the 
remains,  existing  in  ditrerent  parts  of  Shantung,  of  the  interior  lining  of  tombs. 
The  two  mam  centres  of  these  discoveries  are  upon  the  Wu  tsze  shan  and  on  the 
Hiao  tang  shan.  In  other  parts  of  Shantung  these  slabs  appear  separately  or  in 
twos  and  threes.  The}-  date  horn  the  second  century  A.  D.,  proljably  between  the 
years  147-169  and  125-137.  However,  references  in  the  classics  make  it  cer- 
tain that  the  art  of  sculpture  in  low  relief  was  widely  spread  throughout  China 
during  the  second  century  B.  C.  The  scenes  represented  upon  the  interior  lining  of 
the  above-mentioned  tombs,  which  are  chiefly  known  to  us  through  the  researches 
of  Edouard  Chavannes,  are  most  exclusively  taken  from  the  Chinese  classics,  but 
their  great  variety  affords  a  characteristic' picture  of  ancient  China.  They  afford 
representations  of  chariots,  riders,  battles,  hunting,  fishing,  imperial  receptions,  and 
of  .solemn  processions  with  elephants,  camels,  and  apes  (see  the  plate,  "Ancient 
Chuiese  Stone  Belief"). 

Certain  representations  of  palaces  with  rich  decorations  on  tlie  outer  walls 
provide  us  with  a  c<implete  explanation  of  a  poem  by  "Wang  Wen  kao,  composed 
'  in  the  second  half  of  the  second  century  A.  D.,  upon  the  "  Palace  of  Supernatural 
Splendour."  This  was  erected  at  Lu  in  Shantung  by  King  Kung,  the  son  of  the 
emperor  king  (154-140  n.  c),  in  the  second  half  of  the  second  century  B.  C.  Wang 
describes  the  palace  as  follows :  "  High  above  on  the  upper  beams  are  barbarians 
in  great  number ;  they  appear  to  observe  the  rules  of  courtly  behaviour  by  kneel- 
ing down,  and  they  are  looking  at  one  another ;  they  have  great  heads  and  the 
fi.xed  look  of  the  vulture ;  they  have  enormous  heads,  with  deeply  sunk  eyes,  and 
they  open  their  eyes  wide ;  they  seem  like  peo])le  who  are  in  danger  and  are 
afraid ;  attacked  by  fear,  they  knit  their  eyebrows  and  are  full  of  uneasiness. 
Divine  beings  are  upon  the  summit  on  the  roof  tree ;  a  woman  of  nephrite  is 
looking  down  below  at  the  window.  Sudilenlj- the  gaze  is  troubled  by  an  uju'oar 
and  a  crowd  of  figures,  as  if  demons  and  spirits  were  there.  All  kinds  and  a  whole 
company  of  beings  are  represented,  those  in  heaven  and  those  on  the  earth,  the 
most  different  objects,  the  most  remarkable  miracles,  the  gods  of  the  moimtains, 
the  spkits  of  the  sea.  Their  pictures  are  there.  With  red  and  blue  colours  the 
thousand  figures  and  their  ten  thousand  transformations  have  been  represented. 
Everything  has  its  place  and  its  own  character  ;  through  the  colouring  each  is  like 
to  its  kind,  and  by  art  their  being  has  been  expressed.  Above  we  are  taken  back 
to  the  great  separatiim  (of  the  two  elements  out  of  chaos)  and  to  the  beginning  of 
the  earliest  antiquity.  There  are  the  five  dragcms  with  two  wings ;  Jen  iioang, 
with  his  nme  heads,  Fu  hi,  with  his  body  covered  with  scales,  Niu  kwa,  in  form  a 


70  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter r 

luau  above  aud  a  snake  below.  Chaos  is  huge  and  without  form ;  its  appearance  is 
rough  aud  uuworked.  And  here  appear,  blazing  with  light,  Hoang  ti  Tang  and 
Vu  ;  they  have  the  fhaiiut  /lita  and  the  hat  nun;  their  mantles  and  clothes  are  of 
different  materials.  Beneath  we  see  the  three  dynasties  (of  Hsia,  Yu,  and  L'hua) ; 
here  are  the  favoured  wives  of  the  emperor,  the  chiefs  of  the  revolts,  the  true  sub- 
jects and  the  pious  sons,  the  famous  men  and  the  virtuous  women,  the  wise  and 
the  stupid,  the  victor  and  the  comiuered ;  there  are  none  that  are  not  represented. 
The  bad  examples  are  there  to  inspire  posterity  with  al>lu)rreuce  for  the  bad,  while 
for  the  instruction  of  posterity  the  good  are  there."  The  palaces  represented  u[)ou 
the  slabs  of  the  tombs  are  ornamented  with  bii-ds  (peacocks,  pheasants,  bustards, 
owb,  geese,  aud  crows)  and  apes  at  play,  also  with  a  falcon  swooping  upon  a  hare. 
These  animals  are  seen  upon  the  roof  tree  and  upon  the  broad,  roof-like  covering 
of  pillars,  standing  apparently  by  themselves  ;  other  slabs  contain  representations 
of  fabulous  beings  of  a  mythical  period,  and  portraits  of  the  early  emperors  and 
heroes  which  resemble  those  described  by  Wang. 

F.   The  Axciext  History  of  China 

(a)  Tlie  Chan  D/piasti/  {1122  to  1-49  B.  C). — The  home  of  the  ancestors  of 
the  Chau  was  originally  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  modern  Pinchau,  in 
the  centi-il  part  of  the  Chiug  Rivei-,  a  tributary  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Wei,  wliicli 
again  runs  into  the  Hoangho.  Hard  pressed  by  tlie  Ti  barbarians  (p.  59),  whom 
he  was  unable  to  appease  either  by  presents  or  payment  of  tribute,  Tanfu,  the  first 
duke  of  Chau  (p.  62),  settled  in  the  year  1327  B.  c.  in  the  Chi  Moimtains  (Chi  shau), 
on  the  south,  half  way  between  the  Ching  and  the  Wei.  His  .s(m  Wen  wang  then 
removed  the  capital  yet  further  south  to  tlie  right  bank  of  the  Wei,  on  the  Feng, 
near  the  modern  Singanfu  in  Sheusi.  A  supposition  that  the  people  and  the 
dynasty  of  the  Chau  were  of  Tartar  origin  is  highly  probable,  and  the  theory  is 
further  supported  by  the  fact  that  the  State  religion  in  their  period  was  largely  sub- 
ject to  Shaman  influences.  Witches  aud  sorcerers  had  an  official  position  under 
the  Chau ;  they  accom])auied  the  prince  everywhere,  and  hardly  any  State  or  family 
business  could  be  transacted  without  pre%aous  consultation  with  them.  Human 
sacrifices  (at  funerals),  whicli  are  mentioned  iu  the  Shiking,  in  the  Liki,and  in  llie 
works  of  Meng  tsze,  and  are  heard  of  under  the  early  rulers  of  the  jtreseul  Mancliu 
dynasty  (middle  of  the  seventeenth  century),  may  also  be  referred  to  Tartar 
influences. 

(o)  Tlie  Hhtory  of  the  Chau  until  (JW  B.  C.  —  The  creation  of  a  large  number 
of  feudal  States  by  the  fir.st  aud  second  rulers  of  the  d^Tiasty  is  perha])s  to  lie 
referred  to  the  necessity  which  they  felt  for  strengthening  their  own  power  by 
attaching  relations  and  servants  to  their  persons,  and  also  to  their  desire  to  gain 
friends  among  such  nobles  as  were  then  in  existence.  Fiefs  were  granted  to 
fifteen  brothers  of  the  first  ruler,  to  the  descendants  of  the  Five  Emperors,  and 
to  other  rulers  and  deserving  statesmen,  numbering  lifty-tive  in  all.  In  addition  to 
these  there  e.\.isted,  or  were  created,  a  large  number  (apjiarently  eighteen  hundred) 
of  great  aud  small  immediate  officials  of  the  em])ire.  The  size  of  the  fiefs  was  pro- 
portionate to  the  rank  of  the  recipients,  and  seems  to  have  varied  between  one 
hundred  li  for  princes   and  counts,  and   fifty  for  the  common    nobility.     Of  the 


iSS^Jea""']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  71 

gieater  fiefs,  of  which  one  hundred  and  twentj'-five  are  known  to  us  by  name,  Chi, 
Lu,  and  Tsao  were  situated  in  Shantung,  Yen  in  Pechili  near  the  modern  Peking, 
Tsin,  afterward  divided  into  Chao  Han  and  We,  in  Shansi;  all  of  these  were 
north  of  the  Hoangho.  To  the  south  of  this  river  in  Honan  were  Chen,  Cheng  (at 
first  in  Sheusi),  Sung,  Tsai,  and  "Wei ;  Chin  (Tsin)  was  in  Sheusi,  to  the  west  of 
the  great  curve  made  by  the  Hoangho;  on  the  central  Yangtsze  in  Hukuang  was 
Chu ;  finally,  Wu  was  situated  in  the  modern  Kiangsu,  and  Yue  in  Chekiang. 
The  creation  of  these  feudal  States  led  to  the  eventual  downfall  of  the  dynasty  ; 
the  great  territorial  lords  increased  their  power  at  the  expense  of  the  imperial 
authority,  and  made  then-  strength  felt  at  first  in  family  disputes  within  their  own 
principalities,  and  afterward  in  struggles  between  the  different  feudal  States. 

The  first  sign  of  a  change  in  the  relations  between  the  emperor  and  the  princes 
was  a  revolt  in  Lu  aud  the  ascent  of  Tsi  to  the  throne,  after  nundering  his  brother 
(1039),  to  which  act  of  aggression  the  emperor  Chao  wang  oft'ered  no  opposition. 
Mu  wang  (1001  to  946)  plays  a  great  part  in  the  later  Taoist  literature.  Appar- 
ently an  expedition  which  he  actually  carried  out  against  a  tribe  of  the  Jung 
gave  rise  to  the  story  that  he  paid  a  ^■isit  to  Si  Wang  mu,  the  mother  of  the  west^ 
em  emperor  who  lived  in  the  Kuenlun.  This  visit  the  Bamboo  Books  relate  with 
many  imaginary  details.  Li  wang  (878  to  827)  was  driven  out  of  the  kingdom 
in  842  by  his  people  on  account  of  his  dissolute  behaviour,  and  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  exile,  while  the  government  was  can'ied  on  by  his  ministers.  His  son 
Hsuau  wang  (827  to  782)  undertook  in  person,  or  through  Iris  generals,  a  number 
of  campaigns,  directed  principally  against  the  fiontier  peoples  who  had  revolted 
from  China  during  his  father's  rule ;  these  he  again  reduced  to  subjection. 

With  his  son  Yu  wang  (781  to  771)  the  "historical"  period  begins.  To  his 
reign  belongs  the  story  of  the  beautiful  girl  of  Pao,  Pao  sse ;  she  was  sent  as  a 
present  by  the  prince  of  the  small  vassal  State  of  Pao,  which  the  emperor  proposed 
to  subdue,  and  soon  succeeded  in  completely  entangling  him  in  her  toils.  The 
Chinese  historians  relate  that  in  order  to  get  a  smile  fi-om  his  lady,  the  king  one 
day  liad  the  signal  fires  lighted  which  were  to  bring  up  the  troops  of  the  \assal 
States  to  his  help.  She  certainly  laughed  to  see  these  troops  thus  fooled ;  but  a 
few  years  later  an  incursion  of  the  Jung  took  place,  and  upon  this  occasion  the 
princes  disregarded  the  signal,  and  the  emperor,  with  his  lady  love,  was  slain  by 
the  enemy.  His  sou  aud  successor.  Ping  wang  (770  to  720),  removed  his  residence 
to  the  eastern  capital  of  Tung  tu  in  Lo  yang,  which  had  been  previously  founded 
by  Cheng  wang,  a  son  of  Wu  wang  (1115).  With  him  begins  the  period  of  the 
Tung  Chau,  that  is,  the  eastern  Chau.  Chinese  history  then  becomes  rather  the 
history  of  struggles  between  the  different  feudal  States  than  that  of  the  imperial 
house,  which  was  itself  in  a  state  of  great  confusion. 

(13)  Kung  fu  fsze.  —  Kung  fu  tsze  (Confucius,  cf.  p.  64)  belonged  to  a  collateral 
branch  of  the  family  of  the  Shang  emperors.  He  was  born  in  the  principality  of  Lu, 
in  the  reign  of  Ling-wang  (.571-544)  and  in  the  year  550.  By  the  influence  of  the 
Ki  family,  one  of  the  three  chief  families  of  the  principality,  upon  which  he  seems 
to  have  been  to  some  extent  dependent,  Kung  fu  tsze  received  an  othcial  post  at  an 
early  age,  which,  however,  he  resigned  about  517  for  tlie  profession  of  teacher.  He 
gathered  about  himself  a  number  of  younger  scholars  from  the  gieat  families; 
attended  by  these  followers,  he  travelled  about  the  country  and  also  \-isited  the 


72  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapter i 

capiliil.  There,  aceonlinp  t<>  a  later  traililion,  lie  is  said  to  have  met  Lao  tsze,  who 
was  older  ihaii  iiimself,  and  held  the  jiost  of  overseer  of  the  treasury.  After  his 
return  to  Lu,  quarrels  broke  out  between  the  three  most  powerful  families  iu  the 
l>rinoipalitv,  the  Ki,  Shuh,  and  Mang.  The  duke  was  driven  out  iu  couseijuence, 
and  Kung  fu  tsze  followed  him  into  the  neighbouring  principality  of  Tse.  Being 
unable  to  obtain  any  appointment  there,  he  returned  to  Lu ;  after  fifteen  years 
he  was  given  a  jwsitiou  in  this  province  as  chief  othcial  of  the  town  of  Ciiung  tu. 
Afterward  he  became  assist<iut  to  the  chief  inspector  of  public  buildings,  and 
tinallv  minister  of  justice.  Li  these  three  posts  he  is  said  to  have  performed 
excelieut  service,  but  he  ultimately  succumbed  to  the  macliinations  of  his  adver- 
saries, who  had  made  a  strong  impression  upon  his  duke  by  a  pre.sent  of  sixty 
beautiful  dancing  and  singing  girls.  It  is  more  probable  that  the  family  of  Ki, 
which  had  appointed  him,  also  brmight  alxnit  his  dismissal  when  they  .saw  that 
Kung  fu  tsze  was  attempting  to  overthrow  the  power  of  the  great  vassals  in  the 
principality  and  to  destroy  their  fortified  towns.  To  the  influence  of  this  family 
the  fact  is  also  to  be  ascribed  that  Kimg  fu  tsze,  after  wandering  through  the 
empire  for  many  years  without  obtaining  any  appointment,  was  at  length  (483) 
allowed  to  return  to  Lu  in  old  age  and  feebleness.  There  he  died  in  478  b.  c.  at 
the  age  of  seventy-three,  his  temper  soured  by  the  disappointment  of  all  his  hoj^s. 
His  last  words  were,  "  No  wise  ruler  appears;  no  one  in  the  whole  kingdom  desires 
my  advice:  it  is  time  for' me  to  die." 

Kung  fu  tsze  was  a  characteristic  product  of  his  age  and  his  country ;  he  was 
careful  to  confine  his  teacliing  to  those  relations  between  man  and  man  arising  out 
of  the  intercourse  of  daily  life,  and  to  this  fact  is  due  the  j)ermauence  of  that  influ- 
ence which  he  has  exerted  upon  his  compatriots.  One  of  his  later  commentators 
says  of  him :  "  Confucius  prefen-ed  to  deal  with  the  usual  antl  the  normal,  not  with 
the  abnormal  nor  the  extraordinary ;  he  spoke  of  what  can  be  attained  by  energy  and 
persistence,  and  not  of  achievements  due  to  su])erhuman  strength;  law  and  order, 
not  anarchy  and  intrigue,  were  his  subjects ;  he  spoke  of  human  affairs,  and  left  the 
supernatural  alone.  He  taught  the  meaning  of  the  principles  laid  down  in  the 
writings  of  the  ancients,  and  enjoined  conformity  with  these,  together  with  morality 
of  life  and  fidelitj'  to  ethical  principles."  To  the  question  of  one  of  his  piijiils 
whether  there  was  any  one  word  which  might  be  taken  as  a  general  rule  for  behav- 
iour throughout  a  man's  life,  he  replied,  "  Is  not  reciprocity  such  a  word  ? "  "When 
another  ])upil  disputed  whether  or  no  evil  should  be  repaid  with  good,  he  an- 
swered, "  AMierewith,  then,  shall  good.be  repaid?  Repay  evil  with  justice,  and 
good  with  go(jd."  Here  he  shows  himself  as  representative  of  popular  opinion 
(Lao  tsze  in  the  Tao  teh  king  transgresses  the  golden  rule),  as  he  does  when 
expressly  confirming  the  ])riuciples  of  blood  vengeance,  which  prevailed  in  China 
at  that  period  and  long  afterward. 

There  is  nothing  exceptional  iu  Kung  fu  tsze's  adoption  of  the  profession  of  a 
teacher,  or  in  his  wanderings  from  one  jirincely  court  to  another.  Before  and  since 
his  time,  teachei-s  have  traversed  China,  generally  witli  a  strong  following  of  pupils 
and  adherents,  amounting  in  many  cases  to  several  thousands ;  they  may,  perhaps, 
be  compared  with  the  Jewish  prophets,  with  the  Braliman  and  Buddhist  sages  and 
the  Greek  phUosophers.  Half  rhetoricians,  half  iioliticians,  they  were  anxious  for 
ajUMjintments  and  occupation  at  the  courts  of  the  princes.  They  were  never  will- 
ingly received,  ou  account  of  their  haughty  demeanour  and  their  claims  to  su])erior 


iT^or^""']  HISTORY   OF    THE    WORLD  73 

knowledge,  and  perhaps  even  less  willingly  in  view  of  their  desires  for  material 
advantage.  To  the  princes  and  f)ften  to  the  population  they  were  a  burden,  as  they 
were  the  abhoiTence  of  the  professional  statesman.  Generally,  even  in  cases  where 
they  had  found  recognition  for  the  moment  and  practical  euiploymeiit,  they  were 
not  long  alile  to  maintain  tlieir  gnnnid,  and  succumbed  to  the  machinations  of  the 
native  nobles  and  othcial  families  who  were  struggling  for  power  in  every  small 
State.  "  After  the  death  of  Kung  fu  tsze,"  so  runs  the  history  of  the  earlier  Han 
dynasty  (210  B.  C.-2-4  a.d.),  "his  teaching  came  to  an  end,  and  after  the  death  of 
his  seventy  pupils  [this  number  includes,  no  doubt,  only  the  chief  of  these]  his 
doctrines  were  distorted.  There  were  a  great  number  of  "different  texts  of  the  Shu 
king,  of  the  Shi  king,  and  of  the  I  king ;  during  the  disorders  and  quarrels  in  the 
period  of  warfare  between  the  States,  truth  and  falsehood  became  yet  more 
confused,  and  great  disorder  reigned  throughout  the  doctrines  of  tlie  different 
philosophers." 

(7)  Menr/  tsze.  —  Meng  tsze  (^lencius)  first  appears  during  tliis  period  of  the 
decay  of  philosophy  and  the  empire.  He,  too,  was  born  in  Lu,  in  .371,  and  was  a 
descendant  of  one  of  the  three  great  families  who  shared  the  power  "of  that  prin- 
cipality at  the  time  of  Kung  fu  tsze,  though  they  had  by  this  time  lost  their  position 
and  become  imjioverislied ;  so  far  his  career  was  similar  to  tliat  of  his  prototype. 
At  an  early  period  he  gathered  a  number  of  scholars  around  liim  in  his  native 
State,  who,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  time,  contributed  to  his  mamtenance  in 
proportion  to  their  means;  but  in  331  he  gave  up  this  peaceful  existence,  and  set 
tiut  with  his  pupils  to  begin  a  career  of  political  reform  at  the  courts  of  the  smaller 
principalities.  He  occupied  an  unimportant  post  in  Tse  until  the  year  323,  appar- 
ently with  no  gi-eat  success,  and  then  travelled  to  Sung,  Su,  Tsao,  Tang,  and  Leang, 
ultimately  returning  to  Tse ;  eventually  he  travelled  back  to  Lu  in  the  year  309, 
discouraged  and  undeceived.  Here  he  lived  in  retirement,  and  died  forgotten  and 
unnoticed  in  289  B.  c. 

Meng  tsze  was  undoubtedly  a  man  of  much  greater  energy  and  imjiortance 
than  Kung  fu  tsze  ;  nevertheless,  more  than  thirteen  himdred  }ears  elapsed  before  he 
received  official  recognition  (1088  a.  d.)  and  was  given  a  place,  though  onl}-  a  fourth 
in  rank,  among  the  scholars  in  the  temples  of  Kung  fu  tsze.  At  this  time  his 
works  were  included  among  the  classics  (ji.  <i5).  This  official  disregard  is  by  no 
means  in  harmony  with  the  respect  with  whicli  he  was  regarded  in  literary  circles 
from  the  second  century  a.  d.,  and  is,  no  doubt,  to  be  ascribed  to  the  fact  that 
whereas  Kung  fu  tsze  supported  the  supremacy  of  the  imperial  house,  and  con- 
demned any  transgression  of  the  narrow  limits  of  ceremonial  duty  by  one  of  tlie 
imperial  princes  as  unjustifiable  presumption,  Meng  tsze,  on  the  otlier  hand,  had 
observed  the  weakness  of  the  existing  dynasty,  which  indeed  collapsed  forty  years 
after  his  death,  and  ]iropounded  the  o])inion  that  the  imjterial  throne  belonged  by 
right  to  the  worthiest.  ^Moreover,  in  liis  teaching  the  people  were  the  first  consid- 
eration. "  Tlie  people,"  he  says,  "  are  the  chief  element  in  a  country ;  after  them 
come  the  deities  of  the  arable  land  and  the  corn,  while  the  ruler  is  the  least  impor- 
tant of  all."  In  his  explanation  of  the  passage  in  the  Sliu  king,  "  The  heaven  sees 
as  my  people  see,"  Meng  tsze  observes  that  the  heaven  is  not  speaking  for  itself. 
H  the  leader  who  is  in  power  rules  well,  this  is  a  proof  that  his  power  has  been 
given  him  l)y  the  heaven ;  should  he  rule  badly,  some  one  will  arise  to  take  his  power 


VI  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter i 

from  luiii.  It  was  for  this  a'asmi  tlial  the  founders  of  the  L'hau  dynasty  had  over- 
tlirowu  the  hist  unworthy  nionarchs  of  the  Shang  dynasty,  and  in  this  act  had 
shown  themselves  the  instninients  eiujihiyed  by  the  lieaven.  Meug  tsze  even  asks 
King  Siieu,  at  whose  court  he  then  was,  to  follow  this  example  and  to  overthrow  the 
t'hau  dynasty,  which  had  shown  itself  unworthy  of  the  throne.  Naturally  such 
principles  were  not  likely  to  predispose  rulers  of  that  or  of  later  periods  in  favour 
of  the  man  who  publicly  proclaimed  them.  However,  the  principles  which  he 
preached  proved  a  material  counterpoise  to  the  absolutist  tendencies  of  Chinese 
rulers.  Tiie  vigour  of  intellectual  life  in  China  at  his  time  is  shown  by  his  dis- 
cussion of  the  question  whether  liumau  nature  is  good  or  bad,  by  his  opposition 
to  the  demands  of  the  socialists  of  the  period  that  everj'  one,  the  prince  included, 
should  procure  what  was  needful  for  his  own  maintenance,  that  is,  should  sow, 
reaji,  and  prefxire  for  harvest ;  by  his  refutation  of  the  teachiug  of  Mi  Tih  ujion 
'•  universal  love,"  that  is,  benevolence  toward  all,  and  also  by  liis  refutation  of  the 
principle  enunciated  by  the  Taoist  Chan  Chu,  "  Every  man  for  himself,"  and  by  his 
philosophical  dissertations  on  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  on  filial  afTection, 
and  many  other  subjects.  Perhaps  in  China  as  in  Germany  the  system  of  petty 
States  which  limited  the  political  horizon  of  the  people  and  of  the  princes  proved 
favourable  to  the  development  of  science. 

(8)  The  Fall  of  the  Chau.  —  The  power  of  the  imperial  house  had  been  weak- 
ened Iwth  by  the  struggles  between  the  princes  of  the  empire  and  by  family 
disputes  and  consequent  quarrels  about  the  succession,  which  often  residted  in 
revolt  and  murder;  it  was  no  longer  capable  of  interference  in  the  continual 
struggles  between  the  vassals  of  the  empire.  The  re.sulls  oi  these  struggles,  which 
began  at  the  outset  of  the  fiftli  century  B.  c.  and  ended  in  221  li.  c,  can  be  seen  ia 
the  following  summary  drawn  up  from  the  lists  of  Arendt :  Sung  conquers  Tsao 
in  487,  and  is  conijuered  by  Clii  in  2S6  (Chi  is  conquered  by  Chin,  221).  Chu 
conquers  Chen  in  47S,  Tsai  in  447,  Chi  in  445,  Yue  in  3.34,  Lu  in  249,  and  is 
c.in(iuered  by  Chin,  223.  Yue  conquers  Wu  in  473,  and  is  conquered  by  Chu  in 
334  (Chu  con(iuered  by  Chin,  223).  Han  divides  Tsin  with  Chao  and  We  in  376 ; 
conquers  Cheng,  375,  and  is  conquered  by  Chin,  230.  Chao  (later  Tai)  divides  Tsin 
with  Han  and  We  in  376 ;  is  conquered  by  Chin  in  228,  as  also  is  Tai  in  222. 
We  divides  Tsin  with  Han  and  Chao  in  376 ;  is  conquered  by  Chin  in  225.  Chi 
conquers  Sung,  286,  and  is  conquered  by  Chin  in  221.  Chin  conquers  Han  in  230, 
Chao  in  228,  We  in  225,  Chu  in  223,  Tai  and  Yen  in  222,  Chi  in  221,  and  annexes 
Wei  in  209. 

{h)  The  Chin  Dynasty  {220-206  B.  C).  —  The  State  whicli  ultimately  emerged 
victorious  from  this  universal  struggle  and  overthrew  tlie  imperial  Imuse  of  the 
Chau  was  that  of  the  Chin.  The  new  dynasty,  like  the  old,  was  profoundly 
affected  by  Tartar  influence.  Fei  tsze,  the  ancestor  of  the  clan,  had  been  overseer 
of  the  stable  of  the  emjieror  Hsiao  (009-895)  of  the  Chau  dynasty,  and  had  been 
invested  by  him  with  the  district  of  Chin.  His  son  ruled  as  count  of  Cliin  from 
857-848 ;  the  first  duke  was  Po  (847-845),  and  the  first  king  of  Chin,  Hui  wen 
(337-311).  In  256  b.  c.  Nan  wang,  the  last  ruler  of  Chau,  abdicated  in  favour  .of 
Chao  Hsiang  of  Chin;  his  second  successor,  Chuang  Hsiang  (240-247),  deposed 
the  regent  of  the  eastern  Cliau,  the  last  scion  of  the  imperial  family,  in  249,  and 


trj^o^ea'"-']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  75 

tliert'liy  1  nought  the  dynasty  to  au  end.  His  successor  in  Chin  subdued  (246-221) 
the  States  of  Han,  Chao,  We,  Chai,  Tai,  Yen,  and  Chi,  which  had  hitherto  been  in- 
dependent, and  in  220  B.  c.  ascended  the  throne  of  the  united  kingdom  under  the 
title  of  Chin  Shi  Huang  ti,  the  first  (illustrious)  emperor  of  the  Chin  dj-nasty. 

Shi  Huang  ti,  one  of  the  gi-eatest  ijrinces  of  China,  enjoys  a  very  bad  reputation 
among  the  Chinese.  This  is  due  to  two  events  for  which  he  was  responsible, — the 
"burning  of  the  books "  and  the  building  of  the  great  wall.  Sze  ma  tsien  (163-85 
B.  c.)  in  his  "  Historical  Eecords  "  lias  given  a  dramatic  description  of  the  events 
which  preceded  tlie  destruction  of  the  classics  ordereil  in  the  year  21.3  B.  c.  From 
this  destructicm  only  the  books  of  medicine,  of  fortune-telling,  and  of  agriculture, 
and  the  works  of  j\Ieng  tsze,  are  said  to  have  been  spared.  The  truth  probably  is 
that  the  emperor  desired  to  put  an  end  to  the  criticisms  of  the  literary  classes,  who 
were  continually  referring  to  the  traditions  of  the  past,  and  therefore  ordered  the 
destruction  of  the  works  containing  these  traditions.  When  this  edict  produced 
no  satisfactory  result,  he  determined  upim  the  execution  of  the  culpable  literati. 
More  than  four  hinidred  and  sixty  learned  men  who  had  retained  the  proscribed 
books  instead  of  surrendering  them  for  destruction,  and  had  spoken  evil  of  the 
emperor,  were  buried  alive,  and  the  edict  was  carried  out  with  the  utmost  severity 
against  all  suspicious  persons.  The  edict  was  issued  at  the  instigation  of  the 
minister  Li  s/.e.  It  was  to  the  effect  that  all  chronicles,  with  the  sole  exception 
of  those  of  the  house  of  Chin,  together  with  all  copies  of  the  Shi  king,  of  the  Shu 
kuig,  and  the  books  of  the  Hundred  Schools,  should  be  burned ;  any  one  who  did  not 
deli\-er  up  his  books  was  to  be  branded  and  sent  to  hard  labour  on  the  great  wall. 
We  can  easily  understand  that  the  laudatorcs  tempo7-is  acti  were  troublesome,  and 
perhaps  appeared  dangerous  to  the  man  who  had  been  the  tirst  to  put  down  the 
dangers  of  the  vassal  system  with  a  strong  hand,  and  to  save  the  kingdom  from 
the  disruption  into  which  it  would  have  fallen  without  his  family  and  himself; 
moreover,  similar  measures  had  been  employed  at  an  earlier  period  in  China  by 
conquerors  and  usurpers,  or  at  any  rate  had  been  directed  against  the  records  of 
the  princijialities  which  they  had  subdued. 

Since  the  last  years  of  the  fourth  centurj-  b.  C.  ancestors  of  Shi  Huang  ti  had 
built  isolated  fortifications  against  the  Hu,  as  also  had  the  princes  of  Chao  and 
Yen  against  the  same  enemj-  and  against  the  Jung,  who  now  appear  under  the 
name  of  Hiung  nu.  Shi  Huang  ti  probably  did  nothing  more  than  unite  these 
isolated  fortresses  into  one.  The  gi-eat  wall  so  constructed  was  an  earthen  ram- 
part forming  a  protection  against  the  incursions  of  nioimted  freebooters,  with  a 
length  of  twenty-tive  himdred  kilometres,  extending  from  Minchau  on  the  east  of 
Lunchaufu  in  Kansu  as  far  as  Pechili,  and  perlutps  as  far  as  the  sea,  where  a  wall  of 
later  date  now  ends  at  Shanhaikuan.  He  did  not,  however,  begin  the  construction 
of  this  wall  until  he  had  driven  back  the  Hiung  nu  with  a  gi-eat  army ;  the  erection 
of  the  great  wall  was  conseipiently  rather  a  triumphal  monument  than  a  work  of 
defence.  The  retreat  of  the  nomadic  races  on  the  north  and  west  further  westward, 
and  the  resulting  mvasions  of  West  Asia  and  Eastern  pAuope,  are  more  easily  expli- 
cable as  a  conse<pience  of  a  revival  of  strength  in  China  and  of  her  advance,  than  by 
the  existence  of  the  wall.  It  is  impossible  to  say  how  much  credence  may  be  given 
to  the  reports  of  the  fabulous  numbers  of  men  employed  in  the  construction  of  the 
wall;  according  to  Cliinese  authors,  only  convicts  were  employed  upon  the  work. 
Popidar  ideas  ui^n  the  subject  are,  however,  well  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  in 


7G  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  lc/..,jjter I 

the  i-eoullecti'M»  of  tlu-  jieopli-  the  lime  of  llie  buiklinp  of  tlie  •jreat  wall  lives  as  the 
only  period  vviien  llie  birtli  of  ii  ilaiij;liler  was  an  occasion  for  joy,  as  daiii^liters  could 
not  be  sent  to  work  vijion  the  wall. 

Shi  Huang  ti  ("_'-0-210)  also  Imilt  a  castle  in  llsienyang,  near  Singanfii,  the 
famous  ( t  fang  kung.  The  chief  hall  in  the  upper  Hoor  is  said  txj  have  been  large 
enough  to  contain  ten  thousand  persons,  and  standards  tifty  feet  high  could  lie  set 
up  in  the  under  rooms.  Kound  these  rooms  galleries  i-an ;  a  high  causeway  led 
from  the  castle  to  the  ridge  of  the  mountain  lying  to  the  south,  where  a  similar 
construction  passed  over  the  river  Wei  to  the  capital.  One  of  the  palace  gates  is 
said  to  have  been  made  of  loadstone;  if  a  warrior  in  mail  armour  or  any  one  with 
arms  concealed  about'him  attempted  to  pass  the  gate  he  %\-as  rooted  to  the  spot  by 
the  loadstone.  A  similar  legend  referring  to  the  action  of  the  loadstone  upon 
iron  appears  at  a  later  time  in  the  history  of  the  popular  hero  Chu  ko  liang  (181- 
234  A.  D.),  and  is  uo  doubt  to  be  referred  to  Indian  sources.  If  the  legend  about 
Shi  Huang  ti  does  not  also  belong  to  a  later  time,  it  may  contain  a  reference  to 
his  regidations  for  the  general  disarmament  of  the  people.  Of  the  arms  collected 
upon  that  occasion  bells  anil  twelve  statues  of  the  liarbarians  are  said  to  have  been 
constructed  ;  most  of  the  latter  were  ajiparently  broken  up  in  the  year  19 J  .\.  v.  and 
coined  into  cash,  though  some  survived  until  the  third  century  a.  d. 

For  the  maintenance  of  the  Chin  dynasty  and  the  continuance  of  the  work 
begun  by  its  lirst  emperor  a  supply-  of  capable  men  was  an  indisjiensable  necessity. 
Shi  Huang  ti  died  in  the  year  210.  His  funeral  was  celebrated  with  great  solem- 
nity, and  a  number  of  his  wives  and  servants,  and  the  labourers  who  had  been 
emphiyed  upon  the  tomb,  are  said  to  have  been  buried  with  him.  His  elder  son 
Fusu  had  been  set  aside  in  the  arrangements  for  the  succession,  and  the  throne  fell 
to  the  younger  son,  under  the  title  of  Erhshi  Huang  ti,  or  second  emperor.  How- 
ever, at  the  same  moment  pretenders  arose  in  all  the  vassal  States  which  his 
father  had  subdued,  and  though  at  the  outset  the  imperial  armies  fought  success- 
fully, they  were  afterward  defeated.  Finally  (207  B.C.)  the  eunuch  Chao  Kao 
murdered  the  emperor,  and  set  his  nephew  Tsze  Ying  upon  the  throne ;  he,  how- 
ever, after  sixty-four  days  surrendered  the  power  to  Liu  Pang  of  Pei,  who  had  l)een 
an  otticial,  and  afterward  became  the  first  em]>eror  of  the  Han  dynasty.  Thus  the 
Chin  dynasty  came  to  an  inglorious  end  in  the  year  206. 

(c)  The  First  or  JVcstern  Han  Di/nastij  {206  B.  C.-S  A.  D.).  —  The  period  of 
the  Han  dynasty  may  be  described  as  a  time  of  literary  reaction,  and  also,  if  the 
Tartar  origin  of  the  preceding  dynasty,  or  at  any  rate  their  Tartar  tendencies,  be 
taken  into  account,  as  a  period  of  national  reaction  against  foreign  rule  and  influ- 
ence. The  founder  of  the  dynasty  had  to  pass  through  a  severe  struggle  liefore  he 
succeeded  in  establishing  peace  and  ordi'r  throughout  the  kingdom.  In  all  the 
thirty-six  districts  of  the  kingdom  pretenders  had  arisen  and  assumed  the  title  of 
kings  ;  the  least  at  which  they  aimed  was  indejiendence  f)f  the  central  jiower.  Liu 
Pang  was  originally  a  jieasant  of  the  modern  Kiangsu,  and  owed  his  iniluence  to  a 
rich  marriage.  At  the  head  of  a  body  of  rebels  he  had  made  himself  duke  of  Pei ; 
he  formed  an  alliance  with  Hsiang  Chi,  the  "tyrant  or  royal  protector"  of  tlie 
Western  Chu  (Honan  and  North  Xgan-hwei),  and  the  nephew  of  Hsiang  Liang 
(t  200),  who  as  early  as  200  B.C.  had  revolted  "against  the  Imuse  of  Chin  :  and  tlie 
two  allies  were  suci^essful  wliere  Hsiang  Liang  had  failed.     The  last  of  the  Chin, 


i'SK'oZ'""']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  77 

Tsze  Ying,  surrendered  to  Liu  Pang  the  insignia  of  the  empire ;  but  the  latter  was 
unalile  to  cope  alone  with  Hsiang  Chi,  who  had  put  to  the  sword,  if  report  be  true, 
the  whole  army  of  the  Chin  in  206  (two  hundred  thousand  men),  which  had  sur- 
rendered to  him.  Liu  Pang,  therefore,  procured  his  appointment  as  king  of  Han  by 
Hsiang  Chi.  Hsiang  Clii,  or  "  Pa  wang,"  first  murdered  Tsze  Ying  and  afterward 
I  Ti  (I'rmce  Huai  of  Chu),  whom  he  had  set  up  as  nominal  ruler  of  tlie  princi- 
jjality ;  Liu  Pang  then  revolted  against  him,  and  conquered  him  after  a  long 
struggle.  In  202  Pa  wang  committed  suicide,  and  Liu  Pang  ascended  the  throne, 
under  the  name  of  Kao  Tsu  (or  Kao  Ti),  as  the  first  emperor  of  the  Han  dynasty. 

(a)  From  Kao  Tsu  to  Ching  Ti.  —  Kao  Tsu  (202-195)  is  considered  to 
have  been  a  kind  and  upright  prince.  He  was,  however,  continually  forced  to 
struggle  against  rebel  nobles  to  whom,  in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  the  Chin,  he 
had  assigned  districts  of  their  own ;  and  he  died  of  wounds  received  in  one  of 
these  campaigns.  The  injustice  and  cruelty  committed  in  his  reign  is  ascribed 
to  the  action  of  his  consort,  the  empress  Lu  hau.  Her  son  Hui  Ti  (194-188) 
succeeded  his  father  Kao  Tsu ;  but  imder  his  reign  and  that  of  his  successor,  his 
adopted  son  Shao  Ti,  as  also  under  Prince  Hung  of  Hengshan,  whom  the  empress 
set  up  after  dethroning  Shao  Ti,  the  power  of  the  empress  became  unlimited ;  she 
is  the  only  woman  who  appears  in  the  Chinese  lists  of  rulers  as  an  empress  (187— 
ISO).  Her  object  seems  to  have  been  to  secure  the  possession  of  the  throne  to  her 
family ;  but  after  her  death  Prince  Hung  was  deposed,  and  Chau  Po,  an  old  ad- 
lierent  of  Kao  Tsu,  slaughtered  all  the  members  of  tlie  Lu  family,  and  gave  the 
throne  to  the  son  of  a  a>ncubine  of  Kao  Tsu,  who  had  hitherto  lived  in  retirement 
under  the  title  of  prmce  of  Tsai.  The  new  ruler  assumed  the  name  of  Wen  Ti 
upon  his  accession. 

Wen  Ti  (179-157)  appears  to  have  done  his  best  to  increase  the  prosperity  of 
the  nation.  He  abolished  the  prohibition  upon  the  books,  which  had  become  a  dead 
letter  since  the  time  of  Kao  Tsu  ;  he  created  a  system  of  general  liability  to  mili- 
tary service  which  obliged  men  between  twenty-three  and  fifty-six  years  of  age  to 
serve  upon  the  frontier,  and  he  founded  military  colonies  at  the  great  wall.  In 
place  of  the  "  Five  Punishments  "  (l)randing,  cutting  off  the  nose,  mutilation,  cas- 
tration, and  death)  which  had  been  in  use  since  the  time  of  the  Chau  dynasty,  he 
introduced  the  punishments  of  shaving  the  head  and  of  flogging,  and  reserved  the 
death  penalty  for  the  most  serious  offences ;  he  also  abolished  the  law  which  in  the 
case  of  certain  crimes  punished  the  family  of  the  guilty  man.  Under  the  successor 
of  Wen  Ti,  his  son  Ching  Ti  (156-141),  a  great  revolt  of  the  chief  vassals  broke 
out,  whicli  was  only  suppressed  with  difficulty.  With  the  most  powerful  of  these 
nobles,  Chao  To,  who  Iiad  lived  as  prmce  of  Soutli  Yueh  in  Kwanglung  and 
Kwangsi  after  the  fall  of  the  Chin  dynasty,  disputes  frequently  occurred,  which, 
however,  were  always  peacefully  adjusted.  In  the  year  196  B.C.  Chao  To  recog- 
nised tlie  supremacy  of  the  emperor  Kao  Tsu;  a  revolt  under  the  em])ress  Lu  hau 
added  the  province  of  Hunan  to  his  posse.ssions.  He  died  in  the  year  137  B.C., 
at  tlie  age  of  more  than  one  hundred  ;  his  grandson,  who  succeeded  him,  was  sub- 
dued by  Wu  Ti,  the  son  and  successor  of  Cliing  Ti. 

(/3)  Wu  Ti  —  Wu  Ti  (140-87)  is  certainly  the  most  important  ruler  of 
this  dynast}-,  although  lie  seems  to  have  been  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Taoists, 


78  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  lchaj,tn- 1 

wlio  hiul  then  sunk  to  the  position  of  mere  alchemists  and  diviners.  On  tlie  other 
hand,  lie  {^really  furthered  the  development  of  Chinese  litemture  by  the  support 
which  he  gave  to  authors  liy  the  organisation  of  pul)lic  examinations,  tlie  founda- 
tion of  an  academy  and  a  library,  and  a  discussion  and  rearrangement  of  the 
ceremonial  which  forms  an  important  part  of  the  Chinese  education.  He  also 
inlroduced  the  custom  of  year  mottoes  (nien  luiao),  that  is,  the  designation  of 
longer  or  siiorter  periods  of  years  by  a  name  cimsidered  to  be  of  good  omen,  such 
as  "  eternal  jieace."  Events  which  occur  in  such  a  series  of  years  are  dated  as  hav- 
ing lui]iiiened  in  the  Krst,  second,  or  following  }ears  of  the  "  eternal  peace."  lu 
early  times  these  mottoes  were  constantly  changed  (Wu  Ti  employetl  eleven  in 
the  reign  of  tifty-three  years).  From  the  time  of  the  Ming  dynasty  the  emperors 
employed  only  one  such  motto  throughout  tlieir  reign,  by  which  they  were  known, 
at  any  rate  to  foreigners ;  instances  are  Yung  lo  and  Wan  li  (Ming),  Kang  Hsi, 
Kien  Lung,  Kwang  .Sii  (^lanchu). 

Chinese  chronology  is  usually  reckoned  by  cycles  of  sixty  years,  each  of  which 
is  designated  by  a  name  composed  of  two  signs  (words),  one  of  which  is  taken  from 
the  ten  signs  of  the  Heavenly  llrauches  and  the  other  from  the  twelve  signs  of 
the  Earthly  Twigs.  These  are  taken  in  order,  .so  that  the  first  ten  Heavenly 
Branches  coincide  with  the  first  ten  Earthly  Twigs ;  then  the  first  of  the  former 
c<.iincides  with  the  eleventh  of  the  latter,  the  second  of  the  former  with  the  twelfth 
of  the  latter,  the  third  of  the  former  with  the  first  of  the  latter,  and  so  on,  until  the 
ten  Heavenly  Branches  have  been  repeated  six  times  and  the  twelve  Earthly 
Twigs  five  times,  so  that  the  full  number  of  sixty  conjunctions  has  been  attained. 
This  system  was  at  first  exclusively  used  for  fortune-telling,  and  its  invention  is 
ascribed  to  Ta  Xao,  an  official  of  Huang  Ti,  ui  the  year  2607  B.C. ;  however,  the 
first  cycle  does  not  begin  until  the  year  2637  B.C.  For  chronological  pmposes 
(for  the  identification  of  any  one  year)  the  cyclic  sj-stem  is  said  to  have  been  uitro- 
duced  for  the  firet  time  under  the  Han  dynasty,  by  the  usurper  Wan  Mang  (3?)0- 
323  B.C.).  However,  there  are  many  traces  of  its  earlier  use;  the  two  earliest  tlates 
thus  determined  occur  in  the  years  1753  and  1122  B.C.  The  employment  of  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  Animal  cycle  for  chronological  purposes,  that  is,  for  a  cycle  of 
twelve  j-ears,  seems  to  be  of  Tartar  origin,  and  to  have  been  first  em])loyed  under 
the  Tang  dynasty  (618  or  62S-907).  It  did  not,  however,  come  uito  general  use 
until  the  Mongol  dynasty  (1206  or  1280-1367),  though  Chinese  historians  profess 
to  detect  traces  of  the  use  of  this  system  under  the  Han  dynasty.  By  this 
system  mention  is  made  of  events  as  happening  in  the  year  of  the  rat,  etc.  The 
signs  of  the  Ciiinese  animal  cycle  are  the  rat,  the  ox,  the  tiger,  the  hare,  the 
dragon,  the  snake,  the  horse,  the  cath,  the  ape,  the  cock,  the  dog,  and  the  pig. 

Wu  Ti  appears  to  have  paid  special  attention  to  securing  the  permanence  of 
his  rule.  He  again  broke  down  tlie  ])ower  of  the  great  vassals,  and  in  the  year 
106  B.  c.  replaced  the  seventy-four  districts  into  which  the  kingdom  had  gradually 
been  divided,  by  thirteen  provinces.  The.se  were  (1)  8y  li  Chiao  Wei,  the  north- 
western part  of  the  modern  Shansi ;  (2)  Vu,  the  modern  Honan ;  (3)  and  (4)  Chi 
and  Yen,  parts  of  Shantung  and  I'echili ;  (5)  Hsu,  parts  of  Shantung  and  Kiangsu; 
(6)  Tsiug,  the  eastern  part  of  .Shantung;  (7)  Ching,  comjwsed  of  Hupeh  and 
Hunan ;  (8)  Yang,  composed  of  Kiangsu,  Kiangsi,  and  Xgan-hwei ;  (9)  I,  parts 
of  Hupeh  and  .Szechwan  ;  (10)  Liang,  jiarts  (if  Shensi  and  Kansu ;  (11)  Ping,  ])art 
of  Kansu;   (12)  Yu,  parts  of  rechili  and    Liaulung;    (13)  Chiao,   composed   of 


ifKi™""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  79 

Kwaiigtung,  Kwangsi,  and  Tongking.     It  appears  from  the  above  statement  that 

the  most  jiopulous  and  therefore  the  most  impoitauL  part  of  tlie  kingdom  was  then 
situated  uu  either  bank  of  the  middle  and  lower  H<jaDgho.  Chinese  accounts  esti- 
mate the  district  ruled  by  the  first  Han  dynasty  at  145,136,405  Chiug  (1  Ching 
=  100  ilau) ;  8,270,536  Ching  of  this  total  are  said  to  have  been  arable  land. 
Here  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  estimate  of  1874  only  gives  7,368,050  Ching, 
of  arable  laud,  and  the  last  estimate  preceding  that  date,  8,150,188  Ching,  both  of 
•which  totals  are  considerably  less  than  that  of  the  second  century.  The  chief 
source  of  income  for  the  government  was  at  that  time  the  property  tax,  wliich  was 
levied  to  the  extent  of  one-tifteenth  of  the  produce  of  the  laud.  At  times  this 
was  reduced  to  one-thirtieth,  and  was  even  remitted  entirelj-  in  }-ears  of  famine,  or 
in  districts  through  which  the,emi)eror  had  passed  on  his  journeys.  The  occupant 
was  himself  responsible  for  the  declaration  of  his  assessment,  and  false  information 
was  punisiied  by  death.  Payment  was  made  in  kind,  and  also,  under  the  later 
Han  dynasty,  in  woollen  cloth  and  silk.  The  thirteen  provinces  were  subjected  to 
an  eipial  number  of  travelling  inspectors,  the  predecessors  of  the  later  governors. 

\Va  Ti  also  strove  to  extend  the  power  of  his  kingdom  abroad.  Campaigns 
undertaken  against  the  Hiung  nu  in  the  years  123,  121,  and  110  led  to  successful 
results,  though  not  so  the  campaign  of  99.  Korea  was  subdued  between  the  years 
108  and  106,  and  a  part  of  it  was  for  a  time  incorporated  with  China.  The  em- 
peror's etforts  to  extend  China's  influence  westward  appear  to  have  led  to  the 
despatch  of  various  embassies ;  of  these  the  best  known  was  that  of  General  Chang 
kien,  who  was  sent  to  the  Yuetshi  (Yueh  Ti  =  Getae  ?),  who  were  continually  at  war 
with  the  Hiung  nu.  The  latter  captured  the  general  and  kept  him  prisoner  for 
many  years.  Wiien  he  was  at  last  released  he  was  again  despatched  to  Ta  yuan 
(Ferghana)  witli  diplomatic  proposals,  and  also  to  Si  Yu  (Turkestan)  in  the  year 
122.  By  his  intervention,  diplomatic  and  commercial  communication  was  l)egun  as 
early  as  115  with  thirty-six  States  situated  in  those  districts.  The  States  of  An  hsi 
and  Ta  tsin,  which  are  more  frequently  mentioned  •  from  this  period,  are  identiiied 
by  Friedrich  Hirth  with  Parthia  and  Syria  (the  capital,  Antu  =  Antioch). 

(7)  From  Chao  Ti  to  Ju  tsze  Ying.  —  Wu  Ti  executed  his  legitimate  consort, 
together  with  the  heir  to  the  throne,  for  their  share  in  a  supposed  conspiracj-  against 
himself,  and  a]>poiuted  the  son  of  one  of  his  couculjines  as  liis  successor,  the  mother 
of  whom  he  forced  to  commit  suicide,  in  order  that  she  might  not  become  a  second 
Lu  hau.  Little  need  be  said  of  the  later  emperors  of  this  dynasty  :  Chao  Ti  (86-74), 
Hsiian  Ti  (73-49),  Yiian  Ti  (48-33),  Cheng  Ti  (32-7),  Ai  Ti  (6-1  B.  c),  Ping  Ti  (1-5 
A.  I).),  anil  .Fu  tsze  Ying  (6-8  A.  D.).  Home  affairs  were  made  up  of  family  and  liarem 
quarrels,  and  disputes  about  the  succession,  which  often  led  to  revolts.  On  the  other 
hand,  Chinese  influence  abroad  seems  to  have  increased  ;  at  any  rate,  ambassadors  of 
the  Hiung  nu  appear  more  constantly  and  more  regularly  at  the  court.  The  mother 
of  the  emperor  Cheng  Ti  belonged  to  the  ^lang  family,  the  members  of  wliich 
gradually  gained  control  of  the  administration  until  the  year  8  a.d.,  when  Wang 
Mang  deposed  the  last  representative  of  the  western  Han,  who  was  only  six  yeai-s 
of  age,  and  proclaimed  himself  emperor,  under  the  title  of  "  Hsin  "  (new  dynasty). 

(S)    The  Influence  of  the  Western  Han  upon  Literature  and  Architecture. —  The 
efforts  of  the  first  Han  dynasty  to  revive  interest  in  Chinese  literature  (cf.  p.  76)  seem 


80  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chaptrr i 

to  have  been  successful.  As  rcgartls  the  classical  works  aloue  there  were  in  ex- 
isteuce  294  collectious  (fraguieuts,  sections  ?)  of  the  I  king,  412  of  the  Shu  king, 
416  volumes  of  the  Slii  king,  "i^o  collections  of  the  Li  ki,  l(i5  of  the  treatise  upon 
music,  948  upon  history,  229  of  the  Lun  Yu,  836  of  the  orthodox  sages,  as  well 
as  other  works  within  the  imperial  library.  Such  em^wrors  as  Wu  Ti  did  a  gieat 
deal  to  arouse  and  maintain  interest  in  the  literature  of  the  country. 

In  other  respects  the  age  of  the  western  Han  must  be  considered  as  one  of 
especial  brilliancy.  Apart  from  all  the  descriptions  given  by  Chinese  historians 
of  the  palaces  and  gardens  of  the  emperors  of  this  time,  much  yet  remains  to 
arouse  our  astonishment.  A  great  advance  in  architecture  had  been  made  under 
tlie  Chin  dynasty  (cf.  p.  74),  but  this  was  far  surpassed  by  the  Han  emperors,  and 
by  Wu  Ti  in  particular.  At  the  outset  of  the  second  century  b.  c.  the  emperor 
Kao  Tsu  built  a  town  and  palace  in  Changan,  which  is  said  to  have  been  sixty- 
five  li  (about  thiity-three  kilometres)  in  extent,  witli  twelve  gates  and  sixteen 
bridges,  and  surroimdeil  by  a  lofty  wall  of  earth  thirty-tive  feet  liigh.  Tiie  town 
existed  until  the  year  582  A.  D.,  and  was  then  abandoned  by  the  emperor  Wen  Ti 
of  the  Sui  dynasty,  who  removeil  the  capital  to  Singanfu.  Parts  of  the  wall  are 
still  in  existence.  In  this  town  was  situated  the  palace  of  the  empress  Chao  yang, 
formerly  a  famous  dancer,  under  the  name  of  Chao  Fei  yen  (Chao  =  the  Hying 
swallow).  The  emperor  Cheng  Ti  had  taken  her  into  his  harem  in  18  B.  c,  and 
made  her  his  consort  in  16  B.  c.  The  palace  rooms  are  said  to  have  been  painted 
with  cinnaliar  red,  the  ceilings  were  in  red  lacquer,  the  component  parts  of 
the  walls  were  clamped  together  with  gilded  copper,  and  the  stairs  were  of 
marble.  The  beams  were  carved  with  dragons  and  snakes,  and  the  walls  were 
decorated  with  pearls,  precious  stones,  and  the  blue  feathers  of  the  kingfisher,  as 
well  as  with  golden  hanging  lamps.  All  the  curtauis  were  made  of  pearls,  and 
the  windows  and  folding  doors  of  glass.  A  great  palace  built  by  Wu  Ti  is  said  to 
have  contained  a  number  of  buildings  more  than  five  hundred  feet  high,  connected 
by  lofty  galleries  in  such  a  manner  tliat  the  emperor  could  pass  from  one  to  an- 
other over  the  town  as  well  as  across  the  moat.  On  the  roofs  of  the  palace,  on  the 
temples  and  the  gates,  stood  gi-eat  copper  statues  of  men,  partly  gilded,  with  statues 
of  the  phoenix  (used  as  weather-cocks  ?),  and  of  other  monsters.  We  also  hear  of 
bronze  and  stone  figures  of  men,  of  unicorns  and  other  animals,  of  astronomical 
instruments  and  large  bells,  and  of  a  whale  carved  of  stone,  thirty  feet  long,  in  an 
artificial  lake,  which  the  emperor  had  made  for  the  exercising  of  his  soldiers  and 
for  the  pleasure  of  the  women  of  his  harem. 

(d)  The  Period  of  the  Usurper  Wang  Mang,  and  the  Time  of  Anarchy  {9-24- 
A.  D.).  —  Wang  ^lang,  the  nephew  of  the  consort  of  the  emperor  Yuan  Ti,  had  been 
appointed  commander-in-chief  in  the  year  6  B.C.  Ujwn  the  death  of  the  emperor 
Ai  Ti,  in  the  year  1  b.  c,  the  widow,  who  was  left  as  regent,  handed  over  the 
government  to  Wang  Mang,  and  in  the  following  year  he  received  the  title  of 
Uucal  Protector  of  the  House  of  Han.  In  the  year  3  a.  d.  he  married  his  daughter 
to  the  emperor  Ping  Ti,  who  was  still  in  iiis  minority.  He  poisoned  the  em])eror 
in  the  year  o  A.  n.,  and  induced  his  daugiiter,  who  was  childless,  to  adopt  tiie  great- 
great-grandson  of  the  emperor  Hslian  Ti  (cf.  p.  79),  who  was  then  two  years  old. 
In  the  year  8  .\.  d.,  he  dept)sed  this  iiiler,  and  proclaimed  himself  emperor.  He 
then  reintroduced   tlie  old  redistribution  of   the  Ciiau  into  plot<s  of  nine  fields 


^ri^o2"""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  81 

(p.  63),  and  abolished  slavery.  Ylie  dissatisfaction  aroused  by  these  innovations 
was  aggravated  by  the  increased  taxation  which  a  great  campaign  against  the 
Hiung  nil  made  necessary.  A  revolt  that  broke  out  in  19  A.  d.  was  suppressed. 
A  second  movement,  however,  led  by  two  descendants  of  the  house  of  Han,  Liu 
Huau  and  Liu  hsiu,  was  moie  successful.  Wang  Mang,  after  suffering  several 
defeats,  was  murdered  in  the  year  23  by  his  own  troops. 

(c)  The  Later  or  Enatcrn  Han  Di/nastji  (^2'>-220  A.  Z).).  —  Dissensions  and 
struggles  broke  out  among  the  rebels  and  other  pretenders.  Li  Huau,  who  had 
declared  himself  emperor  on  the  death  of  Wang  Mang  (according  to  others,  he 
ruled  on  behalf  of  the  prince  of  Huai  Vang,  whom  he  had  ap]x)inted  emperor), 
abdicated  two  years  later  in  favour  of  Liu  hsiu.  The  latter  was  a  descendant  of 
the  emperor  Hang  Ching  Ti  (156-141  B.  c),  and  ascended  the  throne  in  25  .v.  d., 
as  tlie  first  emperor  of  the  later  or  eastern  Han  dynasty.  The  larger  part  of  the 
reign  of  this  "Shi  Tsu"  (or  Kwang  Wu  Ti,  25-57)  was  occupied  with  warfare 
against  tlie  other  pretenders  to  the  throne.  It  was  not  until  the  year  37  tliat  Lu 
fang,  the  last  of  his  opponents  within  the  kingdom,  was  conquered,  wlide  in  the 
year  41  an  invasion  of  the  ruler  of  Cochin  China  was  successfully  repulsed.  The 
second  half  of  the  reign  of  this  emperor  seems  to  have  been  so  peaceful  that  he 
expressed  his  thankfulness  by  making  solemn  offerings  on  the  Taishan,  one  of  the 
five  sacred  mountains  in  Shantung.  It  was  under  his  son  Ming  Ti  (58-75),  and 
in  particidar  through  the  action  of  his  younger  brother,  Ying,  that  Buddhism  was 
enabled  to  make  its  entry  into  China  (cf.  below). 

The  emperors  of  this  dynasty  are  of  little  account.  Most  of  them,  inchiding 
Shaug  Ti  (106),  An  Ti  (107-125),  Chung  Ti  (145),  Chi  Ti  (146),  Huan  Ti  (147- 
167),  Ling  Ti  (168-189),  and  Shao  Ti  (189),  ascended  the  throne  as  children  under 
tlie  regency  of  their  mother,  an  arrangement  which  naturally  favoured  liarem 
intrigues.  In  189,  when  the  eunuchs  abducted  the  young  emperor  Shao  Ti 
and  his  brother  from  the  capital,  the  general,  Yuan  Shao,  hastened  to  the  rescue, 
and  apparently  exterminated  the  abductors.  Internal  dissensions  and  wai-s  agaiu.st 
the  Hiung  nu,  the  Man,  and  other  tribes  upon  the  frontier,  provided  an  opportimity 
for  ambitious  soldiers  to  acquire  power  and  influence  upon  the  government.  This 
was  misused  in  their  own  interests,  so  that  the  .secoud  half  of  this  dynastic  period 
is  almost  entirely  occupied  with  the  intrigues  of  usurping  ministers,  and  with 
revolts  against  them.  In  the  earlier  years  of  the  dynasty  much  attention  was  paid 
t<D  literature.  In  175,  the  text  of  the  Five  Classics  was  definitely  established, 
carved  in  stone,  and  set  up  at  Loyang  in  Honan,  the  capital  of  the  dynasty  (the 
first  Han  d\uasty  had  resided  in  Changan).  The  second  Ilan  dynasty  comes  to  an 
end  with  Hsien  Ti  (189-220),  but  long  before  his  abdication  the  rising  of  the 
"  Yellow  Turban  "  rebels,  and  the  formation  of  the  three  kingdoms  of  Shu  (South- 
west China),  under  Liu  Pei,  of  We  (AVei,  North  China),  under  Tsao  Tsao,  and  Wu 
(Southeast  China),  under  Sun  Cliuan,  had  made  a  practical  end  of  the  emperor's 
power  (cf.  p.  87). 

G.  Buddhism  ix  China 

(ff)  Tlte  Historiiud  Development  of  the  Buddhist  Doctrine  in  China.  —  The 
introduction  of  BudtUiism  was  an  event  of  the  highest  importance  for  the  moral 

VOL   II— c 


82  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_chapter i 

development  of  China,  and  is  the  most  striking  event  of  the  rule  of  the  Han 
dynastv,  and  indeed  in  the  whole  of  China's  history.  An  unauthenticateil  acc<>unt 
states  that  Indian  missionaries  had  entered  China  as  early  as  217  B.C.,  and  in  122 
B.  0.  a  Chinese  exjH'dition  is  said  to  have  advanced  beyond  Yarkand,  and  to  have 
brought  back  a  golden  image  of  lUuUlha.  Comnmnication  between  China  and 
India  becomes  very  frequent  from  tliis  dale.  Knowleilge  of  the  foreign  doctrine 
entered  the  country,  and  ui  the  year  61  a.  i>.  the  emperor  Ming  Ti  sent  messengers 
to  India  to  bring  back  Ikuldliist  books  and  priests.  This  step  may  have  been  ui-ged 
ujHin  him  by  the  Taoists,  who  thought  to  find  the  Buddhist  doctrine  of  retirement 
from  the  world  in  harmony  with  their  own  views,  though  legend  relates  that  the 
emperor  followed  the  monitions  of  a  dream.  At  any  rate  the  priests  were  brought, 
and  one  of  them,  Kashiapmadanga,  translated  a  Sutra  in  Loyang.  Towaiil  the 
end  of  the  second  century  .v.  D.  another  Indian  in  Changau  translated  the  "  LiJtus 
of  the  good  law. " 

The  development  of  Buddhism  seems  to  have  advanced  somewhat  slowly 
at  first.  Xot  until  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  do  we  hear  that  men  of 
Chinese  birth  had  begun  to  take  ujwn  themselves  the  vows  of  Buddhist  monks. 
In  355  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Chau  at  the  time  of  the  eastern  Tsin  gave  his  sub- 
jects permission  to  take  this  step  and  in  3S1  the  emperor  Hsaio  Wu  Ti  built  a 
pagoda  in  his  palace  at  Nanking.  At  the  same  period  large  monasteries  were 
erected  in  North  China,  and  nine-tenths  of  the  common  people  are  said  at  that 
time  to  have  embraced  the  Buddhist  teaching.  The  kmgdom  of  Tsin  (south- 
ern Shensi  and  Kansu)  seems  to  have  been  the  chief  centre  of  Buddhism,  and 
here,  in  405,  a  new  translation  of  the  sacred  Biiddliist  books  was  brought  out. 
An  army  seems  to  have  been  sent  to  India,  and  to  have  brought  back  Indian 
teachers  to  Changan,  who  there  undertook  the  work,  aided  by  eight  hundred 
other  priests,  and  under  the  emperor's  personal  supervision.  Communication  be- 
tween India  and  China  was  constant  at  that  date.  Numerous  travellers  went 
southward,  returned  with  sages  and  books,  and  wrote  the  story  of  their  travels. 
Thus  Fa  hien  describes  the  flourishing  condition  of  Buddhism  in  Tartary,  among 
the  Uiguriau  races  to  the  west  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  in  Afghanistan,  on  the  Indus 
in  Central  India,  and  in  Ceylon.  It  was  from  this  island  that  he  returned  by 
sea  to  Changan  in  the  year  414,  after  an  absence  of  fifteen  years ;  and  he  then 
devoted  himself,  with  the  help  of  an  Indian  scholar,  to  publishing  the  books  he 
had  brought  back. 

In  the  year  420  the  Tsin  dynasty  fell ;  it  was  replaced  in  the  north  by  the  Tar- 
tar We,  in  the  south  by  the  native  dynasty  of  Sung.  The  jirinces  of  the  two  new 
dynasties  at  first  displayed  an  aversion  to  Buddhism.  In  We  the  erection  of  tem- 
ples and  statues  was  strictly  forbidden,  and  the  priests  were  persecuted.  In  426 
a  decree  was  issued  for  the  destruction  of  books  and  statues,  and  many  priests  were 
executed  in  the  course  of  the  persecution.  But  after  the  death  of  the  first  emperor 
these  orders  were  rescinded,  and  in  451  permission  was  given  to  erect  a  Buddhist 
temple  in  every  town ;  forty  or  fifty  of  the  inhabitants  were  allowed  to  become 
priests ;  and  the  emperor  himself  shaved  the  heads  of  some  of  those  who  devoted 
themselves  to  the  priesthood.  Similarly  the  persecutions  of  the  Sung  princes  soon 
ceased,  and  tlieir  government  gained  a  reputation  for  the  special  favour  which  it 
.showed  to  Buddhism.  Embassies  arrived  from  Ceylon  and  from  Ka])ilavastu  (the 
birthplace  of  Shakyamuui),  all  of  which  referred  to  the  uniformity  of  the  religion. 


iTl^n'r"']  HISTORY   OF    THE    WORLD  83 

and  saug  the  ])raises  of  the  Suug  emperor  of  the  kingdom  of  Yaucheu  (Kiang-uiiig, 
with  parts  of  Houan). 

The  special  favour  shown  to  Buddhism,  and  the  rapid  rise  of  this  doctrine, 
naturally  gave  the  Coufuciauists  many  reasons  for  complaints  against  and  attacks 
upon  the  new  doctrine.  Even  under  the  Sung  emperors  the  reports  of  the  oificials 
show  that  Buddliism  had  lost  its  former  purity,  and  that  piety  had  given  way  to 
carelessness.  ( )steutation  and  petty  jealousies  had  taken  the  place  of  simplicity 
and  purity  of  heart.  Xew  temples  were  continually  erected  with  great  splendour, 
wliile  the  old  were  allowed  to  fall  into  ruins.  These  facts  called  for  official  super- 
vision, and  it  was  urged  that  no  one  should  be  allowed  to  set  up  an  image  without 
the  previous  cunseut  of  the  authorities.  A  conspiracy  discovered  in  458,  in  which 
a  Buddhist  priest  had  taken  the  leading  part,  proviiled  an  excuse  for  giving  efl'ect 
to  these  proposals.  An  imperial  decree  was  issued,  declaring  that  there  were  many 
among  the  priests  who  were  criminals  fleeing  from  justice,  who  had  taken  the  vows 
only  to  secure  their  personal  safety,  and  had  used  their  sacred  character  as  the 
cloak  for  further  crimes.  The  authorities  were,  however,  to  examine  closely  the 
conduct  of  the  monks,  and  to  punish  the  guilty  with  death.  A  further  decree 
ordained  that  monks  who  did  not  observe  the  vows  of  abstinence  and  poverty 
were  to  retui'n  to  their  families  and  their  previous  secular  occupations ;  at  the 
same  time  the  nuns  were  forbidden  to  approach  the  palace  or  to  speak  with  women 
of  the  harem. 

The  differences  between  Buddhism  and  Confucianism  gave  rise  to  public  dis- 
putations. During  one  of  these,  which  was  held  in  483  under  the  emperor  Wu  Ti 
of  the  Chi  dynasty,  a  minister  of  state,  Tse  Liang,  supported  the  Buddhists.  The 
chief  arguments  of  the  Confucianists  were  devoted  to  combating  the  opinion  that 
the  present  condition  of  mankind  was  to  be  considered  as  a  recompense  for  good 
or  evil  deeds  committed  in  a  previous  existence.  "  Men  are  like  the  leaves  on  the 
trees,"  it  was  said ;  "  they  grow  together,  are  torn  away  by  the  same  wind  and  scat- 
tered abroad ;  some  fall  upon  gardens  and  carpets,  even  as  men  who  are  born  in 
palaces,  while  others  fall  upon  dunghills,  like  to  men  of  low  estate."  Riches  and 
poverty  can  thus  be  very  well  explained  without  reference  to  the  doctrine  of  recom- 
pen,se.  Moreover,  the  soul  belongs  to  the  body,  like  sharpness  to  the  knife ;  the 
sold  cau  therefore  exist  after  the  destruction  of  the  body,  as  sharpness  exists  when 
the  knife  has  been  destroyed. 

In  518  Sun  yun  was  sent  to  India  by  the  emperor  Hsiao  ming  Ti  of  Pei  We, 
and  returned  witli  seventy-five  Buddliist  works,  after  a  prolonged  stay  in  Kandahar 
and  Udyana.  In  526  the  twenty-eighth  Buddhist  patriarch,  Ta  mo  (Bodhidhainia), 
came  to  China  by  sea ;  the  downfall  of  Buddhism  in  the  country  of  its  origin  had 
forced  hiin  and  many  of  his  countrymen  to  seek  a  new  home  (in  China,  chiefly  in 
Loyaug,  three  thousand  Indians  are  said  to  have  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century).  He  first  visited  Kiang-ning  (Nankin).  However,  his  meeting  with  Wu  Ti, 
the  first  emperor  of  the  Liang  dynasty  (502-549),  brought  no  satisfaction  to  either 
party.  Ta  mo,  therefore,  betook  himself  to  Loyang,  and  declined  all  the  later 
invitations  of  Wu  Ti.  The  life  of  Bodhidharma  was  fuUy  representative  of  that 
contemplation  wliich  shuns  the  external  world,  and  that  mystical  retirement  char- 
acteristic of  Buddhism.  In  Loyang  he  is  said  to  have  sat  with  his  face  to  the  wall 
of  liis  room  for  nine  years  without  speaking  a  word,  for  which  reason  he  was  jwpu- 
larly  known  as  "  the  saint  looking  at  the  wall."    He  died  of  old  age,  after  surviving 


84  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [n,„j,ur i 

five  attempts  which  were  luade  to  poisou  liiin,  and  left  the  dignity  of  patriarch  to 
a  Chinese,  the  second  of  the  Six  Eastern  Patriarchs. 

Tlie  emperor  \Vu  Ti  became  a  niouk  at  the  close  of  his  life.  His  son  Chiea 
wen  Ti  was  favourahly  inclined  to  Taoism,  and  attempted  to  bring  about  a  union 
between  this  school  ami  lUiddhism.  Taoists  who  objected  were  executed.  In  558 
the  emperor  \Vu  Ti  of  the  Chen  dynasty  also  became  a  monk.  Under  the  tiret 
emperor  of  the  Sui  dynasty,  Wen  Ti  (581-604),  full  tolerance  was  given  to  Bud- 
dhism. Toward  the  end  of  his  reign  he  forbade  any  destruction  of  tlie  relics  or 
statues  of  Huddhists  or  Taoists.  The  Tang  emperors,  who  had  been  opposed  to 
Buddhism  at  the  beginning  of  their  dynasty  (CIS),  soon  became  favourably  disposed 
to  it.  This  was  especially  the  case  with  the  second  ruler  of  the  dynasty,  Tai  Tsung 
(•■i27-640),  in  wliose  reign  the  Syrian  Christians  came  to  China  in  639.  Wlien 
llsuen  Tsaug,  who  had  gone  to  India  in  629  without  asking  the  emperor's  leave, 
i-eturned  after  an  absence  of  sixteen  years,  the  emperor  gave  him  a  kindly  reception, 
and  onlered  him  to  translate  in  Changan  the  six  hundred  and  thirty-seven  books 
lie  had  brouglit  home.  Three  thousaud  seven  hundred  and  sixteen  monasteries  are 
said  to  have  been  in  existence  in  China  at  that  date.  In  714  a  violent  persecution 
of  the  Buddhists  broke  out.  Ten  thousand  j)riests  and  nuns  were  obliged  to  return 
to  their  families.  In  spite  of  this,  individual  priests  continued  to  occup}'  State 
offices,  and  Indians  were  entrusted  with  the  arrangements  of  the  calendar.  Under 
the  later  emperors  of  tlie  Tang  dynasty,  especially  uinler  Su  Tsuug  (756-762),  Tai 
Tsung  (763-779),  and  Hsieu  Tsung  (806-820),  Buddhism  made  great  strides;  and 
when  Han  Yu  (Han  Wen  kung),  under  the  last  of  these  kings,  in  819,  protested 
against  the  transportation  of  a  Buddhist  relic  into  the  imperial  palace,  he  was  ban- 
ished from  the  court  and  sent  as  governor  to  Chao-Chau  in  Kwaug  Tung,  which 
was  then  a  purely  barbarian  district. 

In  845  a  third  and  specially  violent  persecution  broke  out  under  the  em- 
peror Wu  Tsung.  Four  thousand  six  hundred  monasteries,  together  witii  forty 
thousand  smaller  buildings,  were  destroyed.  The  possessions  of  the  temples  were 
conliscated,  and  employed  for  the  erection  of  government  buildings.  The  bells  and 
statues  were  melted  down  and  coined  into  cash,  and  more  than  two  hundred  and 
sixty  thousand  priests  and  nuns  were  obliged  to  return  to  the  ranks  of  the  laity. 
However,  Hsuan  Tsung,  the  successor  of  Wu  Tsung,  permitted  the  erection  of  new 
monasteries,  tliDUgh  a  few  years  later  he  forbade  the  entry  of  new  monks.  The 
emperor  Yi  Tsung  (S60-S73)  was  a  zealous  Budilhist,  as  were  both  his  successora 
and  the  rulera  of  the  later  Tang  dyaasty  (923-936).  During  the  short  period  of 
the  later  Chu  dynasty  (O.'i  1-960)  numerous  temples  were  destroyed,  and  only  two 
tliousand  six  hundred  and  ninety-four  retained.  Priests  were  also  forbidilen  to 
])ractise  self-martyrdoin  and  mutilation.  The  first  emperors  of  the  northern  Sung 
dynasty  (960-997)  were  less  favourably  dispo.sed  to  Buddhism.  A  reaction  set  in 
inider  their  successor.s,  though  these  often  acted  arbitraiily  in  the  designation  of 
the  temples,  monasteries,  and  i)riests,  and  of  Buddlia  hinisidf.  Under  this  dynasty 
the  communication  with  India  increased,  and  Indian  Buddhism  began  to  exercise 
an  important  influence  on  Chinese  belief. 

Strong  support  was  given  in  Buddhism  by  the  Mongol  (Yuan)  dynasty  (1280- 
1368).  Kublai  Khan,  who  held  tlie  throne  of  Cliina  from  1280  to  1294,  under  the 
name  of  Shi  Tsu,  was  a  zealous  Buddhist.  The  tcmjdes  devoted  to  the  old  natiimal 
religion  of  the  Chinese  were  now  transformed  into  Buddhist  shriues,  while  Taoism 


irKor^r"']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  85 

was  persecuted.  In  tliis  matter  Kublai  was  probably  thinking  of  the  welfare  of 
his  own  Monm)ls  rather  than  cimsideriug  the  wislies  of  the  Chinese;  even  before 
he  liad  united  the  Chinese  enii>ire  under  his  sway,  he  had  attempted  to  spread  the 
Buddhist  teaching  among  his  people,  whom  lie  caused  to  be  instructed  by  Kuoshi, 
national  teachers.  His  successor  followed  his  example.  The  enumeration  made 
toward  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  showed  42,318  Buddhist  temples  and 
213,148  monks  in  China.  Translations  from  the  Tibetan  language  are  fre- 
quently mentioned,  and  were  used ;  as  also,  though  only  among  the  ^It)ngols,  were 
the  immoral  representations  which  had  passed  into  Tibetan  Buddhism  from  the 
Brahman  Shiva  worship.  IlDwever,  even  at  that  time  the  Chinese  Buddhists  seem 
to  have  sought  teaching  and  information  in  India.  A  Chinese  priest,  Tan  wu, 
travelled  to  India  by  laud,  and  returning  as  usual  by  sea,  brought  a  number  of 
books  back  to  Cliina.  This  example,  which  occurs  in  the  first  period  of  the  Mongol 
rule,  is  the  last  of  its  kind. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  national  rising  of  the  Chinese  against  the  Mongols, 
which  ended  in  the  utter  extermination  of  these  rulers,  produced  no  similar  effects 
on  the  religious  side  ;  on  the  contrar}',  tlie  first  rulers  of  the  national  ]Miug  dynasty 
show  themselves  specially  well  disposed  toward  the  Buddhists.  It  was  not  until 
1426  that  m;^asures  were  taken  to  limit  the  rising  power  of  the  monks.  Tho.se 
who  wished  to  enter  a  monastery  were  then  oliliged  to  subject  themselves  to  pre- 
vious examination,  and  in  1450  the  regulation  was  made  that  no  monastery  should 
possess  more  than  sixty  Mau  of  landed  property.  A  similar  law  seems  to  have 
existed  under  the  Mongols.  Under  Shi  Tsuug  (1522-1566)  the  Confucianists 
attempted  to  introduce  a  persecution  of  the  Buddhists,  but  were  defeated  by  the 
action  of  the  government ;  they  only  succeeded  in  procurmg  the  destruction  of  the 
temple  existing  in  the  imperial  palace. 

The  first  ruler  of  the  present  Manchu  dynasty,  Shi  Tsu  (1644-1661)  was 
friendly  to  Buddhism;  however,  his  successor,  Sheng  Tsu,  was  converted  to  Con- 
fucianism, probably  for  political  purposes.  For  the  same  reason,  he  and  Ms  suc- 
cessors showed  special  favour  to  the  Llama-worship  of  their  Tibetan  and  IMougol 
subjects,  and  the  erection  of  Llama  temples  and  monasteries  at  that  seat  of 
government  in  Pekin  dates  from  this  period. 

(b)  The  Influence  of  Buddhism  on  the  Chinese  Civilization.  —  The  attempt 
to  estimate  the  iuHuence  exerted  upon  the  Chinese  by  Buddhism  and  Buddhist 
priests  will  show  that,  apart  from  the  personal  and  political  intiuence  which  the 
adherents  and  preachers  of  the  Indian  teaching  may  have  had  upon  individual 
emperors  and  statesmen,  the  effects  of  Buddhism  are  to  be  seen  chiefly  upon  the 
philological  and  philosopliical  sides.  At  any  rate,  tlie  meritorious  attempt  to  sub- 
stitute an  alphabet  for  the  monosyllabic  language  and  writing  of  the  Cliinese  is  of 
the  highest  importance.  In  the  third  century  a  beginning  was  made  with  sixteen 
.symbols,  which  were  increased  ultimately  to  thirty-six  during  the  sixth  century 
under  tlie  Liang  dynasty.  The  discoverer  of  this  latter  series,  the  priest  Shen 
kung,  and  his  successors  taught  the  Chinese  to  write  the  sounds  of  their  lan- 
guage with  the  signs  appropriate  to  it.  It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the  seiwice 
thus  rendered,  even  though,  some  centuries  later,  changes  of  language  consid- 
erably reduced  the  practical  value  of  the  system.  Buddhism  also  exercised  an 
animating  influence  upon  literary  activity ;  at  one  period  Buddhist  works  were 


86  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [c/,<./-/,t/ 

more  iiuniennis  than  Confucian.  Thus,  in  the  liistory  of  the  Sui  dynasty  (589- 
618  A.  n.)  mention  is  made  of  the  existence  of  nineteen  hundred  and  Hfty  different 
Buddhist  works. 

An  impi>rtaut  influence  was  also  exerted  by  Buddhist  opinions  and  teaching 
upon  the  development  of  philosophy  in  China.  This  influence  is  especially  appa- 
rent in  the  writings  of  Chu  hi  (ll.'?0-1200),  the  most  important  modern  expositor 
of  the  old  classical  teaching,  whose  works  still  form  the  basis  of  wliat  may  be 
called  official  Confucianism  (p.  95).  During  the  last  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
the  Chinese  themselves  liave  shown  a  tendency  to  criticise  his  teacliing  more 
severely,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  Buddhist  influences  apparent  in  it ;  none  the 
less  the  official  recognition  of  his  teaching  has  remained.  Tlie  doctrines  held  by 
the  mass  of  the  population  are  a  confused  mixture  of  native  and  foreign  teach- 
ing, as  e.\ pounded  by  Taoist  and  Chinese  sages,  from  which  the  original  Buddhism 
has  almost  vanished ;  the  result  is  superstition  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word- 
Confucianism,  Taoism,  and  Buddhism  play  the  same  part  in  the  life  of  the  people, 
including  the  upper  classes;  but  the  influence  of  Buddhism  is  chiefly  obvious  in 
the  ceremonies  customary  upon  the  death  of  the  individual.  At  the  funeral 
both  of  the  emperor  and  of  the  poorest  of  his  subjects,  Buddhist  ceremonies  and 
the  reading  of  the  sacred  books  are  a  very  prominent  feature. 

H.  The  Medieval  History  of  China 

(a)  The  "  Three  Kingdoms"  (^216  or  3.20  to  265).  — The  period  of  the  three 
contending  kingdoms  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  in  the  whole  course  of  Chinese 
history  for  the  historian,  and  is  undoubtedly  that  which  has  made  the  strongest 
impression  upon  the  national  spirit,  —  an  impression  chiefly  due  to  the  famous 
liistorical  romance, "  San  kuo  chi,"  which  treats  of  the  "  Histor}-  of  the  Three 
Kingdoms,"  in  one  hundred  and  twenty  sections.  Kuan  Yu,  one  of  the  heroes 
of  the  book  and  of  the  history  of  the  period,  tlie  adopteil  brother  and  general  of 
Liu  Pei,  died  in  219  A.  d.,  was  canonised  during  the  twelfth  century,  and  under 
the  name  of  Kuan  Ti  became  the  Chinese  god  of  war  in  1594.  Chu  ko  liang 
(Kung  Ming),  another  general  of  Liu  Pei,  is  tonlay  the  national  hero,  the  ideal  of 
every  CliLuese  statesman,  and  the  leading  character  in  a  dozen  dramatic  works. 

The  revolt  of  the  "  Yellow  Turban"  rebels  (Hwang  chin  ts(5i), who  ovenan  the 
whole  kingdom  (p.  81),  led  indirectly  to  the  fall  of  the  later  Han  dynasty;  this 
event  was,  however,  also  accelerated  by  the  intrigues  of  those  statesmen  and  generals 
who  were  anxious  to  form  independent  districts  of  their  own  from  the  fragments  of 
the  empire.  One  of  the  most  successful  of  these  upstarts  was  Tsao  Tsao,  the  son 
I  if  an  officer  of  low  rank,  who  made  himself  governor  of  the  modern  Shantung  in 
192,  after  distinguisliiug  liimself  against  the  "  Yellow  Turbans"  in  184.  In  the 
meanwhile  he  had  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Yuan  Shao  (cf.  above,  p.  81). 
With  this  ally  he  defeated  the  general  Tung  Cho,  who  had  deposed  the  emperor  Sha 
Ti  in  189,  and  had  placed  a  child  of  his  own,  Hsien  Ti,  upon  the  throne.  Tung 
Cho  murdered  the  emjieror's  widow  and  the  deposed  emperor,  burnt  down  Loyang, 
with  all  its  jmlaces  and  other  buildings  (wliich  are  said  to  have  covered  an  area  of 
eighty  kilometres),  and  removed  the  capital  to  Changan;  shortly  afterward,  in 
192,  lie  was  murdered  by  one  of  his  otiicers.  Tsao  Tsao  availed  himself  of  this 
opportunity ;  after  overcoming  Lu  Pu,  one  of  the  adherents  of  Tung  Cho,  he  seized 


aZ-J^o^f""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  87 

the  government  in  195  and  appointed  himself  generalissimo  of  the  kingdom, 
assuming  the  title  of  duke  of  We  in  213. 

His  efforts  had  aroused  some  of  his  previous  comrades  to  hostility  against  him. 
Liu  Pei,  a  descendant  of  the  prince  Ching  of  Chung  shan,  a  sou  of  the  emperor 
Ching  Ti,  who  died  in  141  B.  c,  whose  ensign  was  a  seller  of  straw  shoes,  had  also 
distinguished  himself  in  185  while  fighting  against  the  "  Yellow  Turbans,"  at  the 
head  of  a  body  of  volunteers.  At  a  later  period  he  fought  against  Tung  Cho,  but 
rose  against  Tsao  Tsao  upon  the  latter's  attempt  to  seize  the  chief  power.  On 
the  downfall  of  the  Han  dj-nasty  he  declared  himself  emperor  of  the  smaller 
(Shu)  Han  dynasty,  thougli  for  the  moment  the  principality  of  Shu  was  his  only 
possession. 

A  tliird  successful  military  leader  was  Sun  Tseh,  who  had  been  made  marquis 
of  Wu  l)y  Tsao  Tsao.  After  his  death,  in  the  year  200,  his  brother  Sun  Chuan 
succeeded  him ;  he  broke  away  from  Tsao  Tsao,  and  successfully  repidsed  liis 
attacks  and  also  those  of  his  V)rother-in-law,  Liu  Pei.  The  former,  however,  de- 
feated him  in  the  battle  of  Ho  Fei,  and  after  a  long-continued  struggle  he  was 
obliged  to  recognise  the  supremacy  of  Tsao  Tsao  in  221 ;  however,  in  229  he 
regained  an  acknowledged  independence,  assumed  the  imperial  title  as  Ta  Ti,  and 
founded  the  dynasty  of  Wu. 

Thus  between  the  years  220  and  230  three  kingdoms  arose :  We,  which  included 
the  whole  of  the  nortliern  lialf  of  modern  China,  with  the  capital  of  Yie,  the 
modern  Changtefu  in  Honan ;  Wu,  the  eastern  part  of  Southern  China,  together 
with  the  mouth  of  the  Yangtsze  River,  the  capital  of  which  was  Xanking  (at  tliat 
period  Chieu  yie) ;  and  Sliu,  the  western  half  of  Southern  China,  forming  the 
modern  pnuince  of  Szechwan,  with  Ichau,  the  moilern  Cheng-tu,  as  its  capital. 
The  period  of  the  three  kingdoms  is  entii-ely  occupied  by  their  mutual  conflicts.  In 
263  Shu  and  in  280  Wu  were  destroyed  by  We.  In  We  itself  the  reigning  family 
was  dethroned  in  265  by  Sze  ma  Yen  (Tsin  Wu  Ti),  a  grandson  of  the  general  Sze 
ma  I  (1251),  who  had  played  a  great  part  in  the  early  struggles  between  the  three 
States.  His  son  Sze  ma  Chao  was  appointed  minister  to  Fei  Ti,  the  third  ruler  of 
the  We  dynasty  (240-253),  and  became  prince  of  Tsin.  Lender  this  title  his  son 
founded  a  new  dynasty  in  265. 

(b)  The  Western,  and  Eastern  Tsin  Dynasty  {265-316  and  317-120).  —  Under 
the  emperors  of  the  house  of  Tsin,  of  whom  the  western  rulers  resided  in  Loyang 
and  the  eastern  in  Nanking,  smaller  independent  States  arose  everywhere  through- 
out the  empire,  some  of  them  being  governed  by  foreign  rulers  of  Tartar  origin. 
This  is  therefore  called  "  The  Period  of  the  Sixteen  States."  Karl  Arendt  men- 
tions the  following  eighteen :  — 

1.  Han,  from  319  Chao,  later  Chien  Chao  (the  earlier  Chao),  in  Shansi,  304-329. 

2.  Chenji,  I'rora  338  Han,  or  Chen-  Han,  in  Szechuen  (304-347),  with  the  capital  Cheng  tu. 

3.  Liaiii;,  or  Chien  Lianj;  (the  earlier  Liang),  in  Kansu  (317-376  and  386-387). 

4.  Hon  Chao,  319-352  (3'>0-.3.'i2,  naiueil  also  Min  and  Wu  by  the  pretender  Jan,  or  Shi). 

5.  Yen,  or  Chien  Yen  (the  earlier  Yen),  34.')-370. 

6.  Chin.  'I'a  Chin,  or  Chien  Chin  (3r)l-3!)4). 

7.  Tai  (338-376),  in  the  north,  Shansi,  under  the  house,  T'o  pa  (To  ba),  the  Hsien  pi-Tartars 

(Tunguses),  who  established  tlie  northern  We  in  386. 

8.  Hon  Ven  (the  later  Yen),  384-407;  cf.  Xo.  18. 

9.  Hsi  Yen  (the  western  Yen)  in  Shensi  (384-394). 


8S  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter i 

III.    Uoii  riiiii  (the  later  Chin)  in  Kaiisu  (3S1-417),  louiuk-il  by  Vdo  Chang  in  Pei  ti  (Ching 

viuig  fu). 
U.    Hsi  Cliiii  (the  western  Chin)  in  Kimsu  (3S5-4W1  and  409-431),  founded  by  Chi  lu  Kuo  yen 

in  Lung  yo  (.MIn  I'hou). 

12.  1[mu  Liang  (llie  later  Liang)  in  Kansu  (386-403)  ;  hence  diverged  : 

13.  Nan  Liang  (the  southern  Liang)  in  Kausn  (397-404  and  408-414),  founded  397  by  the  family 

Tu  fo,  the  Hsien  pi-Tartars  ;  and 

14.  Pei  Liang  (the  nurthern  Liang)  in  Kansu  (3!)7-439),  founded  by  Tuan  Yie,  from  401   under 

the  supretnacy  of  lliung  nu  ehii  Chii  Meiig  hsiin. 

15.  Xan  Yen  (the  southern  Yen)  in  Honan  (39S-410),  founded  by  Mu  jung  Te  in  Hua  tai. 

16.  Hsi   Liang  (the  western  Liang),  near  Tun  huang  (400-421),  in  Central   Asia,  outside  the 

northwestern  corner  of  the  Great  Wall. 

17.  Hsia,  or  Ta  Hsia  (the  great  Hsia),  in   Kansu  (407-431),  set  up  by  the  Iliuiij;  nu  Ho  lien 

Pii  po. 

18.  Pei  Yen  (the  northern  Yen),  407-436,  formo<l   from   Hon  Yen  (No.  8)  (foundation  of  Kao 

Yun). 

The  rapid  rise  and  decay  of  these  mushroom  States  is  evidence  of  the  weakness 
of  the  central  power  durinj^  the  Tsin  dynasty.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  their  whole 
history,  even  tliat  of  the  first  rulers,  is  a  record  of  internal  dissension  and  strujjgles 
with  new  States,  governed  sometimes  by  emperors  and  sometimes  by  kings,  and 
also  at  discord  among  themselves.  In  304  Liu  yuan  foimded  the  kingdom  of  Han 
and  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  in  308  ;  he  was  succeeded  by  Liu  tsung  in  310, 
who  took  the  Tsin  emperor  Huai  Ti  prisoner  in  311  and  carried  him  off  to  his 
capital.  Ping  yang,  in  Siiansi.  In  313  Liu  Tsung  nnirdered  tlie  emperor  and  placed 
Mill  Ti  on  tlie  tlnoue;  tlie  latter  was  also  brought  to  Ping  yang  in  316  and  mur- 
dered there.  Yuan  Ti,  the  first  emperor  of  the  eastern  Tsin  dynasty  (317  to  322), 
removed  the  capital  to  Xankiug.  In  350  Mi  Chiin,  who  had  been  emperor  of 
Chien  Yen  since  349,  cou([uered  Chi  cheng,  the  modern  Peking,  and  made  it  his 
capital.  In  371  the  jn-ince  of  Kuei  chi  deposed  Ti  Yi,  who  liad  represented  the 
Tsin  dynasty  from  366,  and  made  himself  emperor  under  the  title  of  Chienwen  Ti. 
In  403  the  rebel  Huan  Hsuan  got  possession  of  the  throne ;  he  was  murdered, 
and  the  deywsed  emperor  An  Ti  of  the  eastern  Tsin  dynasty  (397— 11 S)  again 
came  into  power;  he,  however,  was  also  murdered  in  418  b}-  Liu  Yu,  who  placed 
Te  Wen,  a  younger  brother  of  An  Ti,  on  the  throne.  In  420  Kung  Ti  (formerly 
Ten  Wen)  abdicated  in  favour  of  Liu  Yu;  he  originally,  like  Liu  Pei,  had  been 
a  .seller  of  straw  shoes,  had  risen  to  be  general  by  liis  military  caj)acily,  and  had 
distinguished  himself  iu  the  operations  against  Huan  Hsuan.  and  luid  been 
apjiointed  tlie  first  minister  of  An  Ti ;  in  420  he  ascended  the  thmnf  as  the  first 
emiieror  of  the  Simg  dynasty. 

(f )  The  Period  of  Si-paration  between  North  and  South,  JfJO-oiSl  {'>S9).  — 
(a)  Tlie  South.  —  The  la.st  of  the  five  independent  States  which  were  still  in 
existence  upon  the  accession  of  the  founder  of  the  Sung  dynasty  of  the  house  of 
Liu,  who  now  called  himself  Wu  Ti,  survived  until  439.  Pei  Yen  and  Pei  Liang, 
the  last  two  of  these  States,  were  incorporated  in  436  and  439  respectively  with 
Pei  We  (North  We),  which  had  s]prnng  from  the  ruins  of  the  State  of  Tai:  after 
the  year  386  it  had  gradually  extended  its  area  in  North  China  until  it  had  grown 
nearly  e(iual  iu  size  to  the  We,  as  that  kingdom  had  been  limited  at  the  time  of 
the  "  Three  States."  The  Sung  dynasty,  which  produced  eight  emperors  during  the  • 
.short  jjeriod  from  420  t<j  479,  was  ruined  by  internal  dissensions.     Four  of  these 


ta^or::""']        history  of  the  world  89 

emperors  were  murdered,  the  last  but  one,  Tsang  wu  wang,  or   Fei  Ti,   being 

iminlered  in  477  by  the  field-marshal  Hsaio  Tao  Cheng;  the  latter  then  placed 
Slum  Ti  upon  the  throne,  but  in  479  forced  him  to  abdicate,  and  executed  him  with 
his  whole  family. 

Hsaio  Tao  Cheng  became  prince  of  Chi  in  479,  and,  under  the  title  of  Kao  Ti, 
founder  of  the  Chi  dynasty  (479-502).  The  seven  emperors  of  this  dynasty  seem 
to  have  been  particularly  bloodthirsty  tyrants ;  four  of  them  were  murdered,  the 
last.  Ho  Ti,  b)-  Hsaio  Yen,  who  seized  the  power  in  502,  and  founded  the  Liang 
dynasty  (502-557).  Nanking  was  the  capital  of  this  dynasty  also.  Wu  Ti,  for- 
merly Hsaio  Wen  (502-549),  was  a  powerful  emperor,  who  sliowed  great  favour  to 
Confucianism  at  the  outset  of  his  reign,  and  still  more  to  Buddhism  at  a  later 
period.  He  was  successful  in  repulsing  the  attacks  of  We.  But  the  last  years 
of  his  reign  were  disturbed  by  internal  dissensions,  which  concluded  in  the  year 
557  with  the  deposition  of  his  fifth  successor,  Ching  Ti  (murdered  in  558). 

In  557  the  victorious  rebel  Chen  Pa  hsien  ascended  the  throne  as  the  first 
emperor  of  the  Chuen  dynasty.  The  State  of  Hon  Liang,  which  had  existed  in 
Honau  and  Hupei  since  550,  continued  under  the  new  dynasty ;  after  581  the  first 
beginnings  of  the  later  Sui  dynasty  appeared  in  Shensi.  The  Chuen  dynasty  also 
collapsed,  in  consequence  of  family  dissensions,  (juarrels  about  the  succession,  and 
the  dissolute  lives  of  its  princes.  In  587  Yang  Chien  occupied  Hou  Liang,  and  in 
589  lie  overthrew  the  Chuen  dynasty,  taking  the  last  emperor,  Hou  Chu,  prisoner ; 
he  then  ascended  the  throne  under  the  name  of  Wen  Ti  or  Kao  Tsu,  as  the  first 
emperor  of  the  Sui  dynasty,  and  united  the  whole  kingdom  under  his  sceptre. 

(/3)  The  North.  —  The  Pei  We  dynasty  (386-534)  was  of  Tartar  origin ;  as, 
however,  the  popidation  subject  to  them  grew  more  settled,  the  points  of  \'ariance 
between  themselves  and  the  other  Tartar  races  who  were  still  living  a  nomadic  life 
Viecame  more  acute,  and  in  consecpience  Ming  yuan  Ti  (409—423)  resolved  to 
build  a  great  wall  of  two  thousand  li  in  length  as  a  defence  against  their  incursions. 
At  a  later  period  relations  with  tliese  kindred  tribes  seem  to  have  improved,  and 
extensive  commercial  intercourse  developed  upon  tlie  north  and  west,  as  far  as  the 
Obi  and  Lake  Baikal.  The  favour  of  the  emperors  was  given  alternately  to 
Taoism  and  Buddhism,  so  that  the  adherents  of  these  two  sects  were  at  times 
taken  imder  protection  and  at  other  times  exposed  to  persecution.  The  energj- 
of  the  State  was  largely  occupied  by  quarrels  with  and  struggles  against  the  south, 
and  family  dissensions  weakened  the  power  of  the  imperial  house,  which  ended 
its  existence  amid  dreadful  atrocities. 

In  534  Kao  Huan,  the  governor  of  one  of  the  imperial  provinces  revolted.  The 
emperor  Hsaio  wu  Ti  fled  to  Chang  (Si  ngan)  in  Shensi,  wliieh  now  became 
the  capital  of  Hsi  We,  the  western  We  (535-557).  The  first  ruler  of  this  branch 
was  Wen  Ti  in  535,  after  Hsaio  wu  Ti  had  been  poisoned  at  the  end  of  534  by 
tlie  prime  minister,  YLi  wen  Tai.  In  Lo-yang,  Kao  Huan  appointed  Yuan  Shan 
chien,  under  the  title  of  Hsaio  ching  Ti,  in  534  to  be  emperor  of  the  eastern  or 
Tung  We  (534-550).  The  capital  of  the  new  kingdom  (Pei  We  now  disappears 
from  our  notice)  was  Chang-te-fu  in  Honan.  A  few  years  later  (550)  a  son  .of 
Kao  Huan,  by  name  Kao  Yang,  founded  the  northern  Chi,  or  Pei  Chi  (550-557), 
upon  the  ruins  of  Tung  We.  In  557,  in  place  of  Hsi  We  arose  the  realm  of  the 
northern  Chau,  or  Pei  Chau  (557-581),  under  the  emperor  Yu  wen  Ohio,  who  was 


90  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chajjier i 

murdered  in  the  same  year;  ihe  niuiderer.  Yu  wen  Hu,  set  Ming  Ti  on  the  throne. 
In  576  the  emperor  Aii  te  wang  of  Pei  Chi  was  taken  prisoner  by  Wun  Ti  of  Pel 
Chu,  and  in  577  Pei  Chi  is  niei-j;ed  into  Pei  Chu.  In  581  Pei  Chu  suffered  the 
same  fate  at  the  hands  of  Wen  Ti,  whereupon  the  incor^wratiou  of  Hou  Liang 
(587 ;  cf.  supra)  was  followed  by  the  union  of  the  empiie  under  the  Sui  dynasty  in 
the  year  589. 

(d)  Tin-  Sui  Dynasty  (oSj  or  '>S9  to  nil  or  67.9).  —  "Wen  Ti  (5S1-604)  ordered 
a  survey  of  the  empire  to  be  made,  and  introduced  a  new  principle  of  administration 
by  making  the  several  administrative  departments  independent  of  one  another. 
He  was  a  patron  of  literature  and  a  supporter  of  commerce,  and  made  a  vain 
attempt  to  introduce  the  Indian  system  of  caste  into  China.  In  604  he  was 
apparently  murdered  by  his  son  Kwang,  who  succeeded  him  as  (Sui)  Yang  Ti 
(605-617).  The  three  capitals  of  the  kingdom  were  Changan  in  Shensi,  Loyang 
in  Honan,  and  Chiangtu  (Nangchou)  in  Kiangsi.  However,  as  early  as  613 
"  emperors  "  of  new  petty  States  existed  in  different  parts  of  the  empire.  Li  Yuan, 
duke  of  Tang,  or  more  correctly  his  son  Li  Shi  miu,  set  up  an  opposition  emperor 
in  617  against  Yang  Ti,  who  had  plunged  into  the  wildest  excesses  and  had 
directed  two  unsuccessful  campaigns  against  Korea ;  this  pretender  was  Kung  Ti  I 
(Y6),  who  was  succeeded  Ity  Kung  Ti  II  (Tung),  who  was  niuidered  in  619.  Li 
Shi  min  then  placed  his  father  upon  the  throne,  under  the  name  of  Kao  Tsu,  as 
the  first  emi)eror  of  the  Tang  dynasty. 

(e)  Th(  Tang  Dynasty  (fJ  18-907).  — The  reign  of  Kao  Tsu  (618-626)  was 
almost  entirely  occupied  with  struggles  against  more  than  twenty  usurpers, 
wlio  had  been  in  existence  under  the  Sui  dynasty,  or  had  set  themselves  up  under 
the  new  government  in  different  parts  of  the  countiy  and  declared  themselves 
independent  kings  (Wangs)  or  emperor.s.  It  was  not  until  628  that  the  last  of 
these  petty  kings  was  conquered  in  the  person  of  Shi  tu,  who  had  made  himself 
lord  of  Liang  in  617.  The  Tang  dynasty  was  then  recognised  throughout  the 
empire. 

Kao  Tsu,  weary  of  government,  abdicated  in  626,  and  his  son  Li  Shi  min  took 
up  the  power  under  the  title  of  Tai  Tsung  (627-649).  Under  this  highly  important 
ruler  universal  peace  prevailed.  The  free  tribes  still  in  e.xistence  on  the  south 
coast  were  incorporated  with  the  Chinese  Empire,  and  the  western  frontier  was 
extended  to  the  Caspian  Sea.  In  the  country  which  is  now  Chinese  Turkestan 
four  governorships  were  formed,  and  "even  beyond  the  boundary'  of  Kashgar,  the 
furthest  of  these,  many  tribes  recognised  the  supremacy  of  China,  wliicli  was  mani- 
fested by  the  institution  of  sixteen  commanders.  Chinese  intlueuce  extended  to 
Sogdiana,  Khorasan,  and  Nepal.  In  64.3  the  Greek  emperor  Theodosius  sent  an 
embassy  to  Changan.  Kao  Tsu  and  his  son  made  great  efforts  to  promote  literature 
and  education  among  the  Chinese  i)eople;  lliey  erected  schools  and  arranged  public 
examinations ;  and  Tai  Tsung  composed  a  legal  code  for  his  officials. 

Toward  the  end  of  his  reign  the  latter  juidertook  an  expedition  against  Korea, 
which  was  successfully  concluded  by  his  son.  Kao  Tsung  (fi."'iO-6S.3)  was  a  weak 
voluptuary  :  during  his  life,  and  after  his  death,  his  con.sort  Wu  Hau,  the  empress 
Wu  (see  Fig.  2  on  the  plate, "  Heroes  and  Heroines  of  Chinese  History  ")  became  a 
highly  important  personage.     Originally  one  of  the  inferior  concubmes  of  Tai 


♦ 


HEROES   AND   HEROINES   OF   CHINESE   HISTORY 

Top  left ;   1.  Tsch'iao-kuo-fu-jin,  the  heroic  chieftainess  of  a  volunteer  band  toward  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century  of  our  era. 

Bottom  left :  2.  Wu  Tse-tien,  famous  empress  (625-705). 

Bottom  right :   3.  Yo  Fei,  national  hero  and  great  patriot  (1103-1141). 

Top  right  :  4.   Hu  Ta-hai,  leader  of  the  vanguard  and  faithful  friend  of  the  founder  of  the 
Ming  dynasty  (second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  of  our  era). 


/  /,  Utad  *  O- 


HEROES  AND   HEROINES  OF   CHINESE  HISTORY. 

From  origiii.:i]  Chinese  primings  on  silk-i 


iZ"^,^!""'!  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  91 

Tsung,  she  had  retired  into  a  Buddhist  monastery  after  his  death  in  649.  WTien 
Kao  Tsiiug  seemed  to  have  been  entirely  subjected  to  the  influence  of  one  of  his 
court  ladies,  his  wife  remembered  her  father-in-law's  former  favourite  and  brought 
her  back  to  the  court.  Wu  Chao  (her  original  name)  became  a  leading  figure  at 
court  in  654.  She  soon  succeeded  in  driving  out  the  rival  empress  and  in  completing 
her  destruction,  and  in  674  she  gained  for  her  nephew  Wu  Chengsze  the  apijoint- 
meut  of  Duke  of  Chau,  while  her  husband  (after  655)  and  she  herself  assumed  the 
titles  of  Emperor  and  Empress  of  the  Heaven.  After  the  emperor's  death  (683) 
she  at  first  set  her^two  sons  Chung  Tsung  and  Jui  Tsung  on  the  throne,  but 
undertook  the  government  herself  in  the  same  year.  From  684  to  705  she  ruled 
with  great  cruelt}-  and  despotic  power ;  but  was  so  successful  that  even  after  her 
deposition  by  Chung  Tsung,  who  had  been  recalled  from  exile,  she  was  treated 
with  high  consideration  until  her  death,  which  followed  shortly  afterward.  She 
is  best  known  under  the  name  of  Wu  Tse  tien. 

Chung  Tsung,  who  had  entirely  lost  his  intellectual  powers  during  his  long 
banishment,  was  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  his  ambitious  and  voluptuous  wife, 
the  empress  Wei  Hou,  who  poisoned  him  in  710,  and  placed  his  son  Chung  Mao  on 
the  throne ;  he,  however,  was  deposed  after  a  short  time  and  replaced  by  Yui  Tsung 
(710-712),  who  had  also  been  recalled  from  banishment.  His  son  Limg  chi  then 
revolted,  stormed  the  palace,  slew  the  empress  Wei,  and  was  recognised  by  his 
father  as  emperor. 

Under  Hsuau  Tsung  (also  known  as  Tang  Ming  Huang ;  712-756)  the  greatest 
disorder  prevailed  at  the  court  and  throughout  the  empire.  The  emperor  was 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  his  favourite,  Yang  Kwei  Fei  (Kwei  Fei  is  the  title  next  m 
dignity  to  that  of  empress),  whose  three  sisters  he  had  also  taken  into  his  harem ; 
upon  this  woman  and  her  relations  he  showered  favours.  Among  his  favourites  of 
the  other  sex,  An  Luh  shan,  a  Tartar,  originally  known  as  A  la  shan,  took  the  first 
place  ;  in  the  year  755  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  great  army  intended 
for  service  against  the  Turkish  and  Tartar  tribes,  whereupon  he  declared  himself 
independent  and  turned  upon  the  capital.  The  emperor  fled ;  during  his  retreat  his 
soldiers  revolted  and  forced  him  to  order  Kao  Li  sze,  his  favourite  eunuch  and 
minister,  to  strangle  Yang  Kwei  Fei,  while  the  soldiei-s  themselves  publicly  exe- 
cuted a  brother  and  a  sister  of  the  favourite.  This  event  has  been  commemorated 
in  some  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Cliinese  popular  ballads.  Indeed  the  period  of 
the  Tang  dynasty  and  the  reign  of  Hsuan  Tsung  was  the  most  flourishing  epoch 
of  Chinese  poetry.  Under  this  monarch  lived  and  died  the  most  famous  lyric  poet 
of  China,  Li  Tai  peh.  An  Luh  shan  was  murdered  in  the  hour  of  his  success  by 
one  of  his  sons.  His  descendants,  who  murdered  one  another  as  they  found  occa- 
sion, established  themselves  in  the  frontier  provinces,  until  the  death  of  the  last  of 
the  family  in  76.3  removed  all  opposition  to  the  imperial  supremacy. 

Su  Tsung  (756-762)  was  a  weak  piince  who  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  one 
of  his  favo\irites,  Chang  Liang  ti,  who  had  gained  the  position  of  empress  through 
the  influence  of  a  eunuch,  Li  Fu  kuo.  The  eunuch  and  the  empress  quarrelled, 
and  upon  the  emperor's  death  Li  availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  of  murdering 
the  empress.  He  seems  to  have  enjoyed  no  less  influence  at  the  outset  of  the 
reign  of  Tai  Tsung  (763-779),  but  was  afterward  executed  with  other  eunuch.s. 
A  revolt  of  the  frontier  tribes  at  the  instigation  of  Chinese  malcontents  was  sup- 
pressed in  765,  cliiefly  by  the  efforts  of  the  general  Kwo  Tsze-i,  whose  military  talents 


92  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapter  i 

had  been  of  the  highest  service  under  the  previous  emperor.  Te  Tsung  (780-805) 
attempted  to  introduce  various  innovations  into  the  imperial  government,  but  did 
not  possess  tlie  stren<;th  or  the  persevemnce  to  carry  out  his  intentions;  he  was 
anxious  to  break  down  liie  powt-r  of  the  provincial  governoi-s  (several  of  whom 
often  existed  concurivntly  in  each  of  the  ten  Tao),  who  had  in  part  made  them- 
selves the  hereditary  lortls  of  the  districts  under  their  charge  ;  but  the  emperor  was 
obliged  to  flee,  and  only  won  his  way  back  to  tlie  capital  after  long  and  severe 
strufcles.  Other  attemi'ts  at  refiuin  were  ecpially  unsuccessful ;  the  attemjit  of 
the  minister  Yang  Yen  to  abolish  the  land  tax,  labour  services,  and  payment  of 
taxes  in  kind,  and  to  substitute  for  these  a  tax  in  money  to  be'paid  every  half  year, 
ended  with  tlie  reformer's  executiDu  in  781.  During  the  last  yeai-s  of  this 
emperor's  reign  the  greatest  disorder  prevailed  iu  every  department  of  the  adminis- 
tration, and  ottices  were  usually  assigned  to  the  highest  bidder. 

From  this  time  onward  the  Tang  dynasty  steadily  decayed ;  the  rulers  were  either 
entirely  subject  to  the  iutluence  of  Taoist  intriguers  or  to  the  eunuchs,  who  deposed 
and  murdered  several  members  of  the  dynasty.  The  attempts  of  the  provincial 
governore  to  secure  their  independence  led  to  a  constant  series  of  revolts,  which 
were  only  suppressed  with  ditWculty.  In  880  Huang  Chao  seized  the  capital  of 
Changan  an(l  declared  himself  emperor.  It  was  not  until  884  that  he  was  over- 
powered, and  then  only  with  the  help  of  Tartar  frontier  troops.  Chu  Chuan  chung, 
one  of  the  adherents  of  Huang  Chao,  had  taken  the  emperor's  side  and  received  a 
command  in  the  army ;  he  now  became  a  personage  of  high  importance.  The 
eunuchs,  who  had  murdered  many  princes  of  the  imperial  house,  attemjaed  to 
abduct  the  emperor  Chao  Tsung.  Chu  brought  him  back  to  Changan,  nuudered 
him  in  904,  and  placed  his  son  Chaohsuan  Ti  upon  the  throne.  Chu  then 
removed  every  official  and  prince  from  whom  opposition  to  his  plans  could  possilily 
be  feared,  and  deposed  the  emperor  in  907.  This  event  brought  the  Tang  dynasty 
to  an  end,  and  Chu  Chuan  chung  assumed  the  title  of  Tai  Tsu  and  became  the  Hrst 
ruler  of  the  later  (Hon)  Liang  dynasty. 

(/)  The  Five  Dynasties  (907-960).  —  Previous  to  the  fall  of  the  Tang  dynasty 
indeiJendent  States  had  been  formed  in  different  parts  of  the  empire.  At  a  later 
period  similar  States  were  added  to  these,  in  which  adherents  of  the  Tang  dynasty 
had  succeeded  in  defending  their  independence  against  the  usurpers  of  the  Won 
Liang  dynasty  and  their  successors.  The  Chinese  usually  designate  this  age  as 
that  of  the  "  Later  Five  Dynasties,"  and  also  as  the  age  of  "  The  Ten  States."  Of 
these  States  (Chien)  Shu  was  situated  in  Szechwan,  Wu  in  Kiangsu,  Min  in  Fokien, 
Wu  Yi'ie  m  Chekiang,  Nan  Han  in  Kwangtung  (Canton).  Chu  iu  Honan,  Cliing  nan 
in  Hupei.  In  addition  to  these  the  States  of  Chi  in  Sliensi  and  Kansu.  and  Yen  in 
Pechili  (Peking),  existed  independently.  Upon  the  north  and  west  two  Tartar 
tribes,  the  Khitan  (Liao)  and  the  Hsia,  had  extended  their  bnundaries  and  become 
inde])endeut  kingdoms,  the  former  dating  from  1137  and  the  latter  from  IC^l. 

The  first  of  the  Five  Djuasties  was  the  later  (Hon)  Liang  dynasty  (907-923), 
which  actually  ruled  oidy  over  Honan  and  Shantung.  ^lo  Ti,  the  second  emjieror 
of  this  dynasty,  was  overpowered  l>y  a  usurper  of  the  principality  of  Tsin,  Li  Tsun 
hsu, of  Turkish  origin.  In  923  he  founded  the  later  (Hon)  Tang  dynasty,  under  the 
title  of  Chuang  Tsung.  This  came  to  an  end  after  the  inglorious  rule  of  four 
emperors,  the  latter  of  whom,  Fei  Ti,  was  besieged  by  the  Khitan,  and  burnt  himself 


iSn^i.™'""]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  93 

alive  in  his  palace  at  Lojang.  The  later  (Hou)  Tsin  dynasty,  set  up  by  and  tribu- 
tarj'  to  the  Khitan,  was  also  destroyed  by  them.  In  946  the  Khitan  captured  the 
capital  of  Kaifong  in  Honan,  and  carried  the  emperor  Chu  Ti  into  capti\aty. 
After  a  short  interregnum,  Liu  Kao  ascended  tlie  throne  under  the  name  of 
Kao  Tsu,  the  first  emperor  of  the  later  (Hou)  Han  dynasty ;  he  succeeded  in 
drivmg  the  Khitan  out  of  the  empire.  His  sou  Yin  Ti  was  defeated  in  950 
by  the  general  Kuo  Wei,  who  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  soldiers  with 
the  title  of  Tai  Tsu,  and  ascended  the  throne  as  the  first  emperor  of  the  later 
(Hou)  Chau  dynasty  in  the  year  951.  His  grandson,  however,  was  dethroned 
in  960  by  the  general  Chao  Kuang  yin,  who  had  been  appointed  emperor  by 
his  army. 

The  area  of  these  conflicts  was  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  valley  of  the 
Hoangho ;  in  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  China  a  period  of  comparative 
peace  prevailed. 

ig)  The  Northern  Sung  Di/tiast>/  {960-1127).  —  Tai  Tsu  (960-976),  the  first 
ruler  of  the  northern  Smig  dynasty,  was  dragged  out  of  his  tent  in  a  condition  of 
hopeless  druukeuness  by  his  soldiers  and  clothed  with  the  imperial  robes ;  none 
the  less  he  proved  himself  an  excellent  ruler,  and  after  long  and  bitter  struggles 
restored  peace  and  order  throughout  the  empire.  Ching  nan,  one  of  the  ten  States, 
gave  in  its  submission  iu  963,  as  did  Hou  Shu  in  965,  Nan  Han  in  971,  Nan  Tang 
iu  075,  Wu  Yue  in  978,  and  Pei  Hau  in  979  ;  the  whole  empire  was  now  united 
imder  Tai  Tsung  (976-997),  with  the  exception  of  the  districts  ruled  by  the  Khitan 
and  the  Hsia,  under  the  government  of  Tai  Tsurig  (976-997).  The  governments  of 
Chen  Tsung  (998-1022)  and  Yen  Tsimg  (102:i-1063)  were  also  periods  of  pro- 
sperity for  tlie  coiuitiy,  although  the  latter  of  these  rulers  was  obliged  to  purchase 
a  disgraceful  peace  from  the  Khitan.  He  operated  with  greater  success  against 
the  Hsia,  wlio  were  settled  uear  Xing  hsia  in  Kausu ;  they  made,  at  any  rate,  a 
nominal  submission  to  his  supremacy.  However,  iu  the  year  1038  the  Hsia-wang 
Chao  Yuan  hao  assumed  the  title  of  emperor.  During  au  ilhiess  of  Y^ea  Tsung,  as 
also  during  the  first  years  of  his  successor's  reigu,  Ying  Tsung,  the  empress  Tsao 
(Tsao  H;ui)  played  an  important  part  as  regent,  though  her  powers  were  persist- 
ently limited  l)y  the  famous  statesman  Hau  Ki. 

During  the  period  of  Sheu  Tsung  (1068-1085)  took  place  the  interesting 
attempts  at  reform  introduced  by  the  minister  Wang  An  shih,  who  was  himself 
a  famous  scliolar  and  author  ;  these  reforms  were  founded  upon  the  precedents  and 
uses  of  the  old  Chau  dynasty  (1200  B.  c).  The  chief  feature  of  the  reform  was  the 
almost  paternal  interference  of  the  government  in  the  life  of  the  agricultural  popu- 
laliou.  The  system  of  tithiugs  was  reiutroduced  throughout  the  population,  together 
with  the  mutual  responsibility  of  the  members  of  the  tithing,  aud  a  militia  system 
was  drawn  up  based  upon  the  provincial  system  and  the  general  liability  to  mili- 
tary service.  In  the  spring  of  each  year  advances  were  made  to  the  peasants  from 
the  exchequer ;  in  the  autumn,  after  the  harvest,  this  amount  had  to  be  returned 
plus  twenty  per  cent  interest.  Those  liable  to  labour  services  were  obliged  to  com- 
mute them  for  monetary  payments.  The  objections  raised  to  these  reforms  by 
some  of  the  highest  State  officials  (Han  Ki,  Sze  Ma  kwang,  Su  shih,  and  others) 
were  founded  upon  the  unreliability  and  the  corruption  of  the  officials,  which  would 
make  it  impossible  to  carry  out  the  reforms  in  detail ;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was 


94  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  la,uj>teri 

chiefly  for  this  reason  that  they  faileil.  The  struggle  between  the  two  parties  con- 
tinued with  varying  success  and  under  different  rulers  for  nearly  forty  yeare,  and 
resulted  in  a  victory  of  the  old  conservative  party.  Wang  An  shih  was  canonised 
and  his  name  inscribed  in  the  temple  of  Kung  fu  tsze;  in  1086,  long  alter  his 
death,  he  was  deprived  of  all  posthumous  honours,  and  now  lives  in  the  memory  of 
the  Chinese  j>eople  as  the  "  shameful "  minister. 

The  period  was  also  characterised  by  otlier  movements  in  a  philosophical, 
literary,  and  antiquarian  direction.  But  for  the  State  at  that  period  its  military 
power  was  the  most  important  point,  and  here  this  dynasty  ap^ieared  entirely 
incompetent  as  compared  with  earlier  and  more  glorious  times.  It  ultimately 
succumbed  to  the  attacks  of  the  Tartar  kingdoms  then  existing  or  in  process  of  for- 
mation upon  the  frontiers.  In  907,  Apaochi,  apparently  the  chief  of  a  Tuugu  tribe, 
advanced  bevond  the  Amur  and  the  Liau  rivers  to  the  northeast  frontier  of  China, 
where  he  founded  the  kuigdora  of  Khitan  and  the  Liau  dynasty  in  916  under  the 
title  of  Tai  Tsu  (the  dynasty  lasted  from  91G  to  1125)  ;  this  khigdom  gradually 
extended  from  Amur  to  North  Pechili  and  from  the  Gulf  of  Liautung  to  the 
Desert  of  Gobi  (Shamo),  and  carried  on  many  long  wars  against  China,  plundering 
and  humiliating  the  empire  and  extorting  payments  of  tribute,  until  an  opponent, 
at  first  its  equal  and  soon  its  superior,  arose  in  the  Kin  Tartai-s  (Xu  chen,  Nu  chi), 
who  are  the  ancestors  of  the  Manchu  dynasty  now  ruling  in  China.  Threatened  by 
the  Liau,  the  emperor  Hui  Tsung  (1101-1125)  turned  to  Akuta,  the  prince  of  the 
Kin,  for  help  against  the  Liau,  with  whom  this  prince  was  himself  at  war.  Akuta, 
who  had  assumed  the  title  of  "  Emperor  of  Kin,"  under  the  name  of  Tai  Tsu  (1115- 
1122),  acceded  to  this  request;  his  brother  and  successor,  Tai  Tsung,  overthrew 
the  kingdom  of  the  Liau  in  1125  and  captured  the  ca]ntal  and  the  last  einpemr, 
Tien  tsu  Huang  ti.  Te  Tsung  (  Yiii  lu  Ta  shi),  a  member  of  tlie  imperial  family, 
fled  to  the  westward  and  founded  in  Central  Asia  the  kingdom  of  the  Kara  Khitai, 
the  Black  Khitan,  or  the  dynasty  of  tlie  Hsi  Liao  (the  western  Liau),  wliicli  was 
destroyed  in  1201  by  the  khan  of  the  Naiman  Mungols.  The  Cliinese  gained  no 
advantage  by  the  destruction  of  the  Liau,  for  the  Kin  proved  a  far  more  dangerous 
enemy.  This  nation  forced  China  to  make  concessions  of  territory  and  payments 
of  tribute.  In  1125  they  again  passed  the  frontier,  captured  Loyang  in  1127,  and 
can-ied  the  emperor  Chin  Tsung  (1126-1127)  into  captivity.  Their  kingdom,  the 
capital  of  which  was  at  first  Yen  (Peking),  extended  to  Houau,  where  at  first 
Kaifong  and  afterward  the  more  southerly  Shu-ning  became  the  capital.  Chang 
Pang  chang,  origmally  an  official  whom  they  had  set  up  under  tlie  title  of  the 
emperor  of  Chu  in  the  year  1127,  abdicated  in  the  same  year,  and  Kao  Tsung,  the 
ninth  son  of  Hui  Tsung,  ascended  the  throne,  thus  becoming  the  first  emperor  of 
the  southern  Sung  dynasty. 

(Ji)  The  Southern  Sung  Dynasty  {1127-1295).  —  Repeated  incursions  by  the 
Kin  forced  Kao  Tsung  (1127-1162)  to  remove  the  capital  from  Nanking  to  Liii  an 
(Hangchau)  in  Chekiang.  The  struggles  of  the  Chinese  against  the  Kin  were  by 
no  means  invariably  unsuccessful.  The  general  Voli  Fei  especially  distinguishi'd 
himself  in  this  warfare,  but  his  attempts  to  induce  the  emperor  to  make  a  decisive 
attack  uyKjn  the  enemies  of  the  empire  were  rendered  nugatory  by  the  minister 
Tsin  Kuei,  who  was  apparently  in  the  pay  of  the  Kin.  Eventually  Yoh  Fei  and 
his  son  were  thrown  into  prison,  and  executed  in  1141.     Yoh  Fei  was  canonised  in 


^r^«r?a'""']       •     HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  95 

1179,  and  his  opponent  is  still  regarded  with  abhorrence  both  by  the  Chinese 
people  and  the  native  historians. 

The  sole  feature  of  interest  in  the  history  of  the  southern  Sung  dynasty,  which 
consists  of  a  series  of  struggles,  first  against  the  Kin  and  then  against  tlie  Mongols, 
is  the  revival  of  philosophic  study,  wliich  reached  its  highest  point  in  the  exegetical 
school  of  Chu  hi  (1130-1200;  see  p.  86).  His  exliortatious  upon  the  classical 
books,  and  those  of  his  pupils  Chau  Tun-i,  Cheng  Teh  shiu,  and  others,  are  still 
autliiiritative  works  for  the  explanation  of  the  orthodox  belief. 

The  wars  against  the  Kin,  to  whom  China  was  at  times  nominally  allied  and 
often  actually  tributary,  exliausted  the  strength  of  the  empire,  until  at  the  outset 
of  the  thirteenth  century  the  Kin  were  confi-onted  with  the  attacks  of  the  ^longols. 
A  convention  concluded  by  the  emperor  Li  Tsung  (1225-1264)  witli  Ogotai,  the 
successor  of  Genghis  Khan,  in  12:'9,  proved  advantageous  rather  to  the  Mongols 
than  to  the  Chinese,  although  the  Cliinese  troops  won  a  great  victory  over  tlie  Kin 
under  the  agreement.  The  Mongols  got  possession  of  Tsaichau  (Shu-ning),  where 
Ai  Tsung  and  Mo  Ti,  the  last  emperore  of  tlie  Kin  dynasty,  lost  their  lives.  All 
attempts  of  the  Chinese  to  check  the  advance  of  the  Mongols  by  force  of  arms 
or  by  offers  of  submission  proved  vain.  In  1276  the  Mongol  general  Bayan 
(Bo  yen)  conquered  Haug-cliau,  captured  the  emperor  Kung  Ti  with  almost  all 
the  members  of  the  royal  family,  aud  carried  them  northward  into  captivity.  The 
eldest  son  of  Tu  Tsung  (1265-1274),  by  name  Chao  Shi,  succeeded  in  escaping 
from  the  enemy,  and  was  recognised  for  nine  years  as  emperor  in  Fuchau,  under 
the  name  of  Tuan  Tung.  However,  lie  was  soon  obliged  to  fiee  before  the  advanc- 
ing ^Mongols  to  Kwangtung,  where  he  died  in  1278.  His  younger  brother,  Ti  Ping, 
fled  with  the  last  of  his  adliereuts  to  the  island  of  Yai  shan,  which  was  attacked  by 
the  Mongols  in  1279.  Upon  the  loss  of  the  battle,  the  minister  Lu  Shiu  plunged 
into  the  sea  with  the  nine  year  old  emperor  on  his  back,  both  being  drowned 
together.  This  example  was  followed  by  a  number  of  the  court  attendants  upon 
the  young  emperor  to  avoid  capture  at  the  hands  of  the  Mongols.  Thus  the 
southern  Sung  dynasty  came  to  an  end  with  the  subjugation  of  the  Chinese 
people  by  the  Mongols. 

(?)  The  Mongol  Yuan  Dynasty,  120G  (12G0  or  1280)  to  iJ^^.  —  Temudshiu, 
better  known  as  Genghis  Khan,  was  the  son  of  a  chieftain  of  the  Xu-un  Mongols, 
and  was  bom  in  1155.  After  a  long  struggle  he  made  himself  chief  of  this  tribe, 
overcame  his  most  important  rival,  Ong  Khan,  in  1203,  and  was  elected  chief  of 
all  the  Mongol  tribes.  His  possessions  were  situated  in  Karakorum,  fiom  whence 
lie  advanced  to  the  coucjuest  of  the  world,  overcoming  the  Uigurians  in  1209,  the 
Kharismians  in  1220,  aud  defeating  the  Russians,  who  were  in  alliance  with  the 
Kuinaris,  on  the  Kalka  in  1223.  He  died  on  the  mountain  Lu  pan  shan,  in  Kansu, 
while  upon  an  expedition  against  the  Tanguts  in  1227,  the  year  of  the  downfall  of 
the  western  Hsia  dynasty.  His  influence  upon  China  was  merely  indirect,  through 
his  expulsion  of  the  Kin  dj-nasty.  His  imperial  title,  and  his  Chinese  name  Tai 
tszu,  which  he  bore  after  1206,  are  no  doubt  honourable  additions  of  a  later  period. 
After  his  son  To  Lei  (Tuli;  1227-1229)  had  ruled  for  a  short  period  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  third  son,  Ogotai  Khan  (Wokuo  tai ;  in  Chinese,  Tai  Tsung),  1229- 
1241.  Under  his  rule  the  Mongols  destroyed  the  Kin  dynasty,  and  became  the 
immediate  neighbours  of  China.     L'pon  the  west  also  the  ilongol  kingdom  was 


96  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [c/n,j,fer i 

rapiiUy  extended:  their  expeditions  against  North  Russia  as  far  as  the  district  of 
Nuvgurvid  (1237-1238),  agtiiiist  South  llussia  as  far  as  Volhynia  and  Poilolia 
(1240),  agamst  l'i>land,  Silesia,  and  Moravia  (1240-1241),  against  Hungary  (1241- 
124-),  spread  terror  of  the  ilongol  arms  far  and  wide  throughout  Kastern  Kurojie, 
and  also  brought  the  existence  of  Cliina  to  the  knowledge  of  the  West.  The  three 
great  kingdoms  founded  in  Asia,  Persia,  Turkestan,  and  that  of  tlie  (lolden  Horde 
on  the  Volga,  recognized,  though  jierhaps  only  nominally,  the  supremacy  of  China, 
—  a  submission  later  renewed  to  Timur  the  conqueror  of  India.  The  rulers  of  the 
three  kingdoms  received  yearly  subsidies  from  China,  whence  also  they  ac(iuired 
their  appointment  and  their  royal  seals.  Prisoners  of  war  formed  the  body-guards 
of  the  Chinese  emperor,  a  Russian  guard,  for  example,  being  formed  in  1330. 
Numerous  embassies  also  brought  tribute  from  the  subject  princes. 

After  the  death  of  Ogotai,  his  wife,  Nai  JIa  chen,  the  sixth  queen,  undertook 
the  government  during  the  minority  of  her  eldest  son,  Kuyuk  Khan  (Kuei  yu ;  in 
Chinese,  Tiug  Tsung),  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1246  ;  however,  he  died  in  1248. 
The  empress  Wo  wu  li  liaimi  slii  in  Karakorum  undertook  the  regency  until  the 
coming  of  age  of  Mangu  Klian,  the  son  of  Tu  li  (^leng  Ko;  in  Chinese,  Hsien 
Tsung;  12ol-12o9);  he  spent  most  of  his  time  in  his  summer  capital  of  Shang  tu 
(Xanadu)  in  Southeast  Mongolia,  where  he  died.  His  reign  was  almost  entirely 
occupied  with  wars  against  the  southern  Sung  dynasty,  which  was  ultimately 
destroyed  in  1279  under  the  rule  of  his  younger  brother,  Kublai  Khan  (Ilu  pi  lie; 
in  Chinese,  Shi  Tsu;  1260-1294).  The  first  war  of  Kublai  was  directed  against 
the  pretender  within  his  own  nation,  Arikbuga  (Alipuko),  who  revolteil  against 
him  in  Karakorum,  but  was  defeated  in  1261,  and  forced  to  flight  and  submission 
in  1264.  In  the  same  year  Peking  was  declared  the  capital  of  the  country,  under 
the  name  of  Chung  tu  (central  residence),  and  in  1271  Kublai  adopted  the  title  of 
the  Yuan  dynasty  for  his  family.  The  Mongols,  who  had  already  subdued  Korea, 
made  this  country  the  base  of  operations  for  an  attempt  (which  was  defeated  by 
the  Japanese)  to  establish  themselves  in  Kyushu.  Negotiations  were  carried  on 
by  Japan  with  the  idea  of  ultimate  subjection,  but  led  to  no  result,  and  a  great 
fleet  sent  out  by  Kublai  against  Japan  in  12S1  was  almost  entirelj-  destroyed 
bj'  a  fearful  storm.  In  sjiite  of  this  failure,  Kublai  maintained  peace  and  order 
throughout  the  twelve  provinces  into  which  the  empire  was  divided,  and  mider  his 
administrati<in  every  possible  consideration  was  given  to  Chinese  customs.  The 
great  "  Imperial  Canal,"  which  had  already  been  begun  under  the  dynasties  of  the 
Sui,  Sung,  and  the  Kin,  was  extended  and  completed,  and  the  nation  developed 
advantageously  in  other  directions.  Marco  Polo  \-isited  the  comt  of  the  Grand 
Khan  between  1275  and  1292  with  his  two  uncles,  Nicolo  and  MafTeo,  spent  some 
time  in  different  parts  of  the  empire,  and  acijiiired  much  information  u]><in  its  riches 
and  treasures  ("  Marco  Millione  ")■  His  accounts  led  indirectly  to  the  discovery  of 
America  (cf.  VoL  I,  p.  347),  as  Columbus  set  out  "  to  sail  westward  to  the  east ; " 
that  is,  to  discover  I\Ianzi  or  Southern  China. 

Timur  (Tie  murh;  in  Chinese,  Cheng  T.sung ;  1295-1307),  the  successor  of 
Kublai,  reintroduced  the  veneration  of  Kung  fu  tsze,  whose  doctrines  had  been 
tolerated,  but  not  respected,  by  his  predecessors.  His  example  was  followed  by  the 
succeeding  rulers,  who  evinced  keen  interest  in  the  classical  literature,  though  they 
did  not  thereby  gain  the  aH'ection  of  their  sulijects.  U]>on  the  whole,  the  Mongol 
rulera  seem  to  ha^•e  governed  wisely  ;  they  invariably  showed  themselves  anxious 


tS^^^'""'']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  07 

to  lessen  the  burdens  upon  the  people,  but  the  remembrance  of  the  fear  inspired 
by  the  Mongol  invasions  had  not  as  yet  been  obliterated.  Any  conwilsion  of 
nature  which  ravaged  tlie  C(juntry  was  considered  by  the  learned  classes  and  the 
couiiiuin  people  to  be  a  heaven-seul  puni.shnieut.  In  court  life  euuuchs  were  also 
influential.  The  emperor  Shotepala  (yng  Tsung)  was  murdered  in  1323  by  his 
chamberlain,  Tie  shi ;  but  those  family  dissensions  which  had  so  largely  contri- 
buted to  the  downfall  of  earlier  dynasties  were  almost  unknown.  The  first  in- 
stance of  such  outbreaks  occurred  in  1328,  after  the  death  of  the  emperor  Yesun 
Timur  (Tai  ting  Ti).  Wen  Tsung,  or  Tup  Timur,  a  son  of  Kaisuu  (Hai  shan, 
Wu  Tsung;  1308-1311),  got  possession  of  the  throne,  and  drove  out  Asu  chipa 
(Achakpa),  a  son  of  Yesun  Timur,  who  had  also  assumed  the  imperial  title  within 
.Shaug  lu.  The  elder  brother,  Ho  shi  la  (Ming  Tsung),  was  recognised  in  1328  by 
Tup  Timur  as  the  legal  heir,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  Mongolia,  but  died  in 
1329  on  a  visit  to  a  younger  brother,  who  is  supposed  to  have  poisoned  him.  Wen 
Tsung  then  ruled  until  1332,  and  died  in  Shaug  tu. 

I-lin-chi-pan,  a  son  of  Ho-shi-la,  who  was  but  seven  years  of  age,  was  set  upon 
the  throne,  and  died  in  the  same  year ;  he  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  brother, 
To-huan  Tie-murh  (Shun  Ti ;  1333-1368),  the  last  ruler  of  the  Mongolian 
dynasty.  The  reign  of  Shun  Ti  was  opened  by  a  series  of  earthquakes,  showers 
of  blood,  and  other  phenomena,  which,  together  with  the  failure  in  the  harvest 
and  an  outbreak  of  floods,  threw  the  nation  into  a  state  of  disquietude.  Much  dis- 
satisfaction was  also  caused  by  the  issue  of  a  decree  for  the  undertaking  of  works 
upon  the  banks  of  the  Hoang  Ho,  in  the  course  of  which  taxation  was  necessarily 
increased.  In  1348  the  first  disturbances  broke  out.  In  1351  an  opposition  em- 
peror, Hsu  Shou  hui,  was  set  up  in  Hupei,  and  another  emperor,  Chang  Shi  cheng, 
in  Kiangsu  in  1353.  In  13(i0  Hsu  Shou  hui  was  deposed  by  Chen  Yo  liang,  who 
styled  himself  emperor  of  Han,  while  Chang  Shi  cheng  proclaimed  himself  king 
of  Wu  in  1363,  and  was  deposed  by  Chu  Yuan  ehang  in  1367.  In  1355  Han 
Lin  erh  proclaimed  himself  emperor  of  Sung  in  Xgan-hwei ;  and  in  1363  Ming 
yu  chen  proclaimed  himself  emperor  of  Hsia  in  Szechwan. 

The  most  important  of  all  these  pretenders  was  Chu  Y''uan  chang ;  he  had  been 
born  of  poor  parents,  and  after  becoming  a  Buddhist  priest  had  entered  the  service 
of  Kwo  Tze  King,  who  had  made  himself  prince  of  Chu  yang  in  Ngan-hwei  in 
the  year  1353.  After  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  Chu  conquered  Nanking  at 
the  head  of  a  division  of  the  forces  collected  by  the  former,  and  made  himself  king 
of  Wu  in  1367 ;  he  then  became  the  chief  opponent  of  the  Mongols.  In  1368  he 
assumed  the  imperial  title,  with  the  dj-nastic  name  of  Ming ;  in  the  same  year  his 
generals  (see  Fig.  4  of  the  plate,  p.  90)  conquered  Peking,  whence  the  last  Mongol 
€mperor,  Shun  Ti,  fied,  passing  through  the  Nanking  Pass  into  those  same  steppes 
whence  his  forefathers  had  once  set  out  for  the  invasion  of  China. 

(/)   The  Begixxixgs  of  Christi.\nity  i\  Chix.v  (635-1368) 

(«)  Xcxtorianism. — An  inscription  on  the  monument  discovered  in  1625  at 
Singanfu,  the  authenticity  of  which  was  erroneously  doubted  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  states  that  a  Nestorian,  the  first  Christian  missionary,  arrived  in  China  in 
€35.  Upon  the  monument  he  is  kno\vn  as  "  Olojieii,"  which  is  perhaps  merely  a 
corruption  of  the  Chinese  expression  for  monk,  and  the  religion,  of  which  a  some- 

VOL.n  — 7 


98  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [_ri,„pter i 

what  vague  suminaiy  is  given,  is  calk-il  ihe  i\i>l)le  law  of  Ta  tsin  (Syria;  cf.  p.  70). 
Tlie  books  bi-ought  by  Olopeu  weix'  trauslateil  with  the  emperor's  leave,  and 
official  sanction  was  given  to  the  dissemination  of  his  teaching.  The  Tang  emperor, 
Tai  Tsung.  is  said  in  638  to  have  given  liis  express  permission  to  the  preaching  of 
the  new  doctrine,  and  to  liave  allowed  the  building  of  a  church,  in  which  his  picture 
was  placed.  Kao  Tsung  (650-083)  also  favoured  tlie  doctrine.  At  a  later  period, 
however,  difficulties  rose ;  but  Hsuan  Tsung  (712-756)  again  showed  favour  to 
the  doctrine,  and  a  new  missionary,  Kiho,  is  said  to  have  entered  the  country. 
Finally  the  monument  records  its  own  erection  in  781,  under  Te  Tsung  (780-805). 
The  inscription  is  in  the  Chinese  langm^ge, and  partly  in  poetical  form;  it  contains 
quotations  in  the  Syrian  language  (Estraugelo),  from  which  it  appears  that  a  large 
number  of  Nestorian  priests  (one  reference  contains  sLxty-seven  names)  were  then 
working  in  China.  They  are  said  to  have  been  organised  under  several  episcopal 
vicars,  the  fii-st  of  whom  is  entitled  the  pope  of  Zinstan  (Ziuistan,  or  China ;  cf. 
Vol.  IV,  p.  214).  According  to  later  accounts,  closer  relations  existed  between  the 
Xestorians  and  the  mother  church  in  8}Tia,  until  broken  off  by  the  advance  of 
Mohammedanism.  In  845  the  Christian  priests,  who  are  said  to  have  numbered 
three  thousand,  came  under  the  edict  of  Wu  Tsung,  which  ordered  them,  like 
those  of  Buddha,  to  return  to  theii-  temporal  occupations.  Nevertheless  the  Nes- 
torians  maiuuiined  their  footing  in  China  and  Central  Asia  (Presbyter,  or  Prester, 
John,  a  very  fabulous  personage,  may  perhaps  be  identiKed  with  Oug  Khan,  the 
rival  of  Genghis  Khan;  cf.  p.  95).  They  possessed  a  large  number  of  parishes  and 
churches  throughout  the  empire,  and  were  not  without  influence  at  the  court  of  the 
Mongol  jjrinces  and  emperor,  making  many  converts  among  the  wt>meu  and  among 
some  of  the  higher  officials.  They  fell  with  the  Mongol  dynasty,  without  leaving 
any  trace  of  their  existence. 

(h)  Tlie  Roman  Catholic  Belief.  —  At  the  time  of  the  Mongol  dynasty  the  first 
Eoman  Catholic  priests  arrived  in  China,  appearing  in  the  character  of  ambassa- 
dors with  a  diplomatic  message  from  the  pope  and  temporal  princes.  The  success 
of  the  Mongols  in  Western  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe,  together  with  the  growing 
power  of  ilohammedanism  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  had  seriously  occupied  th^.'  atten- 
tion of  the  popes  who  preached,  and  the  princes  who  took  part  in,  the  several 
crusades,  and  it  was  th. night  that  an  alliance  might  be  made  with  the  ^I()ngt)ls 
against  the  Mohammedans,  the  common  enemy  of  both  parties.  This  view  of 
the  situation  commended  itself  also  to  the  followers  of  (renghis  Khan.  The 
attempts  to  bring  about  a  political  and  military  alliance  of  this  nature  led  to  no 
result,  no  doubt  in  conseipience  of  the  fact  that  both  popes  and  Mongol  princes, 
uistead  of  applying  their  energies  to  the  yn-actical  solution  of  the  questions  before 
them,  di.scussed  more  extensive  plans  involving  the  extension  of  their  power.  How- 
ever, the  reports  of  the  papal  messengers,  and  the  emissaries  of  tlie  other  princes 
who  went  to  Jlongolia  and  China  by  land,  ofifer  many  points  of  high  interest. 
Before  the  jneeting  of  the  Council  of  Lyons  (1245),  Pojie  Innocent  IV  sent  to  the 
East  an  embassy  of  Dominicans  under  Nicolas  Anselin  (Anselm  of  Lombai-dy). 
In  August,  1247,  they  met  the  army  of  the  general  liachu  Noyan  in  Khwaresra, 
and  he  sent  them  back  with  two  Tartar  (^longolian)  envoys  with  a  message  to 
the  pope  (1248).  The  mes.sage  was  conceived  in  a  discourteous  style,  and  the 
XHjjte  was  ordered  to  give  in  his  submission;  luit  the  geiuM-al  trcjited  the  ambas- 


iZ7^ore'r']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  99 

sadors  with  the  greatest  kmdness,  in  the  hope  of  continuing  further  relations. 
Simuhaneously  with  the  first  mission,  Innocent  also  despatched  two  Franciscans, 
Lorenzo  of  Portugal,  who  was  appointed  papal  legate  in  the  East,  and  John  of 
Piano  Carpini,  who  started  on  the  journey  from  Breslau,  in  comjjany  with  Bene- 
dict of  Poland.  These  latter  were  the  fii-st  to  reach  Bachu,  who  sent  them  on 
to  the  encampment  of  Ogotai,  where  they  arrived  at  the  moment  when  Kuyuk 
ascended  the  throne  in  July,  1246.  There  they  foimd  Russian  and  Hungarian 
priests,  and  a  goldsmitli  by  name  Kosmos.  Kuyuk  was  himself  the  son  of  a 
Nestorian  woman,  and  among  the  women  of  his  harem  and  his  high  officials 
were  many  Christians,  who  were  allowed  to  practise  their  religion. 

In  XoviMiiber  the  ambassadors  were  dismissed  with  a  written  answer  from  the 
Great  Khan.  Tliey  were  diplomatic  enough  to  decline  the  company  of  Tartar 
ambassadors,  as  they  did  not  desire  the  latter  to  be  witnesses  of  the  dissensions 
existing  among  the  Christian  princes,  and  so  to  acquire  courage  for  further  inva- 
sions. The  homeward  journey  through  Ilussia,  Poland,  Bohemia,  and  Austria 
proved  difficult,  and  they  did  not  reach  tlie  pope  until  the  end  of  the  year  1247. 

Meanwhile  King  Louis  IX  of  France  received  in  1247  a  demand  from  Bachu 
to  offer  his  submission,  to  which  no  repl}'  was  sent.  In  1248,  when  Louis  was  on 
his  first  crusade,  ambassadors  from  Ilchikadai,  the  successor  of  the  deceased  Bachu, 
came  to  the  king  in  Cyprus,  offering  him  an  alliance  against  the  Mohammedans, 
and  informing  him  that  Ilchikadai  and  the  Great  Khan  had  themselves  become 
Christians.  Upon  this  information,  Louis  sent  out  an  embassj'  from  Nicosia  in 
1249,  consisting  of  Dominicans,  under  Andrew  of  Lou'jumeau,  to  the  Great  Khan, 
to  present  him  with  several  relics  and  exhort  him  to  continue  in  the  Christian 
religion.  The  embassy  went  by  way  of  Persia,  in  order  to  speak  with  Ilclii,  and 
on  arrival  at  the  camp  of  the  Great  Khan  found  Kuyuk  dead  (1248).  The  queen 
regent,  Ogul  Haimish  (Wo  wu  li  hai  mi  shi ;  1248-1251),  accepted  the  gifts  as  a 
token  of  tribute,  and  sent  back  the  ambassadors  with  presents.  They  were  unable 
to  gain  any  more  accurate  information  on  the  subject  of  the  alleged  conversion. 
They  returned  to  the  king  at  Acre  in  1251. 

In  spite  of  his  dissatisfaction  at  the  false  construction  laid  upon  the  object 
of  this  embassy,  Louis  sent  out  in  Ma}-,  125.3,  new  ambassadors,  the  Franciscan, 
Wdliam  of  Kubruquis,  and  Bartholomew  of  Cremona,  using  the  supposed  conver- 
sion as  an  excuse  for  their  despatch.  They  travelled  by  way  of  Constantinople 
through  the  steppes  between  the  Dnieper  and  Don,  and  readied  the  encampment 
of  Khagatai  in  Jul}',  whence  they  were  sent  on  to  Sartak  Khan,  the  son  of  Bachu, 
three  days'  march  beyond  the  Volga.  He,  however,  declined  to  give  them  leave 
on  his  own  responsibility  to  remain  and  preach  in  the  country,  and  sent  them  to 
^langu.  At  his  court  in  December,  125-3,  they  found  many  Nestorian  priests, 
who  had  been  given  precedence  over  the  Mohammedan  Imans  and  the  Bonzes, 
^laugu  was  present  at  their  divine  services  with  his  family,  but  probably  this  was 
a  matter  of  indifference  to  him.  He  himself,  however,  was  very  superstitious,  and 
never  entered  into  any  undertaking  without  pre\ious  divination  by  means  of  the 
shoidder-bones  (cf.  p.  2).  They  accompanied  ^langu  to  Karakorum,  where  they 
found  Giiillaume  Bouchier,  a  Parisian  goldsmith.  There,  at  the  orders  of  Mangu, 
they  had  a  discussion  with  the  priests  of  other  religions.  Mangu  finally  dismissed 
Pubruquis  (Bartholomew  remained  behind,  as  he  declined  to  journey  homeward 
through  the  desert),  with  a  written  answer  to  King  Louis,  in  which  he  assumed 


1(10  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter i 

ihe  titles  of  '•  Sou  of  the  lieaven  "  and  "  Lonl  of  lords,"  and  eonlradictcd  the  in- 
formation that  had  been  given  hy  tlie  amhassadors  of  llchikadai  and  of  Ogul 
Haimish,  and  directed  the  king  to  act  upon  the  orders  of  Gengliis  Khan.  After  a 
niareli  of  two  iiKmtlis  Kubrutiuis  met  with  Sartak,  who  betook  himself  to  the 
camp  of  Mangii,  and  had  been  baptised  as  his"  chaplain  "  reported.  In  September, 
1254,  Rubruquis  reached  the  encampment  of  Bachu,  whom  he  accompanied  for  a 
month;  ultimately  he  returned  through  the  Caucasus,  Armenia,  and  Syria,  and 
arrived  at  Tripoli  in  August,  1255,  whence  he  sent  his  report  to  King  Louis  in 
Acre. 

The  popes  also  were  by  no  means  idle,  though  their  objects  were  now  rather 
religious  than  political.  In  1278  Nicholas  III  sent  five  monks  to  the  Great  Khan, 
but  nothing  is  known  of  tlie  results  of  this  embassy.  The  Franciscan  monk,  John 
of  iloutecorvino,  who  had  started  in  1289,  arrived  at  the  coast  of  South  China  in 
1292  and  made  bis  way  to  Cambaluc  (Peking),  from  whence  he  sent  favourable 
rejiorls  in  1305  and  1306;  in  1307  he  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Cambaluc. 
In  this  year  and  in  1312  a  number  of  suflragan  bishops  and  other  priests  were 
sent  out  to  him,  though  it  seems  that  some  failed  to  reach  their  destination.  In 
Peking,  Zaitun  (Cliaugchau  or  Chinchiu),  and  Yangchau  there  existed  episcopal 
towns,  churches  (three  in  Peking),  and  parishes,  and  when  John  of  Montecorvino 
died  in  1328,  the  prospects  of  the  Minorite  mission  appeared  highly  favourable, 
although  Andrew  of  Perugia,  bishop  of  Zaitun,  published  a  complaint  in  1326  that 
no  converts  were  made  of  the  Mohammedans  and  Jews,  and  that  man}-  of  the 
bapti.sed  heathen  strayed  from  the  Christian  faith.  On  the  other  hand,  as  he 
himself  observed,  the  country  enjoyed  full  religious  toleration,  and  no  opposition 
was  offered  to  the  preaching  of  the  missionaries. 

Odoric  of  Pordenone,  who  arrived  at  the  coast  of  China  between  1320  and  1330, 
remained  for  three  years  in  the  country  and  returned  by  way  of  Til)et,  wlien  he 
drew  up  an  exhaustive  report  of  the  religious  conditions  prevailing  in  the  Far  East. 
The  last  communications  upon  the  state  of  the  country  which  were  received  from 
China  came  from  John  Marignolli,  who  resided  in  Peking  as  the  papal  legate  from 
1342  to  1346.  Communications  were  then  cut  off.  In  1370  Urban  V  attempted 
to  improve  the  situation  by  sending  out  a  papal  legate,  an  archbishop,  and  some 
eighty  clergy  to  Peking ;  but  no  news  was  ever  received  of  any  of  them.  The 
Catholic  mission  perished  amid  the  disturbances  which  broke  out  upon  the  down- 
fall of  the  Mongolian  dynasty,  as  the  Nestorians  had  jterished  before  thiem.  The 
hostility  of  the  national  Ming  dynasty  in  China  to  all  foreigners,  the  spread  of 
Mohammedan  influence  in  Central  Asia,  and  the  conversion  of  rulers  and  peoples 
to  this  faith  are  hardly  of  themselves  a  sufficient  explanation  of  the  calamities 
which  befell  the  Christians  ;  popular  hatred  of  the  foreign  doctrine  and  the  foreign 
teachers  must  have  materially  contributed  to  their  extermination. 

K.  China  during  the  Period  of  Transition'  from  Medieval  to  Modern 
Times;   the  Ming  Dynasty  (1368-1644) 

The  first  years  of  Tai  Tsu,  the  first  ruler  of  the  house  of  the  Ming  (Ta  Ming, 
the  great  Ming,  also  generally  known  to  foreigners  as  Hung  wu,  from  the  motto' 
of  his  race;  1368-1398),  were  devoted  to  completing  the  expulsion  of  the  Mongols 

'  The  iiiottoi'9  (ff.  J).  78)  will  be  added  henceforward  in  brackets. 


iTK-.rJa""'']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  101 

and  the  subjugation  of  the  pretenders  within  the  empire.  Ming  Shen,  the  emperor 
of  Hsia  (or  Shu),  submitted  himself  in  1371 ;  in  the  same  year  a  son  of  the  last 
Mongol  ruler,  who  had  hitherto  maintained  his  ground  in  Szechwan  and  Yunnan, 
was  tinally  con(iuered.  Shun  Ti  himself  (p.  97),  who  had  taken  refuge  with  the 
northern  Mongols,  was  followed  up  by  the  Chinese  and  besieged  in  Ymgchang, 
where  he  died.  His  son  succeeded  in  escaping  after  the  fall  of  the  town  (1 370). 
The  national  rising  of  the  Chinese  helped  to  extend  their  influence  abroad.  Korea 
and  Annam  sent  tribute,  and  the  Japanese  who  had  ravaged  the  coasts  of  China  at 
intervals  bj'  way  of  re\'euge  for  the  ilongol  invasion  were  tem])orarily  driven  back 
by  a  so-called  Chinese  naval  victory  at  the  Liu  kiu  Islands.  In  1381  a  revolt  in 
Yunnan  was  suppressed.  Tlie  emperor,  who  resided  in  Nanking,  paid  much  atten- 
tion to  the  reorganisation  of  the  country  and  of  the  administration  ;  he  divided 
the  kingdom  into  thirteen  provinces  (Shansi  east  and  west,  Shantung,  Honan, 
Hukwang,  Szechwan,  Yunnan,  Kweichau,  Kwangsi,  Kwangtimg,  Fukien,  Kiangsi, 
aud  Chekiang),  which  were  redivided  into  Fu,  Chau,  and  Hsien  (prefectures, 
departments,  and  sub-departments),  an  arrangement  which  continues  to  the 
present  day. 

Tai  Tsu  was  succeeded  by  his  gi-andson  Hui  Ti  (Chien  wen),  who,  however, 
was  immediately  sent  into  a  Buddhist  monasteiy  in  1403  by  his  uncle  Tai  Tsung 
(Yung  lo;  1403-1424),  who  had  hitherto  resided  in  Peking  as  king  of  Yen.  Tai 
Tsung  introduced  a  double  system  of  government  with  two  sets  of  ministers,  etc. ; 
the  one  in  Peking,  where  he  himself  resided,  the  other  at  Nanking.  Disturbances 
whicli  broke  out  as  a  protest  against  his  usurpation  were  ruthlesslj-  suppressed  ; 
at  the  same  time  he  raised  the  prestige  of  China  abroad.  Froto  the  year  1406  to 
1411  he  carried  on  a  war  against  Tongking,  which  ended  ^ith  the  subjugation  of 
the  country,  though  his  supremacy  was  not  jjermanently  established.  In  1419  he 
defeated  the  Japanese,  who  had  made  an  incursion  into  Liautung.  Expeditions 
(embassies  ?)  were  sent  out  under  the  eunuchs  Cheng  ho  and  Ma  Huan  to  Siam, 
Ceylon,  Java,  Sumatra,  Bengal,  aud  to  the  Eed  and  Persian  seas.  In  fact,  Chinese 
influence  seems  not  only  to  have  been  felt  in  many  of  these  countries  at  that  time, 
but  to  have  been  paramoimt.  Ceylon  recognised  the  political  supremacy  of  China 
for  more  than  fifty  years,  and  ambassadors  came  to  China  from  Aden  in  1422,  from 
Egypt  in  1441,  aud  from  Samarkand  in  14S1.  However,  the  great  anxiety  of  the 
emperor  was  the  continued  incursions  of  the  ilongols,  whereby  he  was  induced  to 
transfer  the  capital  to  Peking  and  to  strengthen  the  great  wall  by  works  under- 
taken between  tlie  capital  and  Kalgan,  which  were  afterward  increased  by  his  suc- 
cessors. He  himself  carried  on  a  uuml)er  of  campaigns  against  the  Mongols,  which, 
though  invariably  successful,  produced  no  permanent  effect,  and  upon  one  of  these 
he  died. 

The  successor  of  Tai  Tsvmg  was  also  obliged  to  struggle  against  these  enemies. 
Ying  Tsung  (Cheng  tung ;  1436-1449)  was  defeated  by  the  Mongols  and  carried 
into  captivity,  being  ultimately  released  in  1457  at  the  price  of  a  heavy  ransom ; 
he  then  resumed  the  government  untU  1464  under  the  motto,  "  Tien  shun."  Under 
his  successor,  Hsien  Tsung  (Chenghua  ;  1465-1487),  the  Mongol  raids  continued, 
aud  obliged  the  government  to  further  extend  the  existing  fortifications.  Revolts 
also  broke  out  in  the  interior,  especially  in  the  district  of  the  Miao  and  Yao  of 
Kwangsi  and  Kweichau  (ef.  p.  59,  60),  which  were  not  suppressed  until  1467,  after 
lung  struggles.     During  the  reign  of  Hsiao  Tsung  (Hung  chi;  1488-1505)  the 


102  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [ampter i 

Moiigi>l  invasions  were  leiieweil  with  varying  success.  Additional  troubles  under 
Shi  Tsuiig  (Chiaching;  1522-1566)  were  caused  by  the  repeatetl  and  energetic 
attacks  of  the  Japanese  ujxju  the  Yanglsze  district  (1550)  and  Fukien.  In  1516 
the  Portuguese  apiveared  at  Canton ;  their  first  ambassadors  entered  Peking  in 
1520,  and  on  ivturning  to  t'antun  paid  with  their  lives  for  the  misdeeds  of  their 
compatriots,  whose  piracy  had  brought  them  into  collision  with  the  authorities  and 
the  ])opulation. 

During  the  government  of  Shen  Tsung  ("Wan  li ;  1573-1620),  one  of  the 
more  energetic  rulers  of  this  dynasty,  three  events  occurred  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance for  China  and  the  whole  of  East  Asia.  In  1581  the  first  Jesuit  came  by  sea 
to  China.  In  161S  the  Manchus,  the  descendants  of  the  Kin  dynasty,  which  had 
been  destroyed  by  the  Mongols  in  1234,  entered  the  modern  district  of  Maucluiria 
under  Aisin  Gioiv,  afterward  known  as  Tai  Tsu,  and  settled  in  Hsiug  ching.  At  a 
later  date  they  reraoved  to  Midcden  (Shingking),  whence  the  Chinese  were  unable 
to  expel  them.  From  1592  to  1598  the  Japanese  held  sway  over  Korea  (cf.  p.  31), 
China  sending  military  help  to  this  her  tributary  State  as  she  saw  her  own  security 
threatened  by  the  advance  of  the  Japanese.  This  measure  of  support,  together 
with  the  obstinate  resistance  of  the  Koreans,  raised  such  obstacles  in  the  path  of 
the  Japanese  that,  after  a  campaign  of  varied  fortunes  and  fruitless  diplomatic 
negotiation^,  the  dying  Hideyoshi  recalled  his  army  to  Japan. 

In  spile  of  tliis  indisputable  success,  the  Ming  dynasty  began  henceforward  to 
decline.  The  influence  of  the  eunuchs  and  the  harem,  which  had  always  been 
dominant  in  Peking,  rapidly  increased  under  the  weaker  em]>eror.s.  Troops  and 
money  were  lacking,  and  the  invasions  of  the  Manchus  grew  more  frequent  and 
more  successful.  In  1623  they  were  in  possession  of  the  whole  of  Liautung, 
and  in  1629  thej^  advanced  as  far  as  Peking  and  Tientsin,  and  were  only  driven 
back  after  a  severe  struggle.  In  1622  the  government  applied  to  Macao,  and 
enlisted  from  that  district  a  body  of  Portuguese  and  Chinese  freebooters  four 
hundred  strong,  and  partly  armed  with  guns,  for  service  against  the  Manchu. 
These,  however,  were  not  employed,  proljably  from  fear  that  they  would  turn  ujion 
the  government.  The  empire  itself  was  in  a  general  state  of  ferment.  Eevolts, 
partly  due  to  yeai-s  of  famine,  broke  out  in  Shansi,  Hupei,  and  Szechwan.  A^^lile 
the  general  Wu  San  kuei  was  sti'ivmg  his  utmost  to  protect  the  northern  frontier 
against  the  advancing  Manchus,  who  had  been  under  the  command  of  Tai  Tsung 
from  1627  (1627-1643),  Li  Tsze  cheug  revolted  and  marched  upon  Peking,  which 
fell  in  1644  after  a  short  siege.  Huai  Tsung  (Chung  cheug),  who  hail  ruled  from 
1628,  and  seems  to  have  been  an  honourable  but  weak  character,  committed  sui- 
cide after  killing  his  wife  and  daughter.  With  him  the  Ming  dynasty  came  to 
an  end.  Li  Tsze  cheug  proclaimed  himself  emijeror,  but  after  a  short  time  was 
forced  to  evacuate  the  ruined  capital  by  the  advance  of  the  Manchus,  who  had 
been  joined  by  Wu  San  kuel 

L.   The  Second  Pf.riod  of  Christianitv  ix  China  (from  1581) 

(")  The  Period  of  Prosperiti/  of  the  Jesuit  Mission.  —  In  1579  the  provincial 
of  India  sent  two  Jesuits  to  China,  Kuggiero  and  Matteo  Kicci.  This  step  was 
taken  by  the  advice  of  Francis  Xavier,  who  had  himself  intended  to  make  his  way 
to  China  on  the  conclusion  of  his  work  hi  Japan,  but  had  died  upon  the  jouniey 


ifrA-l-r?/""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  103 

at  the  island  of  Sancian  iu  1552.  His  aims  were  supported  by  the  Jesuit  Ales- 
saniho  Vuligiiani,  who  liad  visited  Macao.  They  succeeded  in  reacliing  Canton 
from  Macao  iii  15S1,  and  after  infinite  difficulty  erected  mission  stations  in 
Kwangtung,  Kwangsi,  and  afterward  also  in  Nanking.  In  1601  Ricci  arrived  at 
Peking,  where  he  won  general  respect.  His  view  was  tliat  in  the  work  of  conver- 
sion the  opinions  of  the  Chinese  shouhl  be  spared  as  much  as  possible.  But  his 
successor,  Nicholas  Longobardi,  whom  he  had  himself  appointed  (he  died  in  1610), 
did  not  share  tlie.se  views,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  opposition  which  was 
to  prove  terribly  destructive  to  the  Catliolic  missions  a  century  later.  The  rapid 
]irogi'ess  of  the  missionaries  soon  excited  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  the  official  and 
learned  classes,  and  iu  1616  an  order  was  issued  from  Peking  to  imprison  all  mis- 
sionaries. The  edict  was,  however,  executed  only  in  that  town  and  in  Nanking. 
When  the  invasions  of  the  Manchus  began  in  1618,  the  missionaries  were  recalled 
to  support  the  government  with  advice  and  practical  help,  and  especially  to  aid 
them  by  casting  cannon.  This  was  the  most  prosperous  period  of  the  missionaries. 
I'lUil  1627  they  counted  t1\irteen  thousand  converts  in  the  .seven  provinces  of  the 
emjiire,  and  more  than  forty  thousand  ten  years  later. 

The  position  of  the  missionaries  was  in  no  way  affected  by  the  downfall  of  the 
Ming  dynasty.  Shi  Tsu  (Shun  chi),  the  first  emperor  of  the  ]\Ianchii  dynasty, 
appointed  the  head  of  the  mission  for  the  time  being,  Adam  Schall  of  Cologne,  to 
be  president  of  the  board  of  astronomy  in  1645,  and  remained  well  disposed  toward 
him  until  his  death  (1661).  However,  during  the  minority  of  his  successor,  Sheng 
Tsu  ( Kaug  hsi),  the  regents  instituted  measures  of  severe  repression  against  mis- 
sionaries. It  was  not  until  the  emperor  himself-  assumed  the  power  iu  1671  that 
the  decree  of  banishment  which  had  been  issued  against  the  missionaries  was 
repealed.  The  revolt  of  Wu  San  kuei  in  Yunnan  (1673)  enabled  Ferdinand 
Verbiest,  the  successor  of  Schall,  to  make  himself  useful  by  casting  cannon. 
These  and  other  services  so  increased  the  influence  of  the  missionaries  at  the 
court,  that  in  1691,  when  the  provincial  authorities  of  Chekiang  began  to  persecute 
the  foreign  priests  and  the  native  Christians,  the  emperor  issued  a  special  decree 
in  the  following  vear  securing  toleration  for  the  Christian  faith. 


-"o 


(/<)  The  Dov:nf all  of  the  Christian  Missions  ill  CItiiid.  —  The  downfall  (jf  the 
mission  was  brought  about  by  French  intrigue  and  by  the  disputes  of  the  dilfereut 
Christian  orders  and  missionaries.  The  pope's  patronage  in  India,  to  which  China 
was  treated  as  belonging,  had  been  transferred  to  the  crown  of  Portugal.  This 
monopoly,  however,  appeared  to  conflict  with  the  growing  interests  of  France  in 
Funlier  India  an<l  East  Asia.  The  Pfere  Alexandre  de  Rhodes  of  Avignon  and  the 
l>uchesse  d'Aiguillon,  supported  by  the  French  government,  succeeded  iu  obtaining 
a  decree  from  Pope  Alexander  YII  appointing  three  French  bishops  to  Siam,  Tong- 
king,  and  Cliina.  No  foreign  ship  was  to  be  found  to  take  them  to  their  desthia- 
tion,  and  this  difficulty  became  the  occasion  of  the  foundation  of  the  Conipaguie 
des  Indes  (cf.  Vol.  VII,  p.  104),  which  was  afterward  succeeded  (after  1698)  by 
the  various  Compagnies  de  la  Chine.  At  the  same  period  the  institution  of  the 
Missions  ^trangferes  was  founded  in  Paris,  1663,  to  provide  a  supply  of  clergy 
for  the  projected  missions.  At  the  wish  of  Colbert  a  number  of  the  pujiils  there 
educated  went  out  to  China  in  1685.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  trade  and 
political    influence  were    the    main  objects  which  the  French  missionaries  then 


104  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [Chapter  i 

proposed  to  theuiselvt's,  —  a  fact  which  explains  the  later  animosity  of  the  native 
population. 

It  was,  however,  tlie  relijiious  dissensions  of  the  missionaries  themselves  wliich 
became  the  occasion  of  the  su]>pression  of  Christianity  in  China.  Kven  among  the 
Jesuits  conflictuig  views  were  held  as  to  the  attitude  which  should  be  taken  toward 
certain  (juestions  (cf.  ]>.  lOoY  However,  the  chief  points  of  difference  centred 
ai-ound  the  traditional  worship  of  Kung  fu  Isze  and  of  ancestors.  Iticci  and  most 
of  the  Jesuits  could  see  no  idolatrous  meanings  in  these  customs  which  they 
consequently  permitted,  whereas  the  fanatical  Dominicans,  as  afterwan.1  the 
Lazarists  and  the  priests  of  the  Missions  ^trang^res,  were  entirely  op]X)sed  to  this 
^•iew.  The  pojHjs  declined  to  pronounce  a  decided  opinion.  Innocent  X  (16-44— 
1655)  declared  for  the  Dominicans,  Alexander  VII  in  16r)6  for  the  Jesuits,  and 
Imiocent  XI  ( 1 676-1 689 )  pronounced  the  ceremonies  permissible  in  so  far  as  they 
were  merely  the  expression  of  national  veneration.  Ultimately  Bishop  Jfaigrot  of 
the  Lazarists  forbade  the  customs  in  lf)93,  and  characterised  the  representations 
made  by  the  Jesuits  to  the  papal  chair  as  false  in  many  respects.  The  Jesuits 
declined  to  recognise  this  decision,  and  in  1 699  applied  to  the  emjieror  Kang  hsi, 
who  made  a  declaration  in  full  harmony  wiih  their  views.  ^Meanwhile  at  Rome 
the  Congregation  of  the  Inquisition  had  ^declared  against  the  Jesuits,  —  a  deci- 
sion confirmed  by  Clement  XI  in  1704.  At  the  same  time  To\n'non,  the  patriarch 
of  Antioch,  was  sent  to  Peking  to  procure  an  adjustment  of  these  differences. 
He  did  not  dare  to  publish  the  jiajial  decree ;  but  Kang  hsi,  whom  the  Jesuits 
undoubtedly  used  as  an  instrument  to  accomplish  tlieii-  designs,  was  informed  by 
them  of  what  had  happened,  and  acted  the  more  energetically  when  JIaigrot 
declared  against  him  and  declined  to  recognise  the  imjierial  authority  in  a  matter 
which  only  the  papal  chaii-  could  decide.  Kang  hsi  banished  I\Iaigri)t  and  ordered 
Tournon  to  leave  China.  The  latter,  being  still  unwilling  to  publish  the  papal 
decree  as  such,  made  a  summary  of  its  contents  and  issued  it  as  his  own  decision. 
Kang  hsi  replied  by  arresting  him.  He  was  carried  to  Macao,  where  the  Por- 
tuguese were  obliged  to  place  him  in  confinement,  and  tliere  he  died  in  1710. 

Clement  XI  in  1718  issued  a  bull,  "Ex  ilia  die,"  which  threatened  with  the 
greater  excommunication  any  one  who  declined  to  obey  the  papal  constitution  of 
1704,  and  sent  a  new  legate  to  Peking,  Mezzabarba,  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria. 
Kang  hsi  absolutely  declined  to  enter  into  further  negotiations,  but  stated  that 
Mezzabarba,  who  had  arrived  in  1720,  might  leave  the  former  missionaries  in  China, 
but  must  return  to  Eome  with  all  the  remainder,  where  the  pope  was  welcome  to 
issue  any  orders  he  pleased  regarding  them.  He  was  himself  the  sole  ruler  of  the 
Chinese,  and  he  forbade  them  to  follow  the  papal  decrees.  Mezzabarba  then  pub- 
lished the  papal  bull,  with  the  additional  clauses  which  allowed  the  practice  of 
the  jirohibited  customs,  considered  merely  as  ceremonies  of  national  veneration,  l)ut 
this  compromi.se  produced  no  satisfaction  either  in  Peking  or  at  Rome.  Mezzabarba 
was  definitely  ordered  by  the  emperor  to  leave  China  and  take  with  him  the  mis- 
sionaries he  had  brought.  Pope  Benedict  XIII  declined  responsibility  for  the 
actions  of  his  legate,  and  confirmed  the  decision  of  Clement  XI  by  the  bull, 
"Ex  quo  singulari,"  the  terms  of  which  remain  in  force  at  the  present  day. 

Thus  in  the  struggle  between  the  temporal  and  ecclesiastical  power,  the  former 
had  proved  victorious  and  maintained  its  advantage  throughout  the  following  cen- 
tury.     It  is  imjxjssible  to  say  whether  the  methods  of  the  Jesuits  would  have 


t'/Lr::""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  105 

ultimately  proved  successful  or  have  resulted  in  the  conversion  of  China.  At 
any  rate,  the  action  of  their  adversaries  both  in  China  and  in  Japan  precii^itated  the 
outbreak  of  the  struggle  anil  accentuated  its  severity.  Even  luider  Yung  cheng 
(1723-17-"^5),  the  successor  of  Kang  hsi,  persecution  became  fiercer;  and  although 
Kien  lung  (1736-1795)  sliowed  much  personal  consideration  for  the  Jesuits  who 
rcinaiued  in  Peking  after  the  dissolution  of  the  (Jrder  (1773),  none  the  less  both 
ihning  his  reign  and  that  of  Kia  king  (1796-1820)  the  bloody  persecutions 
against  the  native  Christians  and  llie  missionaries  who  had  secretly  remained  in 
the  country  continued  without  interruption. 

(c)  The  Revival  of  Christian  Missions  in  China.  —The  state  of  affairs  above 
described  continued  until  the  years  1845  and  1846,  wlien  the  emperor  Tao  kuang 
(1821-1850)  was  induced  by  the  proposals  of  the  imperial  commissioner  Kiying, 
who  had  approached  him  at  the  desire  of  the  French  ambassador  de  Lagrdn^,  to 
permit  the  practice  of  the  Christian  religion  among  his  subjects.  He  issued  an 
order  tliat  any  missionaries  who  might  be  found  in  the  interior  should  be  merely 
handed  over  to  their  authorities  in  the  harbours  open  to  commerce.  The  conven- 
tions of  1858  and  1860  gave  permission  to  the  missionaries  to  visit  the  interior  of 
the  country  and  to  take  up  residence  tliere.  ^loreover,  the  decree  of  1860,  which 
was  falsified  by  a  French  interpreter,  gave  missionaries  the  right  to  acquire  landed 
property  in  the  countr}-.  From  that  date  the  Catholic  missions  in  China  have 
iiecn  able  to  develop  undisturbed,  apart  from  jiersecutions  of  a  more  or  less  local 
nature.  Before  the  Boxer  revolt  (1900),  there  were  about  five  hundred  and  thirty 
European  missionaries  and  five  hundred  and  thirty -five  thousand  native  Christians 
m  thirty-one  apostolic  \-icariates. 

The  oldest  Protestant  mission  in  China  was  the  Dutch,  which  began  in  1624 
upon  Formo.sa  with  the  foundation  of  the  East  Indian  Netherland  Company,  and 
ended  in  1662  with  the  expulsion  of  the  company  from  the  island.  In  1684  the 
last  surviving  Dutch  prisoners  were  released,  and  with  them  every  trace  of  the 
activity  of  this  mission  disappeared  from  the  island.  Other  Protestant  missions, 
especially  those  from  England,  America,  and  Germany,  did  not  begin  their  career 
until  the  acquisition  of  Hong  Kong  by  England  (1841)  and  the  peace  of  Nanking 
(1842).  Like  the  Catholic  missions,  they  have  suffered  under  the  various  animosi- 
ties of  the  authorities,  the  learned  classes,  and  the  population.  Previous  to  the 
year  1900  the  Protestant  missions  in  China  numbered  about  forty  thousand  com- 
municants and  nearly  one  thousand  three  hundred  missionaries,  more  than  seven 
hundred  of  whom  were  women. 

M.  The  Modern  History  of  China 

(a)  The  Mrmchu  [Ta  Ching)  Di/nastij  {JG44-1S JO). —\yhni  conditions  Wu 
.  San  kuei  may  have  made  with  the  Manchus  when  he  joined  their  party,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say.  On  the  Chinese  side,  it  is  often  maintained  that  the  Manchus  secured 
the  supremacy  over  China  by  the  violation  of  a  treaty.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
certain  that  upon  their  conquest  of  the  country  they  received  every  support  not 
(mly  from  Wu  San  kuei,  but  also  from  a  number  of  other  Chinese  generals  who 
were  at  first  rewarded  with  vassal  fiefs.  After  the  captijre  of  Peking,  where  Fu  lin 
ascended  the  throne  under  the  title  of  Shi  Tsu  (Shun  chi,  1644-1661),  armies  com- 


luG  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ich.j.ur i 

manded  by  ^ruuclm  jiiiiK-es  and  CliLuese  ijeuerals  were  seal  into  every  pari  of  tlie 
country  to  suhdue  tlio  adhereuls  of  the  Miiij;  dynasty  and  the  pretenders  who  arose 
in  every  quarter.  Li  Tse  cheug  was  gradually  driven  back  to  Szechwan,  where  he 
committed  suicide.  Prince  Fu,  who  had  assumed  the  iiuperial  title  in  Nanking,  was 
conijuered  in  1647;  Prince  Tang,  who  lunl  been  proclaimed  emperor  in  Fokien  (as 
had  Prince  Lu  in  Chekiaug  and  Prince  Kuei  in  the  west),  was  overcome  with  greater 
or  less  success.  Eventually,  iiowever,  the  Manchus  were  everywhere  victorious.  In 
16."»9  peace  was  established  tluough  the  empire,  with  the  exception  of  Yunnan  and 
Kweichau,  and  the  contingents  still  lighting  in  those  quarters  (the  Pretender  had 
lied  to  Burmah  and  was  gi\"eu  up  by  that  countr}-)  were  overiwwered  in  the  course 
of  the  following  year.  A  son  of  the  freebooter  known  by  the  name  of  Koxinga 
alone  continued  to  hold  out  in  Formosa.  His  j)iratical  grandfather,  Clieng  Ciii 
lung,  had  long  harassed  the  southern  coasts  of  China,  and  had  then  joined  the  side 
of  the  Ming  in  the  struggle  against  the  Manchus.  At  first  successful  and  after- 
ward rejieatedly  defeated,  he  at  length  surrendered  to  the  Manchu.s,  while  his  son, 
Cheng  Cheng  kung.  upon  being  expelled  from  Amoy,  had  turned  upon  Formosa 
and  taken  the  island  from  the  Dutch.  Cheng  Chi  lung  was  executed  at  Peking  in 
1061 ;  his  son,  who  was  named  Koxinga  by  the  Portuguese,  died  on  the  island  iji 
1662.     It  was  surrendered  to  the  ilanchus  in  16S:5  by  his  .son,  Cheng  Ko  cluiang. 

Upon  the  occupation  of  the  empire  by  the  ilanchus,  their  Chinese  allies  were 
richly  rewarded;  Wu  San  kwei  became  the  hereditary  prince  of  ^'unnan  and 
Szechwan,  while  Shaug  Ko  hi  and  Keng  Ki  mau  received  similar  positions  in 
Kwangtung  and  Fokien.  When  Wu  San  kwei  revolted  in  1674,  the  princes  of 
Kwaugtung  and  Fokien  supported  the  Manchus ;  but  their  eldest  sons,  Shang  Cliiu 
sie  and  Keng  Tsing  chung,  joined  the  rebel  party.  Wu  San  kwei  died  in  1678  ;  a 
few  months  later  the  revolt  in  the  West  was  sujipressed,  and  peace  was  estab- 
ILshed  throughout  the  empire  in  1680.  The  emperor,  Shi  tsu,  had  died  in  1661  ; 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  second  son,  a  boy  of  eight  years  old,  under  the  title  of 
Sheng  Tsu  (Kang  hsi,  1662-1672),  during  whose  reign  mo.st  of  the  events  above 
detailed  took  place.  During  the  revolt  of  \\\\  San  kwei,  the  interference  of  the 
Chinese  became  necessaiy  in  Mongolia,  where  disturbances  had  broken  out  in 
consequence  of  dissensions  between  Galdan  (Go  Erh  dan),  the  chieftain  of  liie 
Eleuthes,  and  Tsi  wang,  the  chief  of  the  Khalka.  After  two  campaigns,  in  which 
Kang  Shi  was  present  in  j)erson,  Galdan  was  defeated  and  connuitted  .suicide 
(1696).  His  former  opponent,  Tsi  wang,  made  an  incursion  inKJ  Tibet,  whidi 
was  under  Chinese  protection,  and  was  only  defeated  in  1721  after  a  struggle  that 
lasted  for  several  years.  Kang  shi  also  came  into  collision  with  the  Russians,  wlio 
were  advancing  in  Siberia;  his  troops  conquered  the  town  of  Albasin,  which  llie 
Russians  had  fomided,  hostilities  being  ultimately  concluded  in  1689  by  the  i>eace 
of  Xertchinsk.  The  welfare  of  the  country  largely  occupied  the  attention  of  Kang 
hsi,  and  in  him  Chinese  literature  found  a  zealous  patron.  During  his  reign  were 
published  the  great  dictionary  named  after  him,  and  the  encyclopa'dia,  "  Chinling. 
tushu  chi  cheng,"  in  five  thousand  and  twenty  volumes,  by  imperial  commission. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  the  "  Sacred  Edict,"  which  consists  of  sixteen  rules  of 
behaviour  to  be  observed  by  the  people,  and  to  which  liis  successors  apjiended 
many  explanations. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Shi  Tsung  (Yung  cheng,  1723-1735),  his  fourth  son, 
under  whom  the  jiersecution  of   the  Christians  was  carried  out  with    unusual 


iTKi^.^'""']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  lu7 

severit}-.  More  than  three  hundred  churches  were  destroyed,  and  by  the  expul- 
sion of  all  the  missionaries,  with  the  exception  of  those  resident  in  Pekiu  and 
Canton,  more  than  three  hundred  thousand  native  Christians  were  deprived  of  their 
spiritual  pastors.  CouHicts  with  the  Mongols  were  fre(|uent  also  during  this  reign, 
and  expeditions  were  made  against  the  inhabitants  of  Turkestan,  who  were  ulti- 
mately subdued  in  1734.  Attempts  made  to  bring  Miaotsze,  who  had  established 
himself  in  Yunnan  and  Kweichau,  under  the  Chinese  administration  were  onlj- 
partially  successful.  This  emperor  died  suddenlj-,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son,  Kao  Tsung  (Chien  or  Kien  lung;  1736-1795),  imder  whom  the  empire  and 
the  dynasty  reached  the  highest  point  of  their  prosperity.  Revolts  in  Hunan  and 
Kungsi,  and  at  a  later  period  in  Szechwan,  were  suppressed,  after  a  struggle  lasting 
nearly  three  years,  in  1749.  A  long  period  was  occupied  by  disturbances  in  Mon- 
golia, which  broke  out  in  1745,  as  a  result  of  quarrels  about  the  succession ;  a  chief 
cause  was  the  action  of  Amursaua  (Amu  sa  ua),  who  had  at  first  supjiorted  the 
Chinese,  but  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  after  the  defeat  of  Davatsi  (Tse  wan  da 
shi),  because  only  a  part  of  the  territory  of  the  conquered  prince  was  assigned  to 
him:  he  was  fcuupiered  in  1735  and  fled  mto  Eussian  territoiy,  where  lie  died 
slu>rtly  afterward  of  smallpox.  As  the  princes  of  Kokand,  Kashgar,  and  Varkand 
had  supported  Amursana,  the  Chinese  armies  advanced  against  them  and  possessed 
themselves  of  their  territoiy  at  the  end  of  1759.  In  1769  Burniah  was  conquered 
after  several  years'  fighting,  and  made  tril)utary,  and  the  same  fate  befell  Annam 
during  the  years  17S7  to  1789.  A  revolt  in  Formosa  was  suppressed  in  1787,  as 
also  was  a  similar  movement  at  an  earlier  date  by  Miaotsze  in  Szechwan  after  sev- 
eral years'  fighting,  in  which  the  natives  of  this  district  were  almost  exterminated. 
Finally  (1787-1792),  a  Chinese  army  invaded  Nepal  and  forced  the  Ghurkas  to 
declare  themselves  a  tributary  State  of  China  in  1791 ;  this  expedition  was  brought 
about  by  the  invasions  of  the  Ghurkas  into  Tibet,  and  their  attempts  to  extort  pay- 
ments of  tribute  from  that  district. 

These  wars  and  the  numerous  journeys  which  tlie  emperor  undertook  through- 
out his  kingdom,  though  they  increased  his  reputation,  materially  contributed  to 
shatter  the  financial  resources  of  the  country.  The  difficulties  and  the  rise  in 
taxation  resulting  frciui  his  policy  no  doubt  brought  about  the  series  of  calamities 
whicli  threatened  the  dynasty  under  the  succeeding  emperors.  It  cannot  be  denied 
that  Kien  lung,  like  his  predecessors,  showed  much  interest  m  the  welfare  of  the 
people.  The  administration  was  reorganized,  and  tlie  duties  of  the  officials  were 
liglitened  by  the  division  of  the  empire  into  eighteen  provinces  instead  of  thirteen. 
On  ibis  redistribution,  the  province  of  Shensi  was  formed  of  East  Shausi,  West 
Shansi  becoming  Shansi  and  Kansu,  while  Hunan  and  Hupei  were  created  out  of 
Hukuang;  Pechili  was  formed  of  the  district  of  Peking  (the  capital  itself  forms 
the  special  administrative  department  of  Shun  tien  fu),  and  Kiangsu  with  Xgan- 
Hwei  were  formed  of  the  province  of  Nanking.  This  distribution  remains  in 
force  at  the  present  day.  Kien  lung  abdicated  at  the  end  of  1795,  that  the  length 
of  his  reign  might  not  exceed  that  of  his  grandfather  Kang  hsi  (sixty  years),  and 
died  in  1799. 

Under  his  successor.  Yen  Tsung  (Chia  ehing  or  Kia  king;  1796-1820),  revolts, 
probably  instigated  by  secret  societies,  broke  out  in  different  provinces  of  the 
empire,  and  were  onl}-  suppressed  with  great  expense  and  difficidty.  On  two  occa- 
sions attempts  were  made  upon  the  emperor's  life  by  members  of  a  sect  of  "  "Wliite 


108  HISrORV    OF    THE    WORLD  lc/n,pt,r i 

Lilies,"  aud  the  SDuiheni  coasis  of  the  kiiijjdum  were  harassed  aud  jiluiulered  by 
pirates.  As  is  often  tlie  case  with  eastern  empires,  the  presumption  of  the  fjoveni- 
ment  increased  as  its  power  declined.  Under  Kien  lung  the  Englisli  ambassador, 
George  Viscount  ilacartney  (afterward  Governor  at  the  CaiH?;  cf.  Vol.  Ill,  ]i.  436), 
was  treated  with  the  utmost  courtesy  in  1793,  thougli  he  was  unable  to  obtain  any 
diplomatic  success.  Under  Kia  king  a  Russian  count,  Jurij  A.  Golovkin,  was 
sent  back  to  the  frontier  in  1806,  as  he  declined  to  perform  the  kotow  before  a 
table  covered  with  a  yellow  cloth  ;  and  William  Pitt,  Baron  Amherst,  was  exiwlleil 
from  Peking  in  IS  16  because  he  declined  to  appear  before  the  emperor  in  his  travel- 
ling dress  immediately  ujiou  his  arrival. 

(fi)  TIte  Manchit  Dynasty,  from  1S21  to  the  Frewnt  Day.  —  (a)  From  tin- 
Opium  War  to  the  Conreidioiis  of  Peking.  —  Before  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Hsuan  Tsung  (Tao  kuang;  1821-1850)  China  had  certainlj-  come  in  contact  witli 
foreign  nations,  but  if  one  leaves  out  of  account  the  different  embassies  sent  by  tlie 
Portuguese,  Spanish,  Dutch,  Kussiaus,  and  English,  her  relations  with  the  powers 
over-seas  were  neither  friendly  nor  hostile.  The  foreigners  who  visited  China  were 
either  restless  and  dangerous  freebooters  who  felt  the  weight  of  that  power  which 
tliey  themselves  strove  to  exercise,  or  were  merchants  who  were  obliged  to  court 
the  favour  of  the  Cliinese  people  aud  oflicials  for  commercial  objects.  The  mer- 
chants resident  in  Canton,  which  for  a  long  lime  had  been  the  only  harbour  open 
to  trade,  transacted  their  business  by  means  of  other  merchants,  and  not  through 
the  officials  of  the  empire.  Tlie  English  also  declined  any  other  representation 
than  that  of  tiie  agents  of  the  East  Iiulia  Company;  and  these  facts,  together  wiili 
the  extremely  low  esteem  in  which  the  Chinese  merchant  is  held  bj-  the  popula- 
tion, contributed  to  increase  the  overbearing  behaviour  of  the  Chinese.  AVhen  the 
monopoly  of  Chinese  trade  held  by  the  East  India  Company  expired  in  1834,  and 
the  Englisli  government  took  the  place  of  the  company,  it  became  clear  that  the 
foreigners  must  sooner  or  later  acquire  some  legal  status.  The  attempt  of  the 
Chinese  to  put  a  stop  to  the  opium  trade  became  rather  the  excuse  than  the  occa- 
sion of  the  lirst  war  carried  on  by  England,  which  broke  out  in  1840  and  ended  in 
1842  with  the  peace  of  Nanking  after  some  display  of  military  capacity  on  the 
part  of  the  Chinese.  From  that  time  foreigners  in  China  have  enjoyed  a  legally 
recognised  protection,  instead  of  being  merely  tolerated.  At  the  same  time  live 
harbours  were  thrown  open  to  foreign  trade,  —  Canton,  Ainoy,  Fuchau,  Ning-jHi, 
and  Shanghai, — and  the  island  of  .Hong  Kong,  which  the  English  had  taken  in 
1841,  was  formally  ceded.  Compacts  with  France  and  the  United  States  followed 
in  1844 ;  tlie  arrangement  with  the  French  included  facilities  enabling  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Christian  religion  (cf.  ]>.  104). 

The  result  of  the  first  conflict  with  the  European  power  had  thus  consideralily 
damaged  the  prestige  of  the  dynasty,  and  in  other  respects  the  government  of  Tao 
kuang  was  distinctly  unfortunate.  Revolts  in  Formosa  and  Hainan,  supported  by 
Miaots/.e,  who  was  only  suppressed  with  ditticulty,  and  by  .lihangir  in  Tiukestan 
(1825-1828),  necessitated  great  eHbrts  on  the  part  of  China,  and  lai-gely  contributed 
to  increase  the  financial  embarrassments  of  the  government  and  to  diminish  the 
welfare  of  the  poj)ulation.  These  facts,  together  with  tribal  ipiarrels  in  Kwangsi, 
and  nationalist  exasjieration  at  the  weakness  of  the  government's  policy  toward 
the  foreigners,  caused  the  revolt  of  the  "  Long-haired  "  rebels  (called  Chang  mao 


I 


FocR  Chinese  of  iNFLrENCE  at  the  Close  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 


KXPLANATloX    oF    TlIK    l'(  UnKAITS   OVKI.'LKAK 

Top  Ir/l :  Vi  Sin.  I'n'nn-  Kmiii.  born  .laniuirv  11,  IMS:!,  luotlier  of  llie  i-iiiinioi  IlicnlVn^ 
(ISTiiv-lSfil),  r.ireijju  ininisK-r  in  1S<)1.  Alter  his  brolliei's  .U-alli,  rt-gent  lor  tlif  minor  T'nngcliili 
(iK)rn  Si-ptonilxT  '),  IS.V));  toleriinl,  ami  a  fiii'ncl  to  ri-l'orm,  for  which  rwuson  lie  wil*  ili'privnl  of 
his  ilignities  in  1884  ;  Wiis  recalled  in  1894  as  president  of  the  Tsuii^'-li-Yaiuen. 

(Kiiini  a  photograph  by  Signer  Beato.  lithographcil  by  Day  &  Son,  in  Robert  Swiiihoe's  "  Nainitivc  of 
the  North  Oiina  Campaign  of  1800."     Loudon,  1861.) 

Jiottom  Irfl :  Chung  Hon,  the  first  iv.il  Cliincsc  ambassador  in  Europe.  In  France,  187"- 
1S71;  in  1879  concluded  at  Livadia  the  unfavourable  compact  concerning  Kuldscha,  wliich  was 
iveiilually  rectified  by  the  manpiis  'IViig  (1881). 

(From  a  pliotograiih  of  the  year  1863.) 

'/■"y)  nijhl :  Y-Yung,  hereditaiy  Muniiiiis  K.  T,  Gejir  Kbiui  TV^n//,  bom  1839,  in  the  pi-ovince 
of  Hunan,  of  one  of  tlie  oldest  families  of  China.  Amb.i-ssador  to  the  Russian  court  in  1879:  in 
1^81  obtained  the  wstoration  of  Hi  from  Russia;  ambass;idor  to  Lombm  and  Paris,  1882-I8S."), 
t.>  London  and  St.  Petersburg,  ISS.'i-lS^fi  ;  member  of  tlie  Tsung-li-Yanieii ;  died  .Vpril  12.  \^'.}i>, 
in    I'eking. 

(From  a  photograph  taken  at  the  dose  of  the  1870  decade.) 

Bottom  riijht :  Li  lliimi  I'h'tini,  born  February  14,  1821,  in  the  village  of  Hweilung  in  the 
Hofei  ilistrict  of  the  province  Anhui.  In  the  academy  of  the  Hanlin,  1848  ;  secretary  in  ls.'>:!  to 
Tseng  kuo  Fang,  the  governor-general  of  the  two  Kiangs,  and  father  of  the  manpiis  T.seiig  ;  in 
l^tlil,  provincial  judge  in  Chekiang,  then  governor  of  Kiangsu,  obUiins  the  liouonr  of  hereditary 
loibility  ;  in  1870,  is  govenmr-geiieral  of  Pechili  and  commercial  superinten<ient  of  the  ihirlln-ni 
harboui-s  ;  in  1872,  viceroy  of  tile  empire  ;  conducted  the  peace  negotiations  with  Japan  in  18!).") 
(assaulteil  in  Sbimonoseki). 

(Fi'oin  a  hand-coloured  photograph  by  See  Tay  iu  Shanghai.) 


trKor'!""'']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  109 

or  Tai  ping,  from  the  motto  of  tlieir  later  emperor),  which  took  place  under  a  succes- 
sor of  Tao  kuang,  Wen  Tsuug  (Hsien  feug  or  Hien  fung;  1S50-1861).  The  out- 
break of  the  revolt  took  place  in  1850  under  the  leadersliip  of  a  certain  Hung  Tsiu 
tsueu,  wlio  liad  enjoyed  the  teaching  of  Mr.  Koberts,  an  American  missionary,  iu 
Canton  for  a  short  peiiod,  and  had  given  himself  out  as  the  yoimger  son  of  God 
and  brother  of  Clu-ist.  Advancing  from  Kwangsi  to  the  Yangisze,  he  quickly  won 
a  series  of  victories,  conquered  Nanking  in  March,  1853,  and  there  proclaimed 
himself  emperor.  In  the  mouth  of  May  of  that  year  a  detachment  of  the  Taiping 
troops  crossed  the  Yangtsze  and  began  their  advance  northward.  After  a  number 
of  battles  they  got  possession  of  Tsinhai,  on  the  Imperial  Canal,  where  they  were 
soon  besieged  by  the  imperial  troops,  together  with  a  body  of  Mongol  auxiliaries. 
In  Ajiril,  1854,  a  relieving  army  of  the  Taiping  approached,  and  reached  the  tuwn, 
but  after  several  small  successes  was  driven  back  m  the  month  of  ilay  beyond  the 
Hoangho  by  the  imperial  troops.  The  failure  of  this  attempt  decided  the  fate  of 
the  revolt;  the  expeditious  of  the  Taiping  armies  degenerated  into  marauding 
raids,  and  the  end  would  liave  come  at  an  earlier  period  had  not  the  government 
been  involved  in  further  cUtticulties  with  the  foreigners. 

The  attempts  of  China  to  avoid  the  practical  issues  of  the  conventions, 
especially  that  regarding  a  settlement  of  strangers  in  the  town  of  Canton  (see  the 
plate,  p.  113),  brought  about  the  second  war  of  England  against  Chiua,  in  1857. 
France,  who  had  entered  a  complaint  upon  the  murder  of  a  missionary,  joined 
England.  The  capture  of  the  Taku  forts,  and  the  occupation  of  Tientsin,  brought 
about  negotiations  and  the  conclusion  of  conventions  (June,  1858),  by  which  other 
harbours  were  thrown  open,  and  foreign  representatives  were  also  admitted  to 
Peking.  When,  however,  the  ambassadors  of  England  and  France  appeared  before 
Taku,  in  June,  1859,  with  the  object  of  proceeding  to  Peking  for  the  formal 
completion  of  the  convention,  the  Chinese  refused  to  allow  them  a  passage,  and 
an  attempt  at  force  was  repulsed  with  great  loss.  Thus  broke  out  a  third  war, 
between  Chiua  on  the  one  side,  and  England  and  France  on  the  other.  On  August 
20,  the  Taku  forts  were  taken,  the  Chinese  were  defeated  on  September  18,  at 
Chang  kia  wan,  and  on  the  21st  at  Pa  li  kiao,  by  Ch.  G.  M.  A.  A.  Cousin  Monta- 
ban  ("count  of  Palikiao"),  and  Peking  was  besieged  on  October  13.  On  October 
18,  the  imperial  summer  palace  (Yuan  ming  yuan),  was  destroyed  by  the  Eng- 
lish as  a  punishment  for  the  treacherous  capture  and  cruel  treatment  of  the 
English  envoys,  and  new  conventions  were  signed  in  Peking  on  October  24  and 
25,  which  conceded  permission  for  the  foreign  representatives  to  reside  perma- 
nently iu  the  capital.  The  troops  of  the  allies  evacuated  Peking,  but  retained  pos- 
session of  Tientsin,  the  Taku  forts,  Shanghai,  and  Canton,  until  the  accomplishment 
of  the  conventions. 

(/3)  The  Dixturhanres  of  the  Last  Fortif  Years.  —  On  the  approach  of  the  allies, 
Hsien  feng  fled  to  Jeho,  where  he  died  on  August  22, 1861.  When  his  widow,  and 
the  mother  of  his  only  son,  returned  to  Peking  in  September  they  allied  themselves 
with  two  brothers  of  the  deceased  emperor.  Prince  Kung(at  the  end  of  April,  1898  ; 
see  Fig.  1  of  the  plate,  "  Four  Influential  Chinese  at  the  Close  of  the  Xineteentli 
Century  "),  and  Prince  Chun,  to  support  the  council  of  regency  which  had  been  (or 
professed  to  have  been)  appointed  by  the  late  emperor.  The  women  then  made 
themselves  regents.     The  mother  of  the  young  emperor,  Mu  Tsung  (Tung  Chi 


no  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapteri 

1862  to  1875),  is  the  empress  dowager  of  the  Western  Empire,'  Tsu  hsi,  of  whom 
mention  is  often  made  at  a  later  period.  On  taking  over  the  government,  the 
regents  fouml  the  empire  torn  by  revolts.  The  Taipiug  emi>eror  was  still  resident 
in  Nanking.  Since  1S60  the  Nienfel,  a  tribe  of  mounted  robbers,  had  devastated 
the  nortli  of  the  empire.  In  Yumian,  wliere  a  Mohammedan  revolt  had  broken 
out  in  18.".(),  an  independent  kingdom  existed,  Talifu,  under  tlie  sultan  Sulainiau 
ibn-i  AlKlur-Kahmuu.  In  Chinese  Turkestan  and  Hi,  Yukulj  Klian  was  in  power, 
while  Kuusu  and  Shensi  were  almost  entirely  in  the  liands  of  Mohammedan  rebels. 
Nanking  fell  in  1S64  (by  Charles  George  Gordon),  after  the  Taiping  emperor  had 
committed  suicide,  and  a  year  later  the  last  bands  of  the  "  long-haired  "  n-bels 
were  overpowered.  In  1S68  the  Nienfei  revolt  came  to  an  end ;  Talifu  fell  in  187:2, 
the  last  fortresses  of  the  rebels  in  that  quarter  in  the  following  year,  and  in  1878, 
as  a  result  of  the  death  of  Yakub  Kiuin,  on  May  31,  1877,  the  revolt  in  Turkestan 
was  sup]>ressed.  It  had  been  ended  in  China  proper  as  early  as  1873.  Hi  (Kulja), 
which  the  Kussians  had  occupied  dining  the  disturbances  in  these  districts,  and 
to  which  they  had  laid  claim  by  the  compact  of  1879,  concluded  in  Livadia  with 
Cliuug  Hou  (see  Fig.  3  of  the  plate),  was  restored  under  the  convention  of  St. 
Petersburg,  concluded  by  the  marquis  Tseng  (see  Fig.  2  of  the  plate),  in  1881,  in 
return  for  an  indemnity  and  a  more  accurate  delimitation  of  the  frontier. 
.  Foreign  embarrassments,  unfortimately,  did  not  allow  tlie  Ciiinese  government 
to  concentrate  their  attention  exchisively  upon  the  internal  allairs  of  tlie  country. 
In  1880  Japan  seized  the  Liukiu  Islands,  which  were  tributary  to  Cliiua.  French 
action  in  Tongking  and  Annan  led  to  hostilities  between  France  and  China  duruig 
the  years  1883  to  1885.  These  ended  with  the  recognition  of  a  French  protectorate 
over  tlie.se  countries,  whicli  had  liitherto  been  tributary  to  China,  and  in  1886, 
England  occupied  Burmah,  which  had  been  in  a  similar  relation  to  China. 

ilore  serious  were  the  dissensions  between  China  and  Japan.  Korea,  whicli 
was  also  tributary  to  China,  had  been  obliged  to  conclude  a  convention  willi  Jajian 
in  1870,  wliereby  certain  harbours  were  opened  to  Japanese  trade.  In  1882  fur- 
ther compacts  were  concluded  with  Japan,  to  which  China  assented.  But  in  June 
of  that  year  a  revolt,  chiefly  directed  against  the  Jajianese,  broke  t)ut,  and  was  sup- 
pressed by  ilie  Chinese.  In  1884  the  Eadicals,  in  alliance  with  the  Ja})anese, 
revolted  in  Seoul,  and,  in  the  end,  the  jieople  turned  once  more  upon  tlie  Jajiauese. 
China  again  quelled  the  outbreak,  and  was  forced  into  a  further  series  of  negotia- 
tions with  Japan.  In  1885  both  powers  agreed  to  withdraw  their  troops  from 
Korea,  on  the  condition  that  if  either  party  should  be  obliged  to  send  troops  into 
the  country,  the  other  should  receive  timely  notice.  By  this  agreement,  the  rela- 
tions of  the  two  countries  were  improved  during  the  following  years. 

The  year  1891  was  marked  by  one  of  those  movements  which  recur  from  time 
to  time,  directed  against  the  native  Christians  and  the  foreign  missionaries,  —  the 
scene  of  action  upon  this  occasion  being  the  valley  of  the  Yaugtsze.  Instigated, 
apparently,  by  the  secret  society  of  the  Kolao  Hui,  the  movement  soon  assumed 
much  larger  proportions.  To  the  united  action  of  the  foreign  aiiiliassadors  was  due 
the  ultimate  suppression  of  the  movement.     But  the  opporlunity  of  couvincing  the 


*  The  mother  of  the  cin))eror  Mti  TsuiiR  was,  under  the  nnino  Ycbonala,  the  ooncubino  of  Hsien  feng. 
But  on  the  aiecssion  of  lier  son  sh>!  received,  by  imperial  grant,  tlie  title  given  above.  The  lawful,  but 
childless,  wife  of  Hsien  fcng  was  distinguished  as  the  empress  dowager  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  —  Ed. 


^KoSf"']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  111 

Chinese  government  of  the  unity  and  the  serious  intentions  of  the  foreign  powers 
was  not,  imfortunately,  turned  to  account,  and  the  seed  of  later  troubles  connected 
witli  the  (|uc.sti()n  as  to  the  standing  of  foreigners  and  missionaries  was  thereby 
sown.  A  revolt  of  the  Tonghak  sect  in  Korea  led  to  Chinese  interference  in  that 
country  in  1894.  Japan  raised  objections,  and  brought  about  the  war  which  ended 
in  189.S,  with  the  peace  of  Shimonoseki  (cf.  above,  pp.  52  to  53).  The  interference 
of  Russia,  tiermauy,  and  France  saved  the  Liautung  peninsula  for  China ;  but  the 
claims  which  liussia  ^nd  France  made  upon  Chiua  for  concessions,  in  the  wav  of 
railways  and  niiuing  concessions,  began  to  exercise  a  disastrous  intluence  upon  the 
general  feeling  of  the  country.  In  1897  two  Catholic  German  missionaries  were 
murdered  in  Shantung,  and  it  became  necessary  for  Germany  to  take  more  eneigetic 
measures  to  secure  the  safety  of  her  subjects  and  their  interests  in  China.  In  con- 
se({uence  sjie  aci|uired  the  possession  of  Kiaudiau  in  January,  1898,  which  was 
shortly  followed  by  similar  agreements  with  llussia  concerning  Port  Arthur  and 
Talienwau,  with  England  concerning  Weiliaiwei,  and  with  France  concerning 
Kwaug-chau-fu. 

These  calamities  affected  the  general  welfare  of  the  kingdom.  The  failure  of 
the  crops  for  several  years  in  Shantung,  and  general  economic  distress,  which  was 
further  increased  by  the  concessions  gi-anted  to  foreign  companies,  called  forth  the 
"Boxer  revolt,"  which  broke  out  in  the  spring  of  1900.  This  movement,  which 
started  at  Shantung,  was  at  first  directed  against  the  native  Christians,  then  against 
the  missionaries,  and,  ultimately,  against  all  the  foreigners  in  Peking  and  Tientsin. 
The  emperor  Tung  chi  died  on  January  13,  1875,  after  three  years  only  of  indepen- 
dent government,  and  his  cousin,  who  belonged-  to  the  same  generation,  Tsai  tien 
(Kuang  hsu),  the  son  of  Prince  Chun,  succeeded  him  (until  1882  under  the 
regency  of  the  empress  dowager  Tsu  hsi).  This  choice  did  not  correspond  to 
Chinese  precedent.  Moreover,  the  new  emperor  remained  childless,  and,  in  1898 
acceded  to  the  impossible  projects  of  reform  proposed  by  Kang  Yu  wei,  which  cul- 
muiated  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  former  queen  regent.  Hence,  in  September, 
1898,  Pu  Ch'un,  a  gi-andson  of  the  prince  of  Tun,  and  also  a  brother  of  Hien  fung, 
was  appointed  his  successor.  His  father,  prince  Tuau,  seems  to  have  jdayed  a 
strongly  anti-foreign  part  in  these  events,  and  in  this  movement  the  government 
and  the  court  were  also  involved  when  its  first  victim,  the  German  ambassador, 
Freiherr  Klemens  von  Ketteler,  was  killed  in  Peking  on  June  20,  1900.  The 
ambassadors  and  other  foreigners  were  besieged  for  two  months  in  the  embassies, 
and  were  relieved  in  tlie  middle  of  August  by  European,  American,  and  Japanese 
troops.  The  Court  fled  to  Shensi,  while  the  troops  sent  out  to  China  under  the  gen- 
eral command  of  the  German  field-marshal.  Count  Alfred  von  Waldersee,  under- 
took various  expeditions  in  the  interior  of  the  province  of  Pechili,  whence 
they  expelled  the  Chinese  troops,  these  operations  lasting  until  April,  1901. 
Lengthy  negotiations  led  to  the  iiunishment  of  some  of  the  chief  culprits,  the  con- 
cession of  considerable  indemnities,  and  the  adaption  of  a  number  of  measures  to 
obviate  the  recurrence  of  similar  events.  After  the  signing  of  the  last  protocol,  in 
June,  1901,  mo.st  of  the  foreign  troops  were  withdrawn  from  China.  The  Court 
returned  to  Peking  in  December.  Here  the  foreign  ambassadors  were  received  by 
the  emperor  and  the  queen  regent  in  January,  1902. 


112  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [Chapter i 


iV.   Retrospect 

Chixa  is  the  only  kingiloin  on  the  habitable  globe  wjiich  has  continued  with- 
out inierruptiou  from  a  iean)te  antiquity  to  modern  times.  Though  later  in  date 
than  Kt;vpt  and  tlie  kingdoms  of  Western  Asia,  yet  its  authentic  history  eml>races 
a  peritx.1  of  two  thousand  live  hundred  yeai-s,  while  the  comparatively  high  stage 
uf  civilization  evidenced  at  the  beginning  of  this  epoch  implies  another  one  thou- 
sand five  hundred  vears  of  previous  developnu'ut.  The  ethical  system  of  Confucius 
evolved  from  earlier  traditions  about  the  year  600  B.C.  furnishes  the  guiding  prin- 
ciples of  Chinese  morality  and  political  philosophy  even  in  their  latter-day  forms. 
The  pat ria  p'>tcsta.i,  the  influence  of  the  family  and  of  the  clan,  continue  in  China 
toilav  as  ihev  have  existed  for  more  than  two  thousand  five  hundred  years. 
Neither  Taoism,  wliich,  though  a  far  more  elevated  and  poetical  philosophy,  was  of 
contemporary  origin  with  Confucianism,  nor  Buddhism,  which  was  introduced  into 
China  some  six  hundred  years  later,  have  exercised  any  material  influence  upon 
Chinese  moralhy;  both  degenerated  into  superstition  and  eventually  disappeared, 
whereas  Confucianism  remains  at  the  present  day  tlie  foundation  of  the  domestic 
and  public  life  of  every  class  of  the  population.  The  individual  is  not  absolutely 
despised  in  China ;  this  is  proved  by  the  idea,  theoretically  admitted  and  operative 
in  practice,  that  personal  knowledge  alone  can  make  success  either  certain  or  pos- 
sible. The  individual  is,  however,  inconceivable  in  isolation  from  the  family  and 
the  clan ;  precedent  and  custom  existing  for  centuries  hold  him  fast  in  chains 
which  though  a  protection  and  a  support  from  one  point  of  view  prove  an  obstacle 
to  any  liberty  of  development  in  any  other  directions. 

Political  influence  has  proved  powerless  against  the  old  and  deeply  rooted  cus- 
toms of  the  country.  Certain  customs  and  usages  undoubtedly  exist  which  owed 
their  origin  to  the  power  of  foreign  dynasties  and  to  the  influence  of  foreign  teach- 
ing and  example;  examples  are  the  doctrines  of  Shamanism,  and  the  practice  of 
human  sacrifice  at  burials  which  continually  recurs  until  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century ;  none  the  less  Ciiinese  civilization  proved  itself  cajiable  of  absorb- 
ing and  incorporating  foreign  influences.  The  Tartar  Mongolian  and  Manchurian 
dynasties  which  have  ruled  and  continue  to  rule  China  in  part  or  in  entirety  have 
all  been  subjected  to  the  influence  of  Chinese  ci\41ization,  and  have  in  some  cases 
done  more  to  maintain  that  civilization  than  Chinese  nationalism  has  been  able  to 
effect.  The  existence  of  these  dynasties,  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  into  China, 
and  the  presence  of  numerous  Mohammedans  in  the  empire  are  so  much  evidence 
in  contradiction  of  the  wide-spread  view  that  Chinese  civilization  is  completely 
stereotyped  ;  influences  from  Central  Asia,  India,  in  some  degree  from  Japan,  and 
since  the  seventeenth  century  from  Europe  iiave  left  their  mark  upon  religion, 
philosophy,  literature,  and  art,  and  more  particularly  upon  artistic  production. 
(Jomjiaratively  speaking,  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  family  and  of  the  State 
may  be  called  stereotyped  in  so  far  as  education  and  administration,  together  with 
the  customs  of  the  old  State  religion  and  the  ancestor  worship  connected  with  this 
and  with  Confucianism,  remain  unclianged. 

Tlie  histor}-  of  the  Chinese  Empire  does  not  offer  a  wholly  satisfactory  picture, 
but  differs  in  no  material  respect  from  the  history  of  other  Asiatic  peoples  in  the 
iwst  and  in  the  present.     Polygamy  with  its  consequences,  the  harem  and  the 


iT^of/J""'}  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  113 

eunuch,  is  the  rock  ou  wliich  every  dynasty  made  shipwreck.  A  strong  man  seizes 
the  power,  overcomes  his  rivals  and  secures  the  kingdom  or  a  part  of  it  for  him- 
self ;  his  successors  follow  in  his  footsteps  and  increase  or,  at  any  rate,  maintain 
their  possession ;  then  degeneracy  begins.  Eunuchs  become  the  counsellors  and 
often  tiie  executive  officials  of  the  princes;  lauds,  titles,  and  offices  are  heaped 
upon  the  relations  of  favourite  wives  ;  governors  and  generals  become  more  or  less 
independent,  until  one  of  them  proclaims  himself  generalissimo  and  administrator 
of  the  empire,  drives  the  reigning  monarch  from  the  throne,  and  becomes  the  founder 
of  a  new  dynasty.  "Within  the  ruling  fanulies  themselves  murder  is  an  ordinary 
occurrence  ;  in  the  course  of  twenty-tive  centuries  almost  one-third  of  the  rulers  met 
with  a  violent  death.  Harem  governmeut  appears  to  have  exercised  an  even  more 
degrading  influence  upon  the  men  than  upon  the  women ;  at  any  rate,  notwith- 
standing the  low  position  which  custom  and  Chinese  morality  assigned  to  the  wife 
within  the  family  and  in  society  as  a  whole,  we  meet  with  a  large  number  of 
female  members  of  the  imperial  families  who  take  an  important  part  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  empire  as  regents  during  the  minority  of  their  sons  (see  the  plate, 
p.  90).  The  charges  of  licentiousness  which  are  brouglit  against  so  man}-  of  them 
may  be  nothing  more  than  the  tittle-tattle  of  court  society ;  but  they  may  also 
prove  that  a  predominance  of  masculine  characteristics  in  a  woman  generally 
coincides  with  a  loss  of  virtue. 

The  unsettled  character  and  rapid  fall  of  the  different  d}Tiasties  have  produced 
but  little  effect  upon  the  foreign  relations  of  the  empire,  the  size  and  the  imity  of 
which  has  diverted  attention  from  internal  dissensions.  The  misery  produced  by 
weak  governments  was  lost  upon  the  distant  spectator  in  view  of  the  overpowering 
impression  which  a  powerfid  and  foreign  monarch  could  produce ;  remoteness  and 
inaccessibility  have  invested  this  country,  which  was  to  East  Asia  what  Greece 
and  Home  were  to  Europe,  with  a  mysterious  splendour  which  has  often  led  the 
investigator  to  misestimate  its  actual  condition.  Antiquity  has  no  monopoly  of 
such  mistakes ;  the  reports  of  the  Catholic  missionaries  during  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  have  contributed  more  than  any  other  influence  to  produce  an 
exaggerated  impression  of  the  importance  of  China.  These  opinions  continued 
mitil  the  events  of  the  years  1S94—1S95,  after  which  exaggeration  seems  to  have 
rather  proceeded  to  the  opposite  extreme. 

These  remarks  are  applicable  to  a  number  of  inventions  which  have  been 
ascribed  to  the  Chinese.  Gunpowder,  for  instance,  is  said  to  have  been  a  Chinese 
discovery,  but  the  country  did  not  become  acquainted  with  its  value  for  artillerj- 
purposes  until  instructed  by  foreigners  during  the  fifteenth  century  ;  and  yet,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  they  were  acquainted  with  it  during  the  fifth  or  sixth  century, 
perhaps  also  through  foreign  influence.  The  production  of  porcelain  begins  with 
the  seventh  century  .v.  d.,  and  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the  Chinese  did  not 
first  learn  from  strangers  the  use  of  the  compass  for  maritime  purposes,  although 
they  are  said  to  have  been  jueviously  acquainted  with  its  properties.  On  the  other 
hand,  printing  from  wooden  blocks  was  known  in  China  five  hundred  years  (922) 
before  its  discovery  in  Eui-ope  (1440) ;  moveable  types,  though  but  rarely  employed, 
were  undoubtedly  in  use  in  China  from  the  outset  of  the  eleventh  century.  The 
employment  of  coal  is  of  much  earlier  date  in  China  than  in  Europe ;  at  the  salt 
springs  in  Szechwan,  with  their  simply  an-anged  borings  to  a  depth  of  seven  hun- 
dred metres,  natural  gas  was  employed  for  heating  purposes  centuries  ago.     Sus- 

VOL  II— s 


114  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapter i 

]iensioii  bridges  of  bainhiKj  chains  ami  wires  more  than  uiie  liiindred  metres  long 
are  l>y  no  nieaus  rare ;  dikes  luiiidreds  of  kilometres  in  length  protect  low-lying 
districts  from  the  devastations  of  rivers  and  the  inundations  of  the  sea,  and  many 
of  the  temples,  jiagodas,  and  jwilaees  (see  tlie  jilate,  "Chinese  Residences  at 
Canton  ")  justly  arouse  the  admiration  of  the  foreigner.  Bronze  founding  was  well 
known  in  1200  B.C.;  Chinese  silk  was  famous  in  Itome  and  Byzantium  and  the 
achievements  of  Chinese  art  in  jHircelain,  celluloid,  enamel,  and  lacijuer  ware,  and 
in  liundreds  of  otlier  directions  is  well  known.  Tliese  industries  continueii  mitil 
the  iK?riod  of  the  Taiping  revolt ;  as  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  its  devastations 
inflicted  wounds  upon  Germany  which  required  a  century  to  heal,  so  Cliina  suffers 
to-day  fixtm  the  damage  inflicted  by  tiiis  revolt,  which  was  not  endcil  until  1865. 

Hence  it  would  be  uuwise  to  draw  any  conclusions  as  to  the  future  of  the 
country  from  its  past.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  com- 
pletion of  much  desired  internal  reforms  would  raise  China  from  a  passive  to  an 
active  and  even  to  an  aggressive  State;  in  this  case,  the  country  would  then  exer- 
cise an  influence  difficult  to  estimate,  in  consequence  of  its  vast  territory  and 
teeming  population.  Tso  Tsmig-tang,  the  conqueror  of  the  rebels  in  Kansu  and 
Turkestan ;  Cliang  Chi  Tung,  wlm  largely  contributed  to  confine  the  Boxer  revolt  to 
the  mtrth  of  the  empire;  Li  Hung  Chang  (see  Fig.  4  of  plate,  p.  109),  who  died  on 
the  6th  Xovember,  1901,  and  since  the  year  1870,  when  the  French  missionaries 
were  slaughtered  in  Tientsin,  had  exercised  a  strong  influence  upon  the  future  of 
his  fatlierland ;  Yuan  Shi-kai,  the  former  governor  of  Shantvnig  and  now  governor- 
general  of  Pechili,  —  these  instances  and  many  more  prove  tliat  there  is  no  lack 
in  China  of  men  capable  of  understanding  and  providing  for  the  interests  of  the 
countr)'. 

3.   KOREA 
A.  The  Country  .vxd  its  Population' 

Korea,  so  called  after  the  old  Korai  (Kaoli),  has  during  the  greater  part  of 
its  history  been  the  apple  of  discord  and  the  theatre  of  war  between  contending 
neighbours.  Jutting  out  of  the  continent  of  East  Asia  and  extending  over  twelve 
degrees  almost  directly  north  and  south,  this  slender  peninsula,  little  more  than 
two  degrees  wide  in  some  places,  is  bounded  on  the  northwest  by  the  Yalu  and  on 
the  north  by  the  Tumeu-ula.  Its  western  shores  are  washed  by  the  Yellow,  and 
its  eastern  by  the  Japanese,  seas,  while  in  the  south  it  is  divided  from  Japan 
by  a  nan-ow  strait  half  tilled  with  islands  (see  the  maps,  pp.  2,  58).  Known  to 
Europeans  through  the  Portuguese  as  Coria,  the  coimtry  was  named  Sila  by  the 
Arabs  in  the  ninth  centurj'  A.  n.  (Sinra,  after  one  of  the  Korean  kingdoms  of  that 
time);  the  Chinese  name  is  Tung  kwo,  tlie  Eastern  kingdom;  the  native  name 
is  Chosen  (Morning  rest ;  hence  tiie  country  is  known  as  "  The  land  of  morning 
rest"). 

Korea  is  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by  an  offshoot  of  the  mountain  range 
of  Manchuria,  which  may  be  said  to  form  the  northern  frontier  wall  of  Korea ; 
this  offshoot  passes  down  the  district  from  north  to  south,  with  many  windings. 
Of  these  parts  the  eastern  is  mountainous,  and  the  coast  falls  sheer  into  the  sea, 
with  few  or  no  rivers,  harbours,  or  islands,  whereas  the  western  side  slopes  down 


Keeeption  room  (suinirK-r  liousc)  of  the  suiuiner  resiJeiioo  of  the  T;atar  geueral,  built  unnu  wcitljir-wiini 

frranite  rock. 


Chinese  Eesidences  at  Canton 


EXI'I.AXAI'IOX    OF   TlIK    JUILIMXCS    oVKIM.KAF 

A  characteristic  fmture  of  t'liim-st-  ;ir<liitiituru  is  iis  Imk  of  iiupimmi'iiUii  si/.c  ami  snliiliiy  ; 
tliis  is  aiiiHiiviit  in  the  lightness  of  tin- wimd  ami  roofiii};  material  eini)l<iyi-<l.  As  with  the  Poly- 
m-iaii  natives,  it  is  only  in  the  hu>;e  sulistniclmes  of  terraces  ami  llif^hts  of  ste]is  that  s<iuare 
l>iiililin>,'s  of  nionunienliil  size  are  fouml.  This  feature  also  appears  in  the  sinallness  of  the  scale 
on  which  the  various  architectural  forms  are  constructeil  ;  even  in  the  tiinples  and  imperial 
palaces,  space  ami  size  are  only  ohlained  hy  the  multiiilicalion  ami  juxtaiiosition  of  small  builil- 
inf;s  within  one  enclosure.  Freedom  of  artistic  taste  and  clioice  has  heen  entirely  re|)ressed  in 
I'hina  by  the  narrow-minded  anil  jejune  (irecepts  of  the  authoritative  architectural  treatises,  which 
pivscriW  for  every  househoMer  the  proper  number  of  pilhirs  befitting,'  his  rank,  t,'ive  accurate 
nieasURMuents  lo  determine  tlie  proportions  of  every  part  of  the  building,  and  allow  the  airhitect 
no  oppoilunily  to  develop  his  own  ideas,  except  perhaps  in  those  parts  of  the  structure  which  are 
out  of  sight  of  the  passer-by. 

L'hinese  architecture  employs  vaulting,  e.xcept  in  the  case  of  substructures,  only  for  gate  and 
bridge  construction;  and  even  here  true  groin-vaulting  is  often  rejdaced  by  the  use  of  overlajiping 
projections.  Cupolas  are  to  tlie  Cliinese  architect  almost  entirely  unknown.  Certain  tendencies 
to  trui'  cupola  form  are  lo  be  found,  ihougli  in  scanty  number,  in  llie  localities  devoted  to  the  wor- 
ship •  '[  llic  heaven.  'I'lie  wooden  Irannwork  of  the  roof  of  every  building,  which  in  the  interior 
is  sometimes  left  o]ien  and  sometimes  covered  with  sunken  panels,  su]i]>orts  the  tiled  roof,  which 
projects  beyond  the  walls  and  is  somewhat  concave;  this  framework,  is  sup]iorted  by  wooden 
n))rights,  the  form  of  which  is  generally  di'termined  by  the  rules  of  architecture,  but  in  many  c;Lse8 
hv  the  lattice-work,  wliich  is  a  development  from  wablding.  The  wall  lietween  the  uprights 
support-s  no  weight  but  its  own.  It  is,  as  Semper  says.  "  when  closely  considered,  merely  a  fold- 
ing-screen e.xecuted  in  tile-work,  a  frame  for  hangings  ;"  so  far  from  bearing  any  weight  or  sup- 
jiorling  the  house,  pains  are  invariably  taken  to  represent  it  "as  movealde,  put  in  sideways, 
entirely  independent  of  the  weight  of  the  roof.'"  The  ))illars  of  the  supporting  framework,  which 
are  usually  round,  generally  of  wood,  only  in  llie  imperial  palaces  of  marble,  can  conse(plently  be 
phued  either  before  or  beliind  or  in  the  walls.  In  the  first  case,  they  form  a  verandah  to  the 
iront  of  the  building;  in  the  second  case,  they  are  invisilile  from  without  :  and  in  the  third,  they 
appear  as  half-iiillars.  Their  i)ediments  usually  consist  of  a  simple  lounded  block  ;  the  capitals 
are  often,  as  in  India,  brai'ket-sha|)ed  sujiports,  often  in  the  form  of  the  ilragon,  the  endih'm  of  the 
Chinese  heaven  and  the  Chinesi-  imperial  power,  or  of  other  fabulous  animals.  In  other  respects, 
to  (pioto  Sem]ier  once  more,  laltice-work  fcu'nis  the  main  basis  of  decoration  in  Chinese  architec- 
ture. AVe  have  especially  line  bandioo  lattici>-work  upon  the  lower  part  of  the  walls  within,  strong 
Indlis-work  with  daintily  varied  and  sometimes  exaggerated  geonu'trical  patterns  in  the  outer 
walls  of  sunnner  bouses  and  other  airy  buildings,  car|)entry  in  wood  alternating  with  branchery 
and  jialings,  especially  in  the  lialustiading  which  forms  the  transition  from  the  massive  substruc- 
ture to  the  more  lightly  built  upper  floors. 

The  most  impressive  part  of  these  buildings,  which  usually  run  horizontally,  is,  from  the 
artistic  jioint  of  view",  the  roof,  with  its  concave  formation  far  overhanging  the  walls.  The  roof  is 
usually  sloping,  and  anything  in  the  nature  of  gables  is  exceptional;  the  tiles  laid  in  regular 
lines  give  it  a  riljbed  apjiearance,  ami  on  the  ridge  beam  and  extreme  jioints  of  the  roof  are  often 
«nakes,  dragons,  or  other  animal  tigures  of  clay,  with  open-worked  beams  adorneil  with  dragons' 
teeth.  Roofs  of  this  kind  cover  temjiles,  huts,  palaces,  towers,  and  gates,  and  are  even  to  be  seen  in 
iiare  outline  and  without  beam-wmk  upon  sim)ile  enclosure  walls.  But  the  greatest  ])eculiarity  of 
Chinese  architecture  is  the  fart  that  this  i-oof  is  often  repeated  two  or  three  times  above  one  build- 
ing to  iuiTease  the  effect,  so  that  a  building  may  show  several  stories  of  roofs  one  above  the  other. 
The  well-known  Chinese  towers  which  overlook  town  and  ct>untry  rise  from  nine  to  fifteen  stories 
high,  each  story  being  terminated  by  the  overlapping  edge  of  a  roof;  the  jierpeiidicular  lines  of 
the  stories  are  in  some  cases  so  far  hiiiden  by  the  projecting  eaves  that  roofs  with  bells  hanging 
upon  their  edges  appear  to  h.-ive  been  piled  upon  one  another  with  no  intervening  stories.  The 
theory  has  often  been  advanced  that  the  type  of  Chinese  roof  was  an  imitation  of  llie  Tartar  tent ; 
but  Fergusson  has  ilisjiroved  this  hypothesis  by  showing  that  this  tent  is  usually  conical  in  form. 
The  Knglish  investigator  inclines  to  cunsider  the  typical  roof  as  the  outcome  of  Chinese  taste  com- 
bined wiih  ])raclical  utility,  this  form  of  roof  being  especially  adapted  to  repel  the  niinstorms  and 
the  sunbeams.  Of  high  importam'e  for  the  general  imjiression  of  a  Chinese  liuilding,  whether 
belonging  to  noble  or  to  peas.int,  is  the  rich  and  often  .staring  coat  of  colour  which  covers  the 
whole  edilice  with  the  exception  of  the  massive  stone  substructure.  The  biick  walls  are  covereil 
with  coloureil  phisler  ;  the  wooden  jiortions  of  the  building  arc  brightly  )iainted,  and  sometimes 
even  lacipiered  The  use  of  yellow  and  green  glazed  tiles  .seems,  however,  to  be  a  privilege 
reserveil  for  the  temjde  buildings  and  imperial  dwellings. 

(Chii'dy  nfter  K:ul  Wocrnnuiu,  "Cesi^hiclite  dcr  Kunst  allcr  Zeitrn  and  Viilker.") 


i'S^„2""'}  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  llo 

toward  the  Yellow  Sea  and  contains  the  only  rivers  of  any  importance ;  its 
coast-line,  which  is  much  broken,  offers  many  harbours  and  numerous  islands  at 
the  sea  level.  As  might  be  expected  from  the  configuration  of  the  countr}-,  the 
western  portion  is  the  more  thickly  populated,  and  consequently  of  the  greater 
commercial  and  political  importance ;  at  the  present  day  only  three  provinces 
are  found  to  the  east  of  the  reulral  moxmtain  chain,  whereas  the  western  portion 
possesses  five,  together  with  the  capital  of  Seoul.  The  climate  is  marked  by 
great  contrasts  of  heat  and  cold ;  thn-ing  the  sprmg  the  moiuitains  are  covered 
with  flowering  azaleas,  and  the  summer  is  tropically  hot,  whereas  the  winter  is 
extremely  cold,  and  the  tigers  who  come  down  to  the  plains  from  the  snows  in 
the  higher  parts  of  the  country  bear  the  thick  fur  of  their  ilauehurian  cousins. 

The  area  of  Korea  is  about  218,650  square  kilometres,  and  the  population  is 
said  by  some  to  amount  to  seven  or  eight  million,  by  others  to  exceed  ten  million 
inhabitants.  These,  according  to  Baelz  (see  pp.  2,  60),  belong  to  the  Manchu- 
Korean  type,  the  former  element  predominating.  In  reality  the  population  of 
Korea  has  been  formed  by  the  lilending  of  many  northeast  Asiatic  races,  among 
wliich  the  Ainos  are  well  represented  (see  p.  214).  Strangely  enough,  the  charac- 
teristic type  often  bears  a  resemblance  to  the  Semitic.  But  in  the  case  of  Korea, 
as  in  that  of  the  neighbouring  States  of  China  and  Japan,  nothing  certain  is  known 
either  of  its  earliest  inhabitants  or  of  the  origin  of  later  immigrants,  and  still  less 
concerning  the  time  of  these  immigrations.  According  to  the  Chinese  annals,  in 
1132  B.  c.  Ki  Tsze,  an  adherent  of  the  Shaug  dynasty  which  had  been  overthrown 
a  short  time  previously  (p.  64),  entered  the  country  with  five  thousand  followers  at 
Chosen,  which  at  that  time  embraced  chiefly  the  southern  portion  of  tlie  modern 
Manchuria.  He  is  said  to  have  subdued  and  to  have  civilized  the  natives. 
The  Koreans  also  gave  official  sanction  to  this  legend  as  the  beginning  of  their 
relations  with  China.  It  is  impcssible  to  say  what  amount  of  truth  may  be 
contained  in  the  legend ;  though  perhaps  Ki  Tsze  may  have  carried  out  the 
undertaking  not  in  Chosen,  but  at  Fuyu,  lying  to  the  north  of  that  district,  which 
at  least  a])pears  to  have  possessed  at  an  early  period  a  civilization  resembling  that 
of  ancient  China.  Equally  impossible  is  it  to  assign  any  definite  date  for  the 
introduction  of  Chinese  and  Confucian  civilization.  We  only  know  that  Confu- 
cianism and  Buddhism  travelled  to  Japan  by  way  of  Korea. 

£.  The  Early  History  of  Korea 

Until  the  outset  of  the  second  century  B.  c.  the  relations  of  Korea  to  China 
may  be  described  as  a  series  of  struggles  between  North  China,  which  was  often 
designated  at  that  period  as  the  kingdom  of  Yen,  and  Xorthern  Korea,  which  at 
one  peri<xl  extended  westward  beyond  its  frontiers.  In  Korea  proper  there  lay  to 
the  uortli  Chosen  (Korai),  and  to  the  south  two  other  districts,  known  as  the  West- 
ern Ma  han  and  the  Eastern  Shin  ban,  both  inhabited  by  independent  tribes, 
who  appear  in  some  cases  to  have  intermarried  freely  with  fugitives  from  China. 
^\^len  the  first  Han  dynasty  came  to  power  in  China  (see  p.  76)  it  enforced  its 
rights  to  Yen  by  conquering  the  kingdom  in  206  B.  C.  Fugitives  from  that  dis- 
trict arrived  at  Chosen,  where  tlieir  leader.  We  men,  overthrew  the  king  and 
seized  the  kingdom  in  194  B.  c. ;  his  capital  of  Wang  hien  lay  to  the  east  of  Ta 
tung.     The  king,  Ki  jun,  of  Chosen  fled  to  Ma  han,  where  he  was  hospitably 


116  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chaj,ter i 

received  ov  the  trilie  of  the  "One  Hundred  Families"  (Hiaksai),  and  became 
thfir  chieftain  at  a  later  period.  This  tribe  afterwards  became  the  dimiinant 
jx.wer  of  Ma  hau,  and  the  kingdom  there  formed  received  the  name  of  Hiaksai 
(also  Kiidara  and  Pehtsi).  After  the  fall  of  the  Chin  dynasty  (206  ».  c),  Chinese 
are  also  said  to  have  Hed  to  Shin  han.and  there  to  have  founded  the  later  kingdom 
of  Sin  m  (Sila  Sinlo),  under  Yu  kio,  the  grandson  of  We  men.  War  broke  out 
between  Chosen  and  Ciiiua  in  lOS,  which  ended  in  107  with  tlie  entire  defeat  of 
the  Koreans,  the  capture  of  the  capital,  the  death  of  the  king,  and  liie  occui)ation 
of  the  kingdom  by  tlie  Chinese.  Their  supremacy  continued  until  the  downfall  of 
the  Hau  dynasty  (p.  79). 

C.  The  Medieval  History  of  Korea 

In  the  meanwhile  Kokorai,  a  new  kingdom,  had  arisen  to  the  north  of  Chosen 
and  south  of  Fuyu ;  it  came  into  contact  and  soon  into  collision  with  the  Chi- 
nese at  the  outset  of  the  Christian  era.  Tliese  relations  and  those  of  the  later 
kingdom  of  I'uhai,  which  replaced  that  of  Kokorai,  have  had  but  little  influence 
upon  the  history  of  Korea.  More  important  were  the  stiuggles  between  the 
three  States  which  had  been  formed  within  the  peninsula  itself,  Hiaksai,  Sinra, 
and  Korai.  Hiaksai  was  the  first  of  these  States,  and  was  strongly  influenced  by 
Confucianism  and  limldhism,  both  doctrines  being  firmly  established  there  toward 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century  A.  D.  Struggles  with  Kokorai,  Korai,  and  Sinra 
occupy  a  large  part  of  the  history  of  this  State,  which  was  subjugated  by  China  in 
ir.60.  Ten  years  later  a  Buddhist  priest  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  against  the 
Chinese,  and  with  the  help  of  the  Japanese,  set  up  H<isho,  a  son  of  the  former 
king,  as  prince  of  the  country ;  but  Hiaksai  was  conqueretl,  and  a  large  portion  of 
the  population  emigrated  to  Korai  and  Japan.  Korai,  which  had  successfully  re- 
pulsed different  attacks,  at  last  succumbed  to  the  Cliinese,  so  that  of  the  three 
kingdoms  only  Siiu-a  maintained  some  measure  of  independence. 

During  the  period  of  the  Tang  dynasty  (618-907;  see  p.  90),  Sinra  maintained 
close  connection  with  China,  and  its  capital  Chung-ju  was  the  true  centre  of  Sinro- 
Koreau  civilization  and  of  Buddhism.  It  was  there  that  the  Korean  Nido  alphabet 
was  discovered,  which  may  perhaps  have  served  as  a  model  for  the  Jajianese 
al])habet.  Sinra  gi-adually  absorbed  the  whole  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  kingdom. 
However,  a  war  against  Puhai,  which  was  undertaken  in  733  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Chinese,  proved  unsuccessful.  In  general,  the  kingdom  maintained  its  position 
until  912,  when  a  Buddhist  priest,  Kung  wo,  revolted  agauist  the  weak  reigning 
monarch.  Kung  wo  was  soon  pushed  aside  by  the  General  Wang  ken ;  he  declared 
himself  ruler  of  the  coimtry  and  made  riiyeng-yaug  and  Kai-cliau  the  headquarters 
of  his  government.  In  a  .'^liort  time  he  succeeded  in  subjiigating  the  whule  penin- 
sula and  founding  a  united  kingdom  under  the  name  of  Korai  (he  is  said  to  have 
been  a  descendant  of  the  princes  of  ancient  Korai).  He  now  set  up  his  court  in 
Sunto,  situated  more  nearly  in  the  centre  of  tlie  country  (llie  modern  Kaiseng, 
about  fifty  kilometres  from  Seoul),  and  died  ui  94").  After  long  internal  struggles, 
his  successor  recognised  the  supremacy  of  China,  which  had  been  united  under  tlie 
northern  Sung  dj-nasty  (p.  93). 

The  king  of  Korai  laid  claim  to  Liautung,  alleging  relationship  to  tlie  jirinces 
of  Kokorai  and  PuhaL     In  consequence,  he  came  into  collision  with  the  Khitan 


iT^or:!""']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  117 

Tartars  (Liau  dynasty ;  see  p.  93),  who  were  then  at  the  height  of  theii-  power. 
The  Koreans  were  ra])idly  defeated  by  llie  Khitaus  during  the  years  1012- 
1014,  and  could  only  maintain  their  ground  against  their  powerfid  enemies  by 
means  of  an  alliance  with  the  Nuchi  Tartars  (Kin).  ^Vhen  the  kingdom  of  the 
Kin  was  destroyed  by  the  ilongols  in  1230,  Korea  made  submission  to  the  con- 
queror; l)ut  the  murder  of  a  Mongol  ambassador  (1231)  called  forth  an  invasion 
of  the  Mongols  in  1240.  After  a  long  resistance,  the  king  surrendered  and  betook 
himself  to  the  court  of  Mangu  Khan  in  1256  to  acknowledge  his  supremacy  in 
person. 

Kublai  Khan,  the  successor  of  Mangu,  made  Korea  the  base  of  operations  for 
his  projected  attack  upon  Japan  (see  pp.  21,  96).  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Jlongols  largely  contributed  to  increase  the  animosity  between  Korea  and  Japan 
during  the  years  1266-12S1,  owing  to  the  help  given  to  the  Koreans,  the  losses 
which  they  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  Japanese  in  the  course  of  operations,  and 
the  devastations  upon  the  Korean  coasts  committed  by  Japanese  pirates  during  the 
following  centuries.  Korea  had  been  and  remained  the  teacher  of  Japan  in  almost 
all  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  higher  civilization  existed  in 
Korea  itself.  Korean  bronze  groups,  existing  in  Japan  and  dating  from  the  seven- 
teenth century,  are  proofs  of  the  fact.  But  at  the  present  day  these  arts  have 
disappeared  in  Korea  and  left  scarce  a  trace  behind. 

B.  Korea  durixg  the  Traxsitiox  from  Medieval  to  JIoderx  Times 

(rt)  TJie  Predominance  of  the  Minfj.  —  After  the  fall  of  the  Mongol  dynasty  in 
Cliina  (1368)  the  Ming  issued  a  demand  that  Korea  should  resume  the  payments 
of  tribute  that  had  previously  been  enforced.  This  the  king  of  Korea,  the  thirty- 
second  ruler  of  the  Wang  dynasty,  met  with  a  direct  refusal.  But  his  army  was 
imwilliug  to  march  against  the  Chinese;  the  king  was  deposed,  and  Xi  Taijo,  the 
leader  of  the  rebels,  foimded  in  1392  that  dynasty  of  which  a  minor  branch  is  in 
power  at  the  present  day.  The  new  dynasty  became  entirely-  dependent  upon 
China ;  the  calendar  and  clu'onology,  the  administrative  methods  and  tlie  costume 
of  the  Chinese  were  adopted,  and  present-day  Korea,  more  than  two  hundred  and 
fifty  years  after  the  fall  of  the  iling  dynasty,  offers  a  faithful  picture  of  China  as 
it  was  under  the  government  of  those  kings.  Xi  Taijo  was  an  energetic  ruler.  He 
transferred  the  seat  of  government  from  Kunto  to  Han  yang  on  the  Han,  now 
known  as  Seoul  (that  is,  capital),  and  divided  the  kingdom  into  eight  pro\inces. 
The  list  was  as  follows :  Ham  gyeng,  Kang  wen,  Kjeng  sang,  lay  in  the  order  given 
from  north  to  south  on  the  sea  of  Japan ;  the  other  provinces  in  order  from  south 
to  north  on  the  Pacific  were  Chel  la,  Chhung  chheng,  Kjeng  kwi,  Kwang  hai,  and 
Phyeng  an.  Buddhism  was  almost  entirely  suppressed,  and  priests  were  absolutely 
forbidden  to  enter  Seoul ;  a  stern  Confucianism  practically  became  the  state  religion 
of  the  country.  To  this  dynasty  is  also  ascribed  the  abolition  of  the  custom  which 
had  hitherto  prevailed,  and  is  probably  of  Tartar  origin,  of  performing  human  sacri- 
fice and  burying  .slaves  and  others  alive  at  the  funerals  of  famous  people.  The 
first  descendants  of  Xai  Taijo  were  vigorous  rulers  who  increased  the  centralisation 
of  the  government  and  advanced  the  prosperity  of  the  people.  As  regards  their 
foreign  policy,  they  were  dependent,  according  to  Asiatic  custom,  on  both  of  the 
two  neighbom-ing  powerful  kingdoms  of  China  and  Japan,  sending  to  both  of  these 


118  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  [t7,«y.^,•/ 

periodical  embassies,  which  theoretically,  at  least,  were  supposed  to  make  iiayments 
of  tribute.  These  embassies  came  to  an  eud  in  1460,  iu  consequence  of  the  inter- 
nal wars  ia  Japan  durinj;  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  and  the  tirst  lialf  of  the 
sixteenth  century  (p.  2o),  the  downfall  of  the  shogunate  under  the  Ashikaga,  to 
whom  these  embassies  were  usually  sent,  and  the  imcertainty  of  communication 
between  the  two  countries,  owing  to  the  activity  of  the  Japanese  pirates. 

(h)  Hie  Policy  of  Aijtjression  of  Hideyoshi. — Tliis  behaviour  on  the  part  of 
the  Korean  government,  together  with  Hideyoshi's  visionary  plans  for  the  subju- 
giitiou  of  China,  led  to  the  invasion  of  Korea  l>y  Jajtau  (1592;  cf.  p.  31).  The 
Japanese  won  a  rapid  series  of  victories,  conc^uering  Fusan  on  the  25th  of  AJay 
and  capturing  Seoul  eighteen  days  later.  The  king  and  the  court  fled  from  the 
town  to  riugau  (Phyeng  yang).  In  July  the  Japanese  reached  the  Ta  tuug.  At 
this  river  they  fought  a  successful  engagement,  and  were  al)le  to  cross  and  capture 
Pimnin.  The  king  fled  to  An-ju ;  the  advance  of  the  Jajianese  was  tlien  checked, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  their  fleet  on  which  they  depended  for  their  supplies  was 
almost  entirely  destroyed  by  the  Koreans  at  Fusan-  The  contingents  of  Chinese, 
for  wliich  the  Koreans  had  appealed,  now  came  upon  the  scene  of  action.  Their 
advance  guard  stormed  the  .suburbs  of  Tingau  on  the  27th  of  August,  but  was 
almost  entirely  destroyed  by  the  Japanese  on  entering  the  town  proper.  The  main 
body  of  the  Chinese,  together  with  the  remnants  of  the  Korean  troops,  reappeared 
before  I'ingau  in  February,  1593,  and  stormed  the  town  on  the  tenth  of  the  month. 
The  Japanese  general,  the  Christian  Yukinaja  Konishi,  was  abandoned  by  his  col- 
leagues, who  had  taken  up  positions  further  to  the  south,  and  was  forced  to  fall 
back  upon  Seoul.  Here  he  joined  tlie  other  commander-in-chief,  the  Buddhist 
Kiyomasa  Kato.  A  battle  was  fouglit  outside  the  town  in  IMarcli ;  the  Chinese 
were  defeated  and  retii'ed  to  Pingan,  but  the  pursuit  was  feeble,  since  the  Japanese 
had  lost  heavily  in  the  conflict. 

Both  sides  were  now  glad  to  resume  the  negotiations  for  peace  wliich  had  been 
previously  opened,  and  were  chiefly  conducted  by  the  Chinese  Chin  I-kei.  In  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  the  Koreans  and  of  Kato,  a  treaty  was  concluded,  by  which 
Korea  ceded  the  most  southerly  provinces  to  Japan  and  recognised  h'er  tributary 
relation  to  that  country.  The  old  commercial  relations  between  China  and  Japan 
were  to  be  resumed,  Hideyoshi  was  to  marry  the  daughter  of  the  emperor  of  China 
and  to  be  recognised  as  the  emperor's  equal.  Until  the  completion  of  this  conven- 
tion, the  Japanese  were  to  withdraw  to  the  coast  of  Fusan,  where  they  were  to 
gan-ison  twelve  strongholds.  On  the  23d  of  May,  1593,  the  Japanese  evacuated 
Seoul  and  began  their  retreat,  slowly  followed  by  the  allies ;  fuither  collisions 
took  place  in  the  course  of  this  operation  which  would  have  led  to  another  out- 
break of  war  had  not  Kouishi's  mediation  lieen  successful.  Tlie  Cliinese  retired 
northward ;  part  of  the  Japanese  forces  were  transported  to  Japan,  and  negotia- 
tions were  continued  partly  in  that  country  and  partly  in  Peking.  In  October, 
1595,  a  Chinese  emliassy  ai'rived  in  Japan,  and  was  received  on  tlie  twenty-fourth  of 
the  month  in  Fushimi  by  Hideyoshi.  However,  tiie  message  with  wliicli  they  were 
intrusted  fi-om  the  emperor  Shang  Tsung  merely  recognised  him  as  "king  of  Japan," 
a  title  which  had  been  pre\^ously  granted  to  the  .shoguns  of  the  Ashikaga  family. 

The  war  consequently  broke  out  again.  Chin  I-kei,  who.se  action  chuing  these 
proceedings  is  by  no  means  clear,  was  captured  by  his  compatriots  and  executed ; 


i^'S'orT"']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  119 

reinforcements  were  sent  to  Korea  by  both  nations.  In  January,  1597,  the  Jap- 
anese defeated  the  Korean  deet  and  made  a  triumphant  advance  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Seoul  But  the  destruction  of  their  fleet  by  the  united  Chinese  and  Korean 
forces  again  obliged  them  to  retreat  to  the  sea-coast.  During  their  retiienieut  they 
utterly  devastated  the  country  and  destroyed  Chung  ju,  the  old  capital  of  Sinra.  To 
tliis  action  is  to  be  ascribed  the  hatred  which  has  inspired  the  Koreans  against  the 
Japanese  from  that  date  (cf.  above,  p.  116).  In  the  south  the  struggle  centred 
round  the  fortress  of  Urusan,  into  which,  after  tierce  lighting,  a  large  body  of  the 
Japanese  troops  had  been  tliiown.  "WTien  the  garrison  had  been  reduced  to  the 
extremities  of  famine,  a  Japanese  army  defeated  the  Chinese  and  Koreans  who  had 
advanced  to  meet  them,  on  the  9th  of  February,  1598,  and  relieved  the  town  on  the 
13th.  This  final  success  of  the  Japanese  brought  the  great  war  to  an  end.  A 
number  of  unimportant  conflicts  by  land  and  sea  took  place ;  but  shortly  before 
his  death,  du  the  Sth  of  September,  159S,  Hideyoshi  recalled  his  troops  to  Japan. 

Korea  emerged  victorious  from  this  struggle,  but  terribly  weakened.  Eelatious 
with  Japan  were  broken  off  until  162.3,  when  lyemitsu,  the  second  shogun  of  the 
Tokugawa  dynasty  who  had  united  the  nation  into  a  powerful  whole,  successfully 
demanded  the  resumption  of  the  embassies  and  their  tribute.  The  first  ambassa- 
dors appeared  at  Yedo  in  1624  However,  the  shoguns  soon  found  the  expenses  of 
these  embassies,  which  were  void  of  any  practical  meaning,  too  heavy,  and  discon- 
tinued them.  From  that  period  communication  between  the  two  countries  was 
contined  to  Fusan,  where  trade  was  possible  uuder  strict  supervision,  to  Tsushima, 
of  which  the  prince,  apparently  of  Korean  origin,  had  always  been  anxious  to 
maintain  commercial  relations,  and  to  Satsuma.  To  the  latter  place  Korean  pris- 
imers  had  been  brought  during  the  expedition  to  Korea,  and  they  were  there 
employed  as  potters ;  the  town  in  consequence  being  occasionally  visited  by  Korean 
junks. 

F.   The  Moder\  Period 

Korea  maintained  friendly  relations  with  her  Chinese  neighbours.  When  the 
Manehus  began  to  threaten  the  Ming  dynasty  in  1616,  the  latter,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  incursions  of  their  enemies,  agreed  with  the  Korean  government  to  lay 
waste  a  district  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yalu  about  one  hundred  kilometres  broad, 
aud  four  hundred  and  eighty  kilometres  long.  The  villages  were  destroyed,  the 
inhabitants  expelled,  and  on  the  Chinese  side  this  frontier  district  was  strengthened 
by  wooden  palisades  and  a  double,  or,  in  some  cases,  a  triple  row  of  forts.  When 
the  invasions  of  the  Manehus  became  more  frequent  the  Chinese  government 
apjjlied  to  its  vassal  State  for  help,  which  was  readily  granted.  In  consequence, 
tlie  Manehus  invaded  Korea  in  1627,  defeated  the  allied  Chinese  and  Koreans  and 
besieged  Seoul,  until  the  king,  who  had  fled  to  the  island  of  Kang  hwa,  gave  in  his 
submission.  No  sooner,  however,  had  the  enemy  retreated  thau  he  declined  to 
fulfd  his  promises.  A  new  invasion  of  the  Manehus  followed,  and  in  1637  the 
king  was  forced  to  conclude  a  convention  whereby  be  definitely  broke  off  his  con- 
nection with  the  Ming,  gave  hostages,  recognised  his  position  as  tributary,  permit- 
ted the  opening  of  a  market  on  the  frontier  of  Liau  tung,  and  promised  to  send  out 
a  yearly  embassy  to  make  payment  of  an  appointed  tribute.  After  the  conquest  of 
Peking,  this  tribute  was  diminished  on  different  occasions  until  it  became  abso- 


120  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapte,- 1 

lutelj-  uiiimportaut  from  a  monetary  poiut  of  view,  while  the  periods  for  its 
delivery  were  fixed  at  intervals  oi  three  years. 

Christianity  appears  to  have  entered  Korea  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  first  foreign  missionary  is  said  to  have  attempted,  but  in  vain,  to  enter  the 
eountrv  in  1791.  At  that  date  the  Hi-st  persecution  of  the  native  Christians  took 
place.  In  1835,  a  French  missionary,  P.  Maubant,  of  the  Missions  ^traugferes  de 
I'aris,  succeeded  m  entering  Korea,  and  was  almost  immediately  followed  by  others. 
However,  in  the  same  year  three  missionaries  and  one  liuiuhcd  and  thirty  native 
Christians  were  executed.  Other  missionaries  arrived  at  Korea  in  1S42,  but  the 
j)ersecutious  continued  and  nine  French  missionaries  were  martyred  in  March, 
lSt)G  ;  only  three,  including  Bishop  Kidel,  succeeded  in  escaping.  The  French  Gov- 
ernment availed  itself  of  this  opi>ortunity, and  as  the  authorities  in  IVking  declined 
all  resi)onsibility  for  these  outrages,  an  expedition  was  scut  to  Korea  which  de- 
8trt)yed  several  forts,  in  October,  1866,  but  was  forced  to  withdraw  after  suft'ering 
several  revei'ses  from  the  Koreans  without  attaining  any  detiiiite  .success.  These 
operations  on  the  I'art  of  the  French  were  followed  by  an  Ameiicau  expedition  in 
1871,  which  was  ordered  to  land  and  make  inquiry  into  the  fate  of  a  schooner,  the 
"  General  Sherman,"  which  had  been  lost  off  the  coast  with  its  crew.  An  attempt 
was  also  to  be  made  to  enter  into  friendly  relations  with  the  Koreans.  The  expe- 
dition was  attacked  by  the  Koreans,  and  after  destroying  a  number  of  forts  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Han  Kiver  returned  home. 

The  Jaiianese  were  more  fortimate.  The  mikado's  government,  shortly  after 
the  restoration  (1868),  made  a  demand  for  the  resumption  of  tlie  payments  of 
tribute,  which  the  Koreans  rejected  with  scorn.  In  September,  1875,  the  sailors  of 
a  Japanese  ship  of  war  were  attacked  by  the  soldiers  of  a  Korean  fort,  and  the  Jap- 
anese Government  sent  an  expedition  to  Korea.  On  the  27th  of  February,  1876,  a 
convention  was  signed  for  the  opening  of  the  harljour  of  Fusan  during  that  year, 
and  two  other  ports,  Gensan  and  Ninsen  (Chemulpho),  in  1880.  Kesident  consuls 
and  diplomatic  representatives  were  also  to  be  admitted,  and  Japan  was  to  recog- 
nise the  independence  of  Korea.  We  have  already  treated  of  the  events  connected 
with  this  opening  of  Korea  as  they  affected  other  powers  (1882),  the  outbreaks  of 
1882  and  1884,  the  Chinese-Japanese  convention  of  Tientsin  in  1885,  and  the 
Chinese-Japanese  war  during  the  years  1894-1895  (see  the  history  of  Japan, 
p.  52,  and  of  China,  pp.  109,  110).  We  are  therefore  here  concerned  only  with  the 
internal  affairs  of  Korea  in  so  far  as  they  contributed  to  or  were  the  result  of  these 
events. 

In  the  year  1864  the  dynasty  of  Ni  became  extinct  in  the  direct  line.  The 
king  Chul  chong  died  after  a  reign  of  thirty-one  j-ears,  without  issue.  The  eldest 
of  the  three  wives  who  survived  him  seized  the  government  and  proclaimed  the 
son  of  the  prince  Ni  kung,  who  was  thirteen  years  old,  as  the  successor  of  Chul 
chong.  Ni  kung  was  able,  however,  to  seize  the  power  for  himself,  and  he  ruled 
with  ruthless  cruelty  until  1873,  under  the  title  of  Tai  wen  kun  (Tai  in  kuu,  lord 
of  the  great  court).  The  persecutions  of  Christianity  and  the  execution  of  all  for- 
eigners were  ascribed  to  the  initiative  of  this  regent,  who  was  opposed  to  foreign 
influence  and  progress  in  any  form.  Upon  the  majority  of  the  young  king  I  hung 
(formerly  Li  Shi,  1873),  conditions  changed  for  the  better;  an  improvement  most 
probably  due  to  the  influence  of  the  queen,  wliom  he  took  in  1866  from  the 
noble  family  of  the  Min.     The  further  history  of  the  domestic  policy  of  Korea  is 


^Kw?a'""]  HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD  121 

entirely  occupied  with  the  bitter  struggles  between  the  queen  and  the  Tai  wen 
kuu,  which  ended  with  the  murder  of  the  former  at  the  instigation  of  the  Japanese 
ambassador,  Miura,  on  the  Sth  of  October,  1895. 

The  Tai  wen  kun  died  a  few  years  later,  a  helpless  and  broken  man.  The  part 
played  by  Ja]ian  and  the  Japanese  in  these  domestic  disturbances  is  by  no  means 
wholly  to  their  credit.  The  progi-essive  party  in  Korea  naturally  associated  himself 
with  Japan  and  looked  to  her  for  help.  But  the  fact  that  in  these  different  revolts 
and  political  nnnders  Japan  played  so  large  a  part,  directly  or  indirectly,  throws  a 
somewhat  discreditable  liglit  upon  her  methods  of  introducing  her  civilization  into 
Korea.  The  euuntry  has  been  cur-sed  throughout  its  history  by  the  ambitions  and 
the  quarrels  of  the  great  noble  families,  the  Min,  Kim,  Li,  Ni,  and  others,  and  the 
resulting  conflicts  have  materially  contributed  even  in  modern  times  to  impoverish 
the  country  and  provide  opportunities  for  foreign  interference. 

After  the  murder  of  the  queen,  the  kmg  was  for  a  considerable  period  in  the 
hands  of  those  who  had  instigated  the  deed.  On  the  11th  of  February,  1896,  he 
fled  to  the  Russian  embass\'  with  the  crown  prince,  and  did  not  return  to  his  palace 
for  a  full  year.  Since  the  12th  of  October,  1897,  he  has  borne  the  title  of  emperor, 
probably  with  the  object  of  emphasising  his  independent  position,  which  is  not 
necessarily  implied  by  the  title  of  king.  Korea  has  now  become  the  apple  of  dis- 
cord between  Russia' and  Japan,  as  it  was  formerly  between  Japan  and  China.  The 
various  treaties  executed  between  the  two  powers  (among  others  that  of  1896),  have 
by  no  means  provided  a  solution  of  the  Korean  question.  The  "  laud  of  morning 
rest "  has,  on  the  contrary,  undoubtedly  called  forth  these  preparations  in  Japan 
which  have  been  pursued  with  feverish  haste  and  have  brought  with  them  serious 
financial  embarrassments.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  treaty  concluded 
between  England  and  Japan  on  the  30th  of  January,  1902  (p.  54),  will  produce  the 
intended  result  of  maintaining  the  s/ulxs  quo  in  Korea. 


122  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [au,j,fcr  n 

n 

CENTRAL  ASIA  AND  SIBERIA 

By    DK.    hi:  in  rich    SCIIURTZ 


1.   THE  EAELIP:ST  rERIOD  AND  THE  HISTORICAL  BEGINNINGS  OF 

CENTRAL   ASIA 

IN  comparatively  recent  times  the  vast  liiglilands  of  Asia  with  their  glittering 
ramparts  of  eternal  suow,  their  pasture  grcunuls,  ilieir  bleak  deserts,  and  ver- 
dant oases,  were  regarded  witli  awe  by  tlie  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  It 
seemed  that  science,  in  liarniony  with  tlie  religion  and  the  myths  of  so  many 
peoples,  had  succeeded  in  demonstrating  by  alniosi  irrefragable  proofs  that  Central 
Asia  was  the  primitive  home  of  mankind,  the  cradle  whence  eveii  our  own  forefathers  • 
were  sent  out  iji  the  pride  of  youth  to  find  eventually  a  new  home  in  Europe,  while 
other  brothers  of  our  race  descended  into  India,  that  sun-steeped  land  of  marvels.  It 
was  a  sjilendid  picture,  tliat  of  a  stream  of  nations  rushing  down  from  the  snow- 
encircled  higlilands,  where  the  race  of  the  new  lords  of  the  world  had  dreamed  away 
its  youth  in  the  pure  mountain  air ;  a  picture  in  which  the  fancy  of  the  poet  seemed 
to  coml>ine  with  the  clear  and  sober  reality.  Any  doubts  cast  on  this  theory, 
which  satisfied  both  reason  and  imagination,  could  hardl}-  claim  attention.  But 
research,  advancing  from  question  to  question  and  acquiring  fresh  knowledge,  has 
undermined  and  shaken,  and  in  the  end  has  overthrown,  the  seemingly  inviolable 
sanctuary  of  this  belief.  Tlie  trutli  is  still  to  seek,  but  it  has  been  shown  that 
Central  Asia  possesses,  so  far  as  we  know,  less  claim  than  many  other  regions  of 
the  earth  to  be  considered  the  cradle  of  the  human  race.  Least  of  all  can  the 
liighlands  of  Tibet,  witli  the  barren  and  rough  nature  of  which  we  are  now  more 
familiar,  be  considered  the  primitive  home  of  mankind,  the  fountain-head  from 
which  'stream  after  stream  of  wanderers  has  flowed  over  the  earth.  The  belief 
in  the  importance  of  Central  Asia  for  the  earliest  history  of  mankind  was  not 
altogether  irrational.  As  long  as  the  beginning  of  human  tradition  was  regarded  as 
identical  with  the  beginning  of  the  history  of  man,  and  the  anti(piity  of  the  human 
race  was  limited  to  a  few  miUeuniums,  the  thought  was  suggested  that  the  original 
home  might  V)e  found  in  the  heart  of  the  Asiatic  Continent.  If,  indeed,  we  substi- 
tute "  home  of  the  higher  civilization "  for  tlie  expression  "  home  of  mankind," 
Central  A.sia  deserves,  even  at  the  present  day,  the  most  serious  attention  of 
scientific  enquirers.  Around  this  citadel  of  the  world  lay  clustered  in  a  wide  semi- 
circle the  ancient  countries  of  civilization.  Babylonia,  China,  and  India,  and  even 
the  beginnings  of  Egyptian  culture  point  to  Asia.  All  who  l)elieve  in  a  common 
f<juntain-head  of  these  higher  civilizations  must  look  for  it  in  Middle  Asia,  or  must 
assume  that  the  germs  of  higher  forms  of  life  were  carried  through  that  region  in 
consecjuenee  of  migrations  or  of  trading  expeditions.     In  later  times  the  importance 


^EXTRAL    ASIA. 


S'Slr,f]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  123 

of  Central  Asia  for  the  history  of  mankind  seems,  indeed,  much  changed,  but  not 
less  perceptible.  It  no  longer  produces  the  germs  of  civilization,  but,  like  an  ever- 
glowing  volcano,  sends  out  streams  of  warlike  nomads,  and  shakes  the  earth  far 
and  wide,  so  that  smiling  lands  become  desolate  and  prosperous  towns  sink  into 
the  dust.  From  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day  mankind  has  been  deeply 
intluenced  by  the  existence  of  Central  Asia  and  its  races. 

A.   The  Country  as  the  Theatre  ok  Historical  Events 

Central  A.sia  is  the  most  continental  region  of  the  world.  In  a  geographical 
sense  Middle  or  Central  Asia  comprises  the  self-contained  interior  of  Asia ;  in  a 
historical  sense  Siberia  and  the  plains  of  Western  Asia  and  Europe  form  an 
appendage  of  this  vast  expanse.  Central  Asia,  in  the  more  restricted  sense,  is  the 
arid  plateau,  without  any  outlet,  which  is  divided  by  immense  chains  of  mountains 
stretching  from  east  to  west  into  distinct  regions,  Tibet,  Eastern  Turkestan,  and 
Mongolia  (see  the  inserted  map  of  Central  Asia).  These  mountain-chains  partially 
alter  the  bleak  and  desert-like  character  of  the  country,  for  moisture  collects  on 
their  slopes,  and  wherever  the  streams  and  rivulets  which  flow  down  from  them 
irrigate  the  soil,  agriculture  and  the  growth  of  a  permanent  population  are  possible. 
If  ilie  rivers  had  an  outlet  to  the  sea,  their  effect  would  be  .'<till  more  beneficial,  for 
they  would  extract  from  the  salt-impregnated  soil  the  excessive  amount  of  soluble 
chemical  substances  and  give  it  that  inexhaustible  fertility  which  is  peculiar  to 
the  alluvial  districts  of  China,  whereas  they  now  lose  themselves  in  brackish 
swamps  or  disappear  in  the  sand. 

But  this  bleak  and  desolate  region  has  not  remained  imaltered  in  the  course  of 
thousands  of  years.  In  the  tertiary  period,  which  perhaps  saw  man  develop  into  the 
most  distinctive  form  of  living  creature  on  the  earth,  a  sea  was  rolling  where  now 
the  barren  wastes  of  the  Gobi  desert  and  the  basin  of  the  Tarim  extend:  new 
mountains  were  upraised  and  mighty  masses  subsided.  Wien  the  sea  disappeared 
and  Central  Asia  aci|uired  its  present  configuration,  a  long  time  must  have  elap.sed 
before  the  land  was  changed  into  the  sterile  steppe  which  we  know  at  the  present 
day.  The  glacial  period,  which  filled  Siberia  with  immense  glaciers,  hardly 
assisted  that  transformation.  The  inhabitants  of  Central  Asia  therefore,  at  the 
close  of  the  glacial  period,  which  must  provisionally  form  the  starting-point  of 
historical  investigation  in  this  field,  were  still  liN-ing  in  a  comparatively  well- 
watered  and  favoured  region,  which  later  became  by  slow  degrees  mere  steppe  and 
desert.  This  is  an  important  fact,  if  we  wish  to  learn  the  significance  of  Central 
Asia  for  the  beginnings  of  civilization.  On  the  other  hand,  the  elevated  character 
of  the  country  has  not  changed ;  and  this  produces  even  in  the  southern  parts  a 
temperate  and  almost  cold  climate,  and  has  in  this  way  exercised  a  lasting  influ- 
ence on  the  inhabitants. 

Central  Asia  in  the  restricted  sense  is  partly  bounded,  partly  intersected,  by 
numerous  chains  of  mountains,  which  by  their  trend  from  east  to  west  are  of  great 
importance  for  the  character  and  history  of  the  country  and  divide  it  into  several 
distinct  sections.  On  the  south  the  immense  wall  of  the  Himalaya  divides  the  cold 
plateau  of  Tibet  so  sharply  from  the  sultry  plains  nf  India  lliat  the  two  countries,  mit- 
withstanding  their  close  proximity,  have  exercised  little  influence  on  each  other  and 
have  never  entered  into  close  political  relations.     Farther  to  the  north  the  Kuen 


124  HISTORY'    ()I-^    THE    \\()1U,I)  [n,„j.f,;- ii 

Lull  with  its  offshoots  divides  Tibet  from  tiie  desolate  jilaiii  of  the  Tariiu,  which  in 
its  turn  is  cut  oil'  on  the  north  by  the  Tiau  shaa.  All  three  ranges  meet  toward 
the  west  in  an  immense  givup  of  mountains,  the  centre  of  which  is  formed  liy  the 
I'aiiiirs,  so  that  on  this  side  Central  Asia  is  (jiiite  separated  from  the  Turanian  low- 
laiuls.  But  even  the  rest  of  the  high  plateau  of  Central  Asia,  the  tlobi  desert  with 
the  surrounding  steppes,  is  bounded  by  a  vast  cucle  of  mountain  ranges  of  which 
the  most  important  are  the  Altai  on  the  west,  and  the  Sayansk  and  A'ablonoi 
mountains  on  the  north,  lieyond  the  Altai  stretch  the  lowlands  of  Siberia,  which 
are  separated  from  the  plains  of  Eastern  Europe  only  by  the  I'ral  range.  On  the 
nortlieast,  however,  a  chaos  of  mountains  bars  the  way  and  tills  up  the  gi-eater 
j>:ut  of  Eastern  Siberia.  In  this  direction,  therefore,  the  migratory  spirit  of  Central- 
Asiatic  tribes  found  least  scope.  The  mouutahi  ranges  on  the  west  were  never  any 
]iernianeiit  check  on  the  movements  of  the  nomads,  who  found  in  the  plains  of 
Turkestan  and  Western  Siberia  room  for  e.xpansion  and  giowth  of  power.  Toward 
the  south  the  Himalaya  blocked  their  advance ;  but  on  the  casi  China,  although 
partially  protected  by  highlands,  lay  open  to  the  attacks  of  the  peoples  of  the 
steppes.  Thus  the  trend  due  east  and  west,  which  characterises  the  lie  of  the 
mountain  ranges,  is  clearly  noticeable  in  the  migratory  movements  of  the  natiniis. 
But  it  is  not  visible  in  the  great  wanderings  of  the  tribes  alone ;  even  the  small 
peaceful  migrations  of  commerce,  which  are  more  momentous  for  the  growth  of 
civilization  than  the  devastating  floods  of  nomad  hordes  and  deserve  our  undivided 
attention  in  a  country  which  is  the  connecting  link  between  Eastern  and  Western 
civilization,  follow  the  univeisal  east-westeiiy  direction.  At  the  foot  of  these  long 
mountain-chains  lie  the  oases,  which,  in  the  desert  of  the  Tarim  basin  especially, 
alone  render  it  possible  for  the  traveller  to  cross  the  dismal  wastes.  Even  if  trattic 
was  less  dithcult  in  earlier  times,  when  the  water  supply  was  larger,  it  must  cer- 
tainly have  adapted  itself  to  the  existing  line  of  direction,  and  passed  at  the  foot 
of  the  ranges.  The  configuration  of  the  country  determines  the  roads  along  which 
trade  and  civilization  marched.  The  outlets  for  traffic  were,  on  the  one  side,  the 
lowlands  to  the  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  were  in  close  relations  with  Iran 
and  the  farther  West,  and  with  India  itself ;  on  the  other,  China,  the  oldest  home 
of  Oriental  culture. 

It  is  thus  a  most  significant  fact  that  the  chain  of  the  Kuen  Lun,  which  runs 
right  through  the  heart  of  Central  Asia,  stretches  with  its  offshoots  and  parallel 
ranges,  the  Altyn  Tagh  and  Nanshan,  as  far  as  the  middle  Hoangho,  that  is  to  say, 
into  the  most  fertile  districts  of  China.  Along  these  lines  of  mountains,  especially 
on  the  north  side,  extends  a  strip  of  fertile  and  more  or  less  well-watered  land, 
which  enables  the  husbandman  to  make  a  home  there  and  opens  a  road  to  the 
basin  of  the  Tarim  through  the  horror's  of  the  desert.  The  importance  of  this  dis- 
trict, the  modern  province  of  Kansn,  for  the  civilization  and  liistory  of  the  coun- 
try is  incalculable.  It  was  here  that  the  persevering  and  stolitl  Ciiinaman  first 
waged  war  with  the  nomads,  built  a  rampart  of  fortified  towns  and  agricultural 
colonies  across  the  pasture  lands  of  the  unruly  Central  Asiatics,  and  thus  dis- 
covered the  key  to  the  political  sujuemacy  over  the  whole  interior  of  Asia ;  but 
this  road  must  have  been  taken  in  far  earlier  times  by  those  who  first  brought  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  West  and  the  East  into  contact,  even  if  the  ]icople 
which  first  introduced  civilization  into  China  did  not  foUow  that  course  in  their 
migration. 


SS'It^r]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  125 

Farther  westward,  through  the  valley  of  the  Taiiin,  there  aie  two  practicable 
roads  louding  from  Kansu,  a  southern  one  which  runs  along  the  noitheru  foot  of 
the  Kuen  Lun,  and  a  northern  one  along  the  south  foot  of  the  Tiau  shan.  The 
southern  road,  the  course  of  which  is  marked  by  the  oases  of  Kargalik,  Cherchen, 
Kiria,  Kliotan,  and  Yarkand,  is  now  disused  ;  the  northern  road  with  the  oases  of 
Hami,  Turfau,  Karashar,  Kuchar,  and  Aksu,  thus  gains  in  importance.  The  two 
routes  meet  in  Kashgar  and  lead  through  the  western  range  to  Ferghana.  From 
Hami,  which  is  for  China  the  key  to  Central  Asia,  there  are  other  practicable  out- 
lets, farther  to  the  north,  leading  to  Turkestan  and  Soutliern  Siberia,  especially 
toward  the  Hi  valley,  and  along  the  northern  foot  of  the  Tian  slian  to  the  lake  of 
Balkash.  Beyond  the  mountains  theiefore,  in  the  plain  of  Turkestan,  lie  the  com- 
mercial cities  which  owe  the  greater  part  of  their  j)r<ispei'ity  to  the  trade  with  Cen- 
tral Asia  and  China,  namely,  Samarkand,  Bukhara,  Khokand,  and  Tashkent ;  the 
trade  of  the  East  \vith  Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  India  passes  through  them,  but 
they  are  also  the  capitals  of  rich  districts,  well  watered  by  the  mountain  rivers  and 
streams,  and  strongholds  of  settled  agriculturists  iu  the  midst  of  the  restless 
nomads.  But  Central  Asia  is  not  exclusively  an  avenue  for  transit  trade;  it  offers 
products  of  its  own,  which  attract  the  merchant  and  increase  the  economic  re- 
sources of  the  inhabitants.  First  and  foremost  come  the  minerals ;  the  most 
important  discoveries  of  jade  and  nephrite,  both  of  which  are  still  extraordinarily 
valued  in  China,  are  made  in  East  Turkestan.  The  Altai  is  rich  iu  metals,  which 
at  a  very  early  period  caused  a  special  form  of  civilization  to  spring  up  iu  tliis 
region.  Tibet  and  some  districts  of  Siberia  possess  prolific  gold  washings  ;  and, 
lastly,  salt,  which  is  usually  common  on  the  steppes,  is  brouglit  in  considerable 
quantities  from  Mongolia  to  China.  Among  the  ^■egetable  products  rhubarb  is 
important;  it  grows  abundantly  in  Kansu,  and  from  early  times  was  brought  to 
the  West  as  a  valued  medicinal  article.  From  an  earlv  date  Siberia  and  the  North 
of  Central  Asia  have  driven  an  important  trade  in  fuis  with  China  and  the  West. 

The  pruducts,  however,  which  were  most  important  for  the  inhabitants  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  even  if  not  for  export,  were  supplied  by  cattle-breeding.  This  is  the 
primary  cause  of  the  great  mobility  of  tlie  peoples  of  the  steppes,  wlrile  it  also 
assigns  definite  limits  to  their  advance,  for  it  is  only  where  his  cattle  thrive  that 
the  nomad  can  live  permanently,  so  long  as  he  remains  a  nomad.  Here  again 
certain  limitations  are  felt.  The  nomads  of  the  centre,  who  breed  horses,  oxen, 
sheep,  and  camels,  have  been  able  to  push  farthest  afield,  since  the  .steppes  of  Tur- 
kestan, West  Siberia,  East  Europe,  Iran,  and  Western  Asia  offer  suitable  pastures 
for  their  herds ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  migi-atory  herdsmen  of  Tibet  depend  for 
their  existence  on  the  yak,  which  only  thrives  in  a  restricted  area,  and  have  there- 
fore been  unable  to  undertake  extensive  campaigns  of  conqui'st,  while  the  Rein- 
deer nomads  of  Siberia  dare  not  leave  the  region  of  the  tundras.  Similarly  an 
advance  to  Tibet  or  to  Northern  Siberia  was  difficult  or  impossible  for  the  nomad 
hordes  of  Central  Asia ;  their  movements,  from  economic  reasons,  had  to  be 
directed  mainly  eastward  or  westward;  they  followed,  therefore,  the  same  paths  as 
trade.  It  was  not  until  a  late  period  that  Buddhism  by  its  pilgrimages  produced 
in  Central  Asia  an  important  movement  from  north  to  south. 

If  the  history  of  the  surrounding  countries  is  unintelligible  without  a  clear 
knowledge  of  Central  Asia  and  its  peoples,  that  of  the  region  of  the  steppes  in  the 
interior  of  Asia  is  still  more  so  without  reference  to  the  civilized  countries  which 


126  HISTC^RY    OF    THE    WORLD  [Chapter  jt 

bonier  it,  to  China  on  the  east,  the  area  of  ^lediterranean  civilization  on  the  west, 
ami  Iiiitia  mi  tlie  south. 

India,  which  was  rejieatedlv  overrun  by  hordes  of  Central  Asiatic  nomads,  for 
a  loiifi  iM?riod  exercised  little  inHueni'e  generally  on  tlie  steppe  region,  anil  almost 
none  politically,  since  the  barrier  of  the  Himalaya  was  a  deterrent  from  military 
enterprises,  and,  apart  fioni  this,  the  natuml  features  of  Tibet  oft'ered  no  attraction 
to  a  compieror.  Tiie  attempt  made  in  1337  by  Djaunah  Jlohamnu'd-slifili  ibu 
Togliluq  to  push  on  victoriously  from  India  to  China  was  foiled  by  the  Himalaya 
and  was  not  subsequently  imitated.  But  here,  as  in  so  many  other  cases,  the  spirit 
lias  been  mightier  than  the  sword.  Northern  India,  that  great  seiidnarv  of  relig- 
ious and  philosophic  thought,  gradually  made  its  intluence  felt  in  Central  Asia  and 
by  Buddhist  propaganda  revolutionised  the  lives  and  opinions  of  the  nomads.  It 
was,  of  com'se,  a  case  of  scattered  seeds  which  were  can-ied  across  the  raomitains 
and  struck  root  independently,  and  we  must  not  imagine  any  permanent  imion  of 
Indian  philosophy  with  the  nomad  culture  of  the  steppes. 

China  stood  in  a  quite  dilTerent  position  toward  Central  Asia.  The  highlands 
of  Western  China  offered,  it  is  true,  some  protection  against  the  inroads  of  the 
nomads,  so  long  as  tlie  favourable  strategic  positions  were  held  by  an  adecpiate 
force  of  well-disciplined  soldiers,  and  this  natural  protection  was  designedly  com- 
pleted by  the  construction  of  the  Great  Wall ;  but  it  did  not  always  prove  suf- 
ficient. The  policy,  which  the  Chinese  often  adopted,  of  playing  off  the  nomads 
one  against  the  other  and  of  settling  various  tribes  as  bordei-guanls  within  the 
natural  ramparts  of  the  empire,  sometimes  led  to  the  result  that  these  guardians 
asserted  their  independence  or  made  common  cause  with  their  kinsmen  of  Central 
Asia.  The  weapons  with  which  (Jliiua  fought  the  peoples  of  the  steppes  were,  at 
all  times,  not  so  much  the  warlike  spirit  of  her  sons  or  the  inaccessibility  of  the 
country,  as  the  highly  advanced  civilization,  which  rendered  it  possible  for  an  ex- 
tremely dense  population  to  live  on  the  fertile  soil.  The  country  might  submit, 
])artially  or  altogether,  to  the  attacks  of  the  inhaliitants  of  the  Central  Asiatic 
steppes,  of  the  Tibetans,  and  lastly  to  those  of  the  mountain  tribes  of  Eastern 
Siberia,  but  the  bands  of  the  conquerors  soon  disappeared  among  the  overwhelming 
nunil)ei-s  of  the  conquered,  and  their  barbarian  strength  could  not  withstand  the 
example  of  a  higher  culture.  To  political  superiority  the  nomads  might  attain  ; 
to  intellectual,  never. 

The  civilized  countries  of  Western  Asia  were  better  protected  than  China 
against  the  tide  of  restless  nomads.  Between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Himalaya 
rise  the  mountains  of  Chorasau  and  Afghani.stau.  Eastward  of  tliese  the  fertile  dis- 
tricts of  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  where  agricultural  colonies  and  fortified  towns 
could  grow  up,  formed  a  vanguard  of  civilization.  But  between  the  Caspian  and 
the  Black  Sea  the  Caucasus  rises  like  a  bulwark  built  for  the  i)ui]K)se,  and  cuts  off 
Western  Asia  from  the  steppes  of  Southern  llussia,  that  ancient  arena  of  nomadic 
hordes.  So  long  as  the  natural  boundaries  were  maintained  the  fertile  plains  of 
Western  Asia  were  safe  from  the  raids  and  invasions  of  tlie  immads.  But  the 
people  of  Iran,  which  guarded  civilization  there,  succumbed  at  length  to  the  attack. 
The  nomads  found  homes  to  their  liking  in  the  steppes,  which  abound  in  Iran, 
Syria,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  consequently  ]ireserved  their  individuality  far  longer 
than  in  China,  and  were  only  partially  absorbed  by  the  peoples  they  had 
conquered. 


^.S'SlLrif]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  127 

We  have  thus  an  explanation  of  the  great  difference  between  East  and  West. 
China  was  never  more  than  nominally  subject  to  the  nomads,  and  it  finally  crippled 
their  power  by  a  systematic  colonisation  of  the  steppes,  while  the  ancient  civiliza- 
tion of  Western  Asia  sank  beneath  the  repeated  onslaught  of  the  nomad  horsemen, 
and  the  country  became  for  a  long  time  an  appendage  of  Central  Asia. 

Eurt)pe,  the  eastern  steppes  of  which  merge  into  those  of  Southwest  Siberia 
without  any  well-defined  boundaries,  was  never  able  to  ward  ofif  the  attacks  made 
from  Central  Asia.  The  Huns  advanced  to  the  Atlantic,  the  Avars  and  Hungarians 
invaded  France,  the  Mongols  reached  Eastern  Germany,  and  the  (Jsmau  wave  spent 
itself  against  the  walls  of  Vienna.  This  continent  still  harbours  in  tlie  Magyars, 
the  Turks,  and  numerous  Finnish  and  Mongolian  tribes,  the  remnants  of  these 
inhabitants  of  the  heart  of  Asia.  But  Western  Europe,  with  its  moist  climate,  its 
deficiency  in  wide  tracts  of  pasture  ground,  and  its  national  strength  and  civiliza- 
tion, suffered  no  permanent  injury,  but  was  able  to  accept  the  inheritance  of  West 
Asiatic  culture. 

B.   The  Economic  Conditions 

This  brief  survey  of  the  geogi-aphical  conditions  of  Central  Asia  clearly  shows 
the  sharp  economic  distinction  which  separates  the  inliabitants  of  this  district  from 
those  of  the  neighbouring  countries,  —  tlie  difference,  namely,  between  nomads  and 
agriculturists.  Regarded  as  remote  history,  the  relations  between  the  two  seem  to 
be  a  continuous  struggle,  which  shows  itself  at  one  time  in  a  violent  onslaught, 
at  another  in  obstinate  contests  or  cunning  strategy,  presenting  a  ceaseless  spec- 
tacle of  bloodshed  and  destruction.  Viewed  from  a  nearer  distance,  this  gloomy 
picture  loses  much  of  its  horrors,  and  we  recognise  that  even  in  these  parts  war  is 
not  the  rule,  but  that  the  wish  for  barter  and  the  interests  of  commerce  continually 
induced  the  representatives  of  the  various  forms  of  mdustry  to  enter  into  peaceful 
intercourse  with  each  other  and  to  forget  their  ancient  feuds.  The  economic  con- 
trast is  for  the  most  part  less  abrupt  than  we  are  at  first  led  to  suppose  from  the 
great  liistorical  events  in  which  this  antagonism  appears  on  so  gigantic  a  scale. 

Most  nomads  are  more  or  less  familiar  with  agriculture.  We  might  assume 
that  the  custom  of  cultivating  suitable  pieces  of  land  on  the  rivers  or  in  otherwise 
well-watered  localities  was  a  result  of  predatorj-  wars  on  ci^dlized  peoples.  The 
captured  slaves  would  as  a  rule  be  employed  merely  on  agiicultm-e,  since  the  mem- 
bers of  the  horde  were  enough  to  tend  the  flocks,  and  industries  could  only  flourish 
in  the  sparsely  scattered  towns  of  Central  Asia.  But  probably  in  Asia  agriculture 
is  older  than  cattle-breeding  on  the  steppes ;  in  fact,  it  is  likely  that  in  some  cases 
settled  nations  changed  into  nomads,  although,  of  course,  other  nomad  tribes  may 
liave  passed  directly  from  the  hunting  stage  to  that  of  cattle  breedmg.  Thus  the 
agriculture  of  many  peoples  of  Central  Asia  can  be  traced  back  to  old  habits. 
'Wliere  agriculture  exists  the  social  order  gains  in  permanency,  and  the  inclination 
to  predatory  expeditions  is  checked,  since  in  cases  of  distress,  especially  when 
disease  diminished  the  stock  of  cattle,  men  preferred  to  support  their  existence  by 
farming  than  by  robbing  their  neighbours.  We  must  not,  however,  regard  the  life 
of  the  purely  nomadic  peoples  as  an  arbitrary  wandermg  to  and  fro.  Among  the 
Kirghiz,  for  example,  the  summer  pasturages  are  the  common  property  of  the  tribe, 
and  each  family  selects  its  place  there  as  it  thinks  best ;  but  the  favourably  situated 
localities,  which  are  suitable  for  the  winter  encampments,  form  the  weU-defined 


12S  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [ChapterJi 

private  proiierty  ot  the  separate  families,  and  tlie  tribal  districts  are  as  a  whole 
accurately  marked  out.  Tlie  possession  ot  cattle  implies  a  right  to  pasturage  on 
a  corresponding  scale,  which  cannot  be  disturbed.  The  man  who  increases  his 
henls  must  also  widen  his  lauds.  Tlius  in  reality  the  nomads  have  as  marked 
an  appreciation  of  ownership  of  land  and  of  the  importance  of  boundaries  as  the 
agriculturists. 

When  the  necessity  of  widenuig  their  pasturages  was  pressing,  the  nomads 
would  be  much  more  disposed  to  make  attacks  on  their  fellows  than  on  the  civi- 
lized peoples,  who  were  agiiculturists  and  town-dwellers.  Nomadism  is,  indeed, 
far  from  Wing  an  economic  phase  which  can  simply  be  substituted  for  agriculture, 
nor  can  the  pasture  grounds  of  the  herdsman  be  sti-aight  away  ajipropriated  for 
husbandry.  The  economic  methods  of  the  nomad  are,  on  the  contrary,  devoted  pre- 
dominantly to  the  utilisation  of  tracts  of  land  which  could  not  support  settled 
husbandmen.  The  restless  nomad,  ranging  with  his  herds  over  the  dry  but  grassy 
steppe,  utilises  vegetation  which  could  not  serve  for  human  food,  and  compels 
tiiese  wildernesses,  wliich  nature  has  neglected,  to  yield  him  milk  and  meat.  The 
agiiculturist  can  only  make  full  use  of  the  arid  steppe  when  he  is  able  to  irrigate 
it  sutttciently  for  his  crops.  On  the  other  hand,  the  land,  which  when  once  culti- 
vated must  support  a  ccjuiparatively  dense  population,  is  far  too  valuable  to  be 
devoted  with  any  degree  of  prudence  to  the  feeding  of  cattle.  A  Mongolian 
general,  at  the  time  when  the  Mongols  conquered  China,  actually  made  the  bril- 
liant suggestion  to  his  sovereign  that  all  the  Chinese  sliould  be  exterminated  and 
their  country  turned  into  pasture  land.  But  the  idea  did  not  commend  itself  even 
to  these  barbarian  sons  of  Central  Asia.  A  similar  plan  may  have  been  carried 
out  elsewhere  on  a  small  scale,  though  hardly  with  any  conscious  intent.  In 
We.stern  Asia  particularly  the  settled  peasants  were  often  exterminated  by  the 
conquering  invaders,  the  artificial  system  of  irrigation  fell  into  decay,  and  the 
country  of  itself  became  once  more  a  steppe  on  which  the  nomads  could  now 
disport  themselves  unhindered.  What  chiefly  drove  the  herdsman  to  attack  the 
agriculturist  was  the  wish  for  his  moval)les  and  for  slaves,  coupled  with  the 
innate  love  of  fighting  and  the  desire  to  rule,  —  motives  most  characteristic  of 
the  migratory  herdsman.     He  seldom  coveted  the  laud  of  the  agriculturist. 

A  prolonged  study  of  the  historical  traditions,  which  delight  in  recording  the 
wars,  murders,  and  ravages  of  the  nomads,  and  picture  the  absolute  terror  with 
which  the  invasions  of  these  ro\-ing  Asiatic  tribes  filled  the  hearts  of  the  sur- 
vivors, might  well  lead  us  to  regard  tlie  perpetrators  of  such  horrors  in  the  darkest 
colours,  and  to  consider  them  as  a  species  of  ravenous  wild  beasts  rather  than  as 
beings  deserving  the  name  of  men.  But  such  a  view  would  be  premature.  When 
peaceful  intercourse  prevails  between  the  settled  inhabitants  and  the  nomads  (and 
this  is  rather  the  rule  than  the  exception),  the  nomads  api)ear  in  a  better  light. 
The  civilized  man  is  the  superior  in  the  peaceful  contest,  which  is  ultimately  seen 
in  all  intercourse  for  trade  and  barter.  But  the  sympathies  of  the  impartial  spec- 
tator will  rather  be  with  the  nomad,  whose  good  (jualities  are  absolutely  fatal  to 
him;  and  perhaps  it  is  intelligible  that  war  should  sometimes  seem  to  the  nomad 
the  only  way  out  of  his  difficulties.  Certain  characteristics  of  the  nomads  are 
conspicuous  in  both  cases. 

The  nature  of  the  herdsman,  who  grows  up  on  the  monotonous  steppe,  and  in 
consequence  of  his  wanderings  is  forced  to  limit  his  possessions  to  a  few  movables, 


^^^^]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  129 

has  a  simplicitj'  which  is  not  devoid  of  dignity  (cf.  the  explanation  of  the  plate, 
p.  15S).  The  wide,  clear  horizon  of  his  home  is  reflected  in  his  temperament. 
The  flowers  of  imagination  and  thought  wliicli  blossom  so  magnificently  in  the 
burning  plains  of  India  or  the  luxuriant  gardens  of  Iran,  find  no  nourishment  in 
the  steppe.  A  sober  clearness  of  thought  is  as  characteristic  of  the  mhabitant  of 
Central  Asia  as  of  the  Arab  who  grew  up  on  similar  soil  (cf.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  253). 
This  simplicity  of  thought,  wjiich  can  degenerate  into  narrow-mindedness,  gives 
all  the  greater  scope  to  the  will.  A  reckless  strength  of  will  is  ultimately  the 
weapon  with  whicli  the  nomad  fights,  and  not  infrequently  subdues  and  governs, 
his  intellectual  superiors.  Where  this  weapon  cannot  be  used,  the  artless  nature 
of  the  nomad  yields  to  the  cunning  and  cleverness  of  his  civilized  neighbours. 
The  rugged  honesty,  which  is  a  natural  result  of  his  simple,  independent  existence 
and  has  always  distinguished  the  roaming  herdsman  (the  Scythians  are  called  by 
Homer  "  the  most  upright  of  men,"  — 

ayavoiif  'imrTj^o^yui' 
y\aKTO(pdy(i}V,    A^iojv  Tf .  BiKaioTaroiv  dvBfiu>7T(iiv 

II.  xiii.  5,  6) 

makes  the  nomad  the  favourite  victim  of  the  crafty  dealers  in  the  towns,  and  the 
butt  of  their  wit.  Heinrich  Moser  has  admirably  described  how  the  Kirghiz  are 
duped  and  hoaxed  in  the  bazaars  of  Turkestan  by  the  settled  Sarts,  and  admits 
that  in  integrity  and  moral  purity  the  Kirgliiz,  notwithstanding  his  roljber  pro- 
clivities, is  far  superior  to  the  inhabitants  of  tlie  town.  Many  an  orgy  of  hideous 
cmelty,  celebrated  by  victorious  nomads,  is  no  longer  incomprehensible  when  we 
recognise  these  conditions  which  are  ever3-where  characteristic  of  the  intercourse 
between  the  herdsman  and  the  town-dweller. 

These  outbursts  of  savagery,  which  are  in  strange  contrast  to  the  ordinary 
harmless  and  even  friendly  behaviour  of  the  nomads,  are  frequently  due  to  a 
second  cause.  The  life  of  the  roving  herdsman  does  not  demand  that  continual 
and  regular  expenditure  of  energy  whicli  claims  the  physical  powers  of  the  agri- 
culturist throughout  practically  the  whole  year,  and  yet,  thanks  to  its  simplicity 
and  the  constant  open-air  existence,  it  does  not  render  him  enervated  or  weak. 
The  nomad  can  thus  always  draw  on  a  large  reserve  of  strength,  which  has  perhaps 
long  been  concealed,  and  bursts  out  only  when  an  object  for  action  is  presented. 
What  he  has  once  begun  he  carries  out  thoroughly,  especially  robberj'  and  murder. 
Notwithstanding  all  this  lust  of  destruction,  traits  of  generosity  and  honesty  ap- 
pear from  time  to  time.  Even  chivalry  is  not  unknown  to  the  nomads ;  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Turkish  race  are  renowned  for  it,  and  it  is  still  kept  up  and  honoured 
as  a  virtue  among  the  modern  Magyars,  a  settled  nomad  nation. 

This  clear  simplicity  of  thought  and  strength  of  will  explain  how  the  nomad 
becomes  so  easily  the  master  of  more  settled  peoples,  who,  partly  enervated  by 
civilization,  jjartly  disposed  to  inaction  by  an  excess  of  imagination  or  of  com- 
mercial spirit,  or,  finally,  from  hard  daily  work,  have  lost  the  habit  of  looking  at 
things  from  a  brnad  point  of  view.  The  nomad  knows  how  to  produce  order. 
He  remorselessly  hews  his  path  through  the  rank  undergrowth  that  springs  up  in 
such  wild  luxuriance  on  the  soil  of  an  old  civilization,  and  lets  light  and  air  into 
the  stifling  heat.  He  creates  no  civilization  of  his  own,  but  he  is  an  indirect  agent 
in  its  promotion,  since  he  breaks  down  the  barriers  between  the  countries  and  cre- 
ates world-empires,  whose  boundless  horizon  awakes  once  more  the  thought  of  the 

VOL  n  — D 


ir.O  IIIST()R^'    OI-     TIIK    WORLD  lc/,.,pur  Ji 

unity  oi  the  huiuaii  race,  even  when  micIi  tlioufjliL  seeuieil  dioked  by  a  system  of 
petty  States  ami  the  self-comiilafeucy  which  that  eugeiulers.  The  result  indeed 
shows  tliat  the  garnered  work  of  innumerable  generations,  as  embodied  in  culture, 
is  stron>;cr  than  the  unbridled  energy  of  the  nomad.  Even  the  wildest  [leoplcs  of 
the  stepjies  bow  their  proud  necks  at  last  before  the  power  of  thought  aud  the 
subtle  coercion  of  a  liigher  civilizatiou. 

C.   The  Prehistokic  Pekiod 

The  pei-spective  of  history,  which  in  any  case  makes  the  recent  event  appear 
of  gigantic  size  and  dwarfs  the  more  remote,  must  necessarily  present  peculiarly 
incorrect  pictures  when  applied  to  a  region  whicli  is  still  the  most  inaccessible  to 
the  student  of  origins.  Immense  intervals  of  time  shrivel  uji  into  nothing,  aud 
events  which  have  been  determinative  for  the  existence  of  the  whnlc  iiuman  race 
are,  from  want  of  all  direct  evidence,  brought  before  our  eyes  only  bluired  and 
indistinct.  The  beginnings  of  the  development  of  mankind  nnist  i)crforce  be  dis- 
missed from  consideration.  If  we  suppose  that  the  original  home  of  mankind  lay 
somewhere  in  the  southeast  of  Asia,  as  the  discovery  of  the  Pithecanthropus  erectus 
bv  E.  Dubois  in  Java  (1S91-1892)  rendered  probable,  then  the  rest  of  the  globe 
mav  have  been  early  populated  from  this  source.  But  we  cannot  speak  dehnitely 
on  this  point.  It  has  been  shown  that  man  was  a  contemporary  of  the  mammoth 
in  Siberia.  An  attempt  at  a  connected  historical  account  must  start  provisionally 
with  the  end  of  the  glacial  period,  since  from  that  epoch  onward  no  extensive 
changes  of  climate  or  of  the  earth's  surface  have  taken  place.  The  increasing 
desiccation  of  Central  Asia  is,  for  instance,  important  in  itself,  but  cannot  be 
comi)areil  with  the  stujiendous  phenomenon  of  the  Ice  Age. 

Two  main  types,  which  recur  in  Europe,  are  represented  among  the  peoples 
of  Central  Asia  and  Siberia  in  varying  combinations.  There  is  a  dolichocephalic 
race,  which  was  perhaps  originally  allied  to  the  negro,  but  has  acquired  in  the 
north  a  light  complexion  aud  partly  also  fair  hair,  and  a  brachycephalic  race,  also 
comparatively  light-complexioned,  who^  purest  representatives  we  may  at  jn-esent 
find  among  the  Mongols  and  Northern  Chinese.  Besides  these,  a  pigmy  race  may 
have  been  sparsely  distributed,  as  prehistoric  discoveries  in  Europe  and  early  ac- 
counts from  China  and  Japan  attest;  but  this  gradually  disapjicared  among  the 
others,  and  attained  no  importance  for  civilization.  The  relation  of  the  long- 
headed tribes  to  the  short-headed  has  become  all  the  more  important.  At  the 
present  day  the  short  head  is  predominant  in  Central  Asia ;  but  that  is  a  result 
which  has  been  preceded  by  many  important  .stages  of  evolution.  According  to  all 
appearances  long-headed  races  filled  the  North  of  Europe  and  Asia  at  the  close  of 
the  Ice  Age,  and  they  certainly  predominated  in  both  continents,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  certain  regions  of  Central  Asia.  The  renuiants  of  these  dolichocephalic 
peoples  in  Asia  are  probably  the  Ainos  in  Yezo  and  Saghalien,  tiie  Yenissei- 
Ostiaks  who  have  preserved  their  ancient  tongue  in  the  midst  of  tribes  speaking  a 
Mongolian  and  Finno-Ugi-ian  language,  and  other  fragments  of  nationalities  in 
Siberia.  In  the  South  the  long-heads  are  again  ]iredominant  in  tlie  luixcd  ])opu- 
lation  of  Tibet.  Many  of  these  primitive  dolichochephalic  natiims  have  devel- 
oped in  Northern  Europe,  and  partly  in  Northern  Asia,  under  the  influence  of 
the  climate  into  fair-haired   and  blue-eyed  men ;   among  the  Siberiaus  and  the 


f^6l^.r]  HISTORY   OF    THE    WORLD  131 

inhabitants  of  Central  Asia  large  numbers  of  these  can  still  be  found.  Probably 
long  heads  and  also  a  dark  skin  are  the  peculiarities  common  to  primitive  man. 

Granted  that  the  fair-skinned  races  were  developed  under  the  influence  of  the 
climate,  the  short -headed  race  is  perhaps  a  variety  which  is  explicable  by  the 
relaxation  of  the  struggle  for  existence  which  gi-owing  civilization  induced.  We 
may  find  parallels  in  the  domestic  animals,  in  which  the  same  fundamental  cause 
leads  to  all  sorts  of  changes,  —  to  gigantic  or  diminutive  growth,  to  wool-like  hair 
or  different  coloured  hair,  and  so  on.  A  very  frequent  example  of  these  transfor- 
mations is  the  shortening  of  the  skull,  which  has  been  observed  as  "  pug-head  " 
in  dogs,  goats,  horses,  pigs,  and  even  gold-fish.  Mankind  may  have  equally  passed 
through  a  period  when  varieties  of  this  kind  were  possible,  until  gradually  the 
exclusive  preference  given  to  brain-work  checked  further  transformations,  and 
stereotyped  the  existing  differences  so  far  as  they  were  not  compensated  to  some 
degree  later  by  intermixture.  At  the  present  day  the  body  no  longer  adapts  itself 
to  new  duties,  but  the  brain  devises  new  instruments  and  safeguards  for  it.  Simi- 
larly the  constructive  forces  of  the  body  no  longer  play  with  their  material,  but 
the  spirit  linds  an  outlet  for  the  supei-fluous  energy  in  dances,  games,  and  art-pro- 
ductions. This  theory  may  be  correct  or  not ;  in  any  case,  a  short-headed  race 
developed  in  Asia  in  early  times  and  in  the  course  of  history  occupied  the  greater 
part  of  that  continent  as  well  as  large  districts  of  Europe.  Innermost  Asia  may 
possibly  have  been  the  primitive  home  of  this  race.  It  cannot  at  present  be 
definitely  settled  whether  it  grew  up  in  Tibet,  as  Karl  Eugen  Ujfalv}'  assumes,  or 
in  Jlongolia,  as  Augustus  H.  Keane  asserts  on  better  grounds,  or,  lastly,  farther 
west  in  Turkestan  and  even  Iran. 

The  beginnings  of  a  higher  civilization  seem  to  start  from  this  race.  The  first 
gleam  of  credible  historical  knowledge  shows  to  us  in  the  west  and  east  of  Asia, 
in  Babylonia  and  China  respectively,  a  brachycephalic  people  as  the  representa- 
tives of  civilizations  which  are  so  closely  related  in  their  main  features  as  to  sug- 
gest, with  almost  overwhelming  force,  a  former  connection  between  these  peoples 
or  at  least  their  manners  and  customs.  That  civilization  was  based  on  agriculture 
by  means  of  the  plough,  and  on  stock-breeding,  that  is,  on  the  same  foundation  as 
our  modern  farming.  These  are  by  no  means  ob\ious  achievements  which  must 
necessarily  have  been  made  by  ever}^  progressive  people ;  the  contrary  is  proved 
by  the  mstance  of  the  civUized  nations  of  America,  who  were  ignorant  of  the 
plough  or  beasts  of  draught,  and  adhered  to  the  use  of  the  mattock,  although  in 
other  respects  their  husbandry  stood  on  a  high  level.  In  Eastern  as  well  as  Western 
Asia  wheat  was  originally  the  chief  cereal.  Even  stock-breeding  which  at  fu-st 
was  almost  exclusively  cattle-breeding,  shows  similar  features  iu  both  regions.  In 
ancient  Babylonia,  as  iu  China  even  to-day,  cattle  were  used  exclusively  for  draw- 
ing burdens  aud  for  food,  and  no  use  was  made  of  their  milk.  In  this  respect  the 
two  civilized  peoples  are  sharply  difiereutiated  from  the  nomads,  who  later  inter- 
rupted the  connection  between  east  and  west,  for  the  existence  of  the  wauderiug 
herdsman  depended  mainly  on  the  milk  of  his  herds.  Horse-breeding  appears  to 
have  been  already  practised  at  the  time  when  the  two  civilizations  were  still  in 
contact  or  arose  in  a  common  original  home.  Here,  again,  a  peculiarity  appears. 
The  horse  is  not  ridden,  but  is  used  only  for  draught,  and  nothing  is  known  of 
the  value  of  mare's-milk,  the  favourite  drink  of  the  Scythians  (iTnTTifj-oXycov)  and 
Mongols. 


132  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [n,aj.t..rn 

Aiuitlier  jiec'uliaiity  common  to  Imtli  the  ancient  civili/cil  peoples  is  their  ac- 
quaintance with  copper  and  bronze,  so  that  we  ma}-  rej^aiil  the  short-headed  races 
as  inventors  of  metal-working.  This  fact  is  important  for  Europe.  There  also 
short-headed  tribes,  followinj,'  the  range  of  the  Alps,  migrated  in  early  times  from 
the  east,  and  spread  the  knowledge  of  casting  bronze  as  far  as  Britain.  Another 
similar  stream  of  civilization  reached  Southern  Siberia,  where  the  rich  copper 
mines  and  gold  mines  of  the  Altai  favoured  the  growth  of  a  peculiar  bronze  cul- 
ture. The  investigation  of  primitive  history  will  in  course  of  time  cast  more  light 
on  all  these  conditions,  especially  when  excavations  can  be  made  on  a  large  scale 
in  Chinese  soil.  Comparative  philology  and  the  investigation  of  myths  will  aid  in 
the  task  and  will  lead,  perhaps,  to  many  astonishing  results.  Let  us  refer,  for  the 
sake  of  an  example,  to  the  dragon-myth,  which  ajipears  in  the  east  and  west,  but 
iu  China  apparently  in  an  older  form,  which  sees  in  the  winged  celestial  snake  a 
beneKcent  deity,  while  in  the  west  the  younger  gods  of  light  are  usually  imagined 
as  concpiering  the  dragon  of  cloud  and  storm. 

Supposing  that  the  original  home  of  civilization  did  not  lie  in  Central  Asia, 
still  the  iniion  of  the  two  most  ancient  civilizations  must  somehow  have  been  pro- 
duced by  this  region.  Thus  the  immense  importance  of  Central  Asia  for  the  his- 
tory of  mankind  is  at  once  patent.  For  the  rest,  the  expression  "  original  home  of 
civilization  "  is,  perhaps,  premature.  It  is  probable  that  isolated  productions  of 
this  ancient  Asiatic  civilization  were  at  first  made  in  different  places,  until  they 
were  exchanged  and  combined.  But  if  there  really  was  an  original  home,  it  could 
hardly  have  lain  in  East  Asia ;  for  the  abodes  of  the  primitive  Chinese  people  in 
Northern  Sliensi,  namely,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  gate  of  Kansu,  point, 
together  with  certain  traditions,  to  an  immigration  from  the  west,  of  which  Ferdi- 
nand von  Richthofen  assumes  the  oasis  of  Khotan  to  have  been  the  starting-point. 
For  the  present  we  practically  know  nothing  of  the  origin  of  the  short-headed 
aborigines  of  Babylonia,  the  Sumerians  (cf.  Vol.  Ill,  j).  4). 

This  much  therefoi-e  can  be  stated  with  tolerable  certainty,  that  an  ancient 
civilization  depending  on  agriculture,  stock-breeding,  and  the  knowledge  of  bronze, 
whose  representatives  were  peoples  of  a  short-headed  race,  developed  in  Central 
Asia  or  its  western  frontiers.  Under  the  influence  of  this  civilization  the  popula- 
tion increased,  so  that  emigration  and  colonisation  were  possible  in  various  direc- 
tions. In  this  way  tribes  of  the  northern  as  well  as  of  the  southern  long-headed 
race  may  have  been  influenced  and  won  over  to  this  higher  civilization.  The 
Egyptian  civilization  is  certaiidy  only  an  ancient  and  independent  oft'shoot  of  the 
Babylonian  (cf.  Vol.  III).  The  influence  of  the  ancient  Central  Asiatic  culture 
.seems  to  have  made  itself  felt  toward  the  south.  We  find,  for  example,  that  cattle- 
breeding  without  dairj'-f arming  existed  in  pre-Aryan  India.  Where  the  effects  of 
this  civilization  did  not  extend,  we  find  the  oldest  economic  state  prevailing, — that 
of  hunting,  fishing,  etc.,  or  at  any  rate  of  the  use  of  the  mattock,  which  must  be 
reckcjiied  the  first  step  toward  agriculture.  This  first  epoch  ends  roughly  with  the 
close  of  the  fourth  mUlenuium  B.  c. 

J).   TiiK  Rise  of  Nom.u)ism 

TiiK  view  that  agi-iculture  is  older  than  nomadism  contradicts  the  traditional 
idea  which  makes  the  stages  of  subsistence  by  natural  products,  of  cattle-breeding, 


^.Tstnt]  .  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  133 

and  of  agiiculture,  follow  one  after  another  as  regular  steps  in  development.  But 
this  notion,  which  has  so  long  stood  in  the  way  of  a  sound  comprehension  of  the 
most  ancient  questions  of  civilization,  has  long  heen  doubtful,  and  has  finally  been 
dismissed  by  the  splendid  labours  of  Eduard  Hahu.  The  oldest  agricultural  peoples, 
who  broke  up  the  giouud  with  the  plough,  were  also  the  tirst  cattle-breeders.  This 
does  not  imply  that  men  tamed  oxen  and  horses  from  the  very  first  with  the  con- 
scious intention  of  using  them  as  beasts  of  draught.  Comparative  ethnology  teaches 
us  that  even  now  primitive  peoples,  who  tame  all  sorts  of  animals,  tirst  do  so  to 
make  pets  or  companions  of  them,  before  they  think  of  turning  the  animals  to  any 
profitable  use.  This  does  not  exclude  the  possibility  that  religious  conceptions 
mav  have  first  prompted  them  to  domesticate  animals  (cf.  Vol.  Ill,  for  the  worship 
of  animals  in  Egypt).  But  we  push  matters  too  far  if  we  see  in  the  eai-l)-  adopted 
custom  of  gelding  the  bulls  any  special  proof  that  cattle  were  bred  at  first  for  pur- 
poses of  worship.  The  restive  males  would  thus  be  only  made  more  tractable  and 
prepared  for  hard  toU  at  the  plough,  while  the  whole  chaos  of  licentious  and  bar- 
barous cults,  which  was  later  connected  with  this  rite,  only  arose  much  later. 

So  long  as  the  breeding  of  cattle  and  subsequentl}'  of  horses  continued  to  be 
closely  bound  up  with  agriculture,  and  so  long  as  the  milk  of  the  female  animals 
was  not  used,  there  could  be  no  idea  of  nomadism.  It  was  the  use  of  milk  that 
first  enabled  whole  nations  to  depend  on  the  possession  of  flocks  and  herds  for 
their  existence,  without  checking  too  greatl}'  the  increase  of  their  animals  by 
excessive  slaughtering.  This  food  first  made  the  arid  tracts  of  steppe  habitable 
and  actual  sources  of  prosperity  and  power.  But  the  nature  of  their  homes  and 
pastures  forces  these  peoples  to  make  continual  and  systematic  migrations,  and  thus 
stamps  on  the  whole  sphere  of  their  material  ci\'ilization  a  trait  of  mobility  and 
uncertainty,  while  it  marks  their  character  with  a  mixture  of  unrest  and  aggi-essive- . 
ness  which  from  time  to  time  recurs  prominently  in  history.  This  new  economic 
form  of  nomadism  cannot  have  arisen  suddenly ;  it  assumes  the  breeding  of  such 
animals  as  secrete  a  continuous  and  large  quantity  of  milk.  This  is,  again,  a 
result  of  long  custom ;  for  the  female  animals  of  themselves  give  only  as  much 
mUk  as  is  necessary  for  the  early  nourishment  of  their  young  ones,  after  which 
time  the  supply  dries  up.  The  laborious  and  tedious  breeding  of  milk-gi\-ing 
breeds  of  cows  and  soon  afterward  of  mares  was  not  accomplished  by  the  short- 
headed  civilized  nations,  among  whom  the  Chinese  to  the  present  day  despise 
milk,  but  apparently  by  long-headed  tribes.  We  now  see  Arj-an-speaking  nomads 
in  the  north  and  Semitic-speaking  nomads  in  the  soutli  appear  on  the  scene  as 
economic  and  political  powers.  The  civilization  of  China  still  remained  uninflu- 
enced by  them ;  for  this  very  reason  nomadism  must  have  originated  on  the  steppes 
of  Western  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe,  not  in  Central  Asia.  In  Babylonia,  the  old 
empire  of  Sumerian  civilization  had  been  overthrown  by  Semitic  nomads  before 
the  year  3000  b.  c.  After  that  date  the  conquerors  and  conquered  gradually 
amalgamated  and  appeared  next  in  history  as  Babylonians  (cf.  Vol.  III).  Other 
Semites  as  migratory  herdsmen  kept  to  that  way  of  life,  of  which  the  oldest 
narratives  in  the  Bible  draw  so  pleasing  a  picture. 

StUl  more  momentous  was  the  first  appearance  in  history  of  the  Ar}^an  nomads. 
The  old  dispute  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Aryans  cannot  be  answered,  because  the 
whole  problem  has  been  put  so  wrongly.  Two  totally  di-stinct  questions  have  been 
jumbled  together,  namely,  what  was  the  origin  of  the  blond  or  at  least  light-coloured 


134  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichaj.terii 

dolichocephalic  peoples,  the  majority  of  whom  uow  employ  Aryan  dialects,  aud 
what  was  the  start ing-poiut  of  the  Aryan  language  ?  Of  the  first  questi»)n  we  have 
already  spoken.  Tiie  fair-skinned  dolichocephalic  peoples  are  a  race  of  men  which 
has  ileveloped  under  the  influence  of  the  cool  climate  out  of  the  long-headed  tribes 
spread  over  the  whole  of  Europe  aud  the  greater  part  of  Asia  since  the  deluge. 
The  original  Aryan  language,  on  the  other  hand,  may  have  begun,  as  some  good 
linguists  maintain,  in  the  lowlands  of  Eastern  Europe.  It  is  easy  to  draw  the 
inference  that  precisely  this  commencement  of  a  nomadic  way  of'  life  and  the 
necessary  migrations  go  far  to  explain  the  extraordinary  dissemination  of  Aryan 
dialects.  In  this  connection  one  further  point  is  to  be  considered  ;  since  nomad- 
ism tirst  developed  fi-om  agriculture  through  all  sorts  of  intermediate  forms,  it 
seldom  ap])ears  at  first  in  a  pure  form  as  a  method  of  life  exclusively  based  on 
cattle-breeding,  but  as  always  more  or  less  connected  with  agriculture.  It  is  clear 
from  this  tiiat  tiie  ancient  migratory  peoples  possessed,  in  addition  to  their  mobility, 
great  powei's  of  adaptation,  and  were  not  restricted  to  the  stei)pes  and  large  tracts 
of  pasture.  Where  cattle-breeding  was  insufficient,  agriculture  came  into  tiie  fore- 
ground as  later  in  Western  Europe  or  in  the  highlands  of  Iran  owing  to  increasing 
population.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  in  the  tribal  legend  of  the  nomad  Scythian 
the  plough  and  yoke  are  mentioned  as  the  earliest  property,  and  that  the  Scythian 
steppe  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago  exported  large  quantities  of  grain  through 
the  agency  of  tJreek  trading-towns  in  the  Crimea. 

The  great  historical  events  with  which  the  Aryan  nomads  appear  on  the  scene 
are  the  conquest  and  the  Aryanisation  of  Iran  and  India.  The  wave  of  nations  may 
have  rolled  in  the  third  millemiium  B.  c.  from  Eastern  Europe  over  the  Turanian 
steppe  to  the  south  and  have  first  flooded  Eastern  Iran,  until  an  outlet  was  made 
through  the  valley  of  C'abul,  through  which  a  part  of  the  Aryans  flowed  into  India, 
then  inhabited  by  dark  and  dolichocephalic  tribes  (cf.  for  the  further  development 
of  the  Aryan  Iranians  and  Indians  the  second  chapter  in  the  fourth  main  section  of 
this  volume  and  Vol.  111). 

A  large  number  of  the  nomads  remained  behind  in  the  steppes  of  Eastern 
Europe  and  Western  Siberia,  wlune  they  were  already  known  to  the  earliest  Greek 
authorities  as  Scythians.  Probably  all  the  nomad  tribes  of  the  great  hiwlands  of 
Asia  and  Europe  were  comprised  under  the  name  "  Scythians  "  in  the  wider  sense, 
and  among  them  probably  were  represented  peoples  speaking  a  non-Aryan  lan- 
guage. In  the  more  restricted  sense  the  word  signifies  the  migratory  herdsmen 
of  the  region,  who  spoke  Iranian  dialects,  and  thus  .showed  their  attinity  to  the 
Iranians  aud  Indians,  who  had  been  pushed  farther  toward  the  south.  The  Saca', 
Massagetfe,  Sarmatians,  and  ScolotiU  in  particular  were  demonstrably  akin  to  the 
Iranians  (cf.  Vol.  IV,  p.  72).  These,  tribes,  akhwigh  they  practi.sed  agriculture 
to  some  extent,  depended  for  their  existence  mainly  on  the  possession  of  flocks 
and  herds,  mares  and  cows  being  especiallj-  important  as  givers  t)f  milk.  Tlie 
Scythians  long  showed  no  wish  to  penetrate  into  tlie  mountainous  civilized  country 
of  the  Balkan  jieninsula,  or  to  push  on  over  the  Caucasus  into  the  region  of  the 
Assyrio-Baliylonian  civilization.  Iran  was  protected  by  their  own  kinsmen,  wlio 
gradually  settled  there.  On  the  other  hand,  they  certainly  sjjread  widely  towaril 
the  east,  perhaps  beyond  the  Altai,  where  other  tribes  gradually  imitated  them  in 
tlieir  way  of  life.  Xumerous  blond  nomads  are  found  at  a  subsequent  period  in 
West  Central  Asia. 


Sr^err]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  135 

The  discoveiy  of  the  art  of  riding  on  horseback  gave  another  characteristic  to 
nomad  life.  The  wild  horse  appears  to  have  been  domesticated  by  the  short-headed 
civilized  peoples  at  an  early  period,  though  doubtless  later  than  the  ox,  and  to  have 
been  employed  for  draught  purposes.  We  use  the  term  "  early  period,"  for  the 
Chinese  at  all  times  used  the  horse  to  draw  the  war  chariots,  as  did  the  Babylonians. 
But  this  was  not  at  a  very  early  period,  for  the  Egyptians  obtained  horses  through 
the  nomad  Hyksos,  and  did  not  possess  them  from  the  beginning  (cf.  VoL  111,623). 
The  hoi-se  was  employed  at  first  by  the  nomads  to  draw  their  wagons,  until  they 
acquired  the  art  of  riding,  and  by  that  means  enormously  increased  their  mobility. 
It  cannot  yet  be  decided  with  complete  certainty  whether  the  Aryans  of  India  on 
their  migrations  were  acquainted  with  riding.  It  is  indisputable  that  the  Scythians 
by  Homeric  times  were  a  nation  of  horsemen. 

The  nomad  tribes  became  acquainted  with  iron  at  a  later  period  than  the  set- 
tled civUized  nations.  The  Iranian  Massagette  in  the  modern  Turkestan,  when 
they  fought  their  battles  with  the  Persians  in  the  time  of  Cyrus,  were  familiar  with 
only  copper  and  gold.  Both  these  metals  were  obtained  from  the  mines  in  tlie 
Altai,  and  probably  also  from  the  old  mining  district  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  great  Aryan  migrations  completely  interrupted  the  connection  between  the 
old  civilizations  of  the  east  and  west,  if  such  connection  still  existed.  The  Chinese 
nation  has  continued  its  independent  development,  although  it  has  by  no  means 
remained  quite  stiff  and  impervious  to  external  influences.  Any  stimulus  tliat 
reached  China  later  on  the  long  and  dangerous  road  tlu-ough  the  nomad  regions 
of  Central  Asia  or  by  sea  round  Farther  India,  was  far  too  weak  to  produce  deep 
results.  The  Chinese  nation  had  to  concentrate  all  its  energies  on  external  policy, 
to  keep  off  the  nomads  who  thronged  round  its  frontiers  or  to  absorb  them,  and 
finally  to  separate  them  and  pacify  them  by  a  well-devised  system  of  throwing  out 
agricultural  colonies. 

The  men  with  whom  the  Chinese  had  to  struggle  were  not  migrator)^  herdsmen 
of  Aryan  language,  but  members  of  the  short-headed  race  or  the  Mongolian  stock, 
as  it  is  called  after  a  victorious  people  which  appeared  late  on  the  scene.  The 
earliest  history  of  China  records  nothing  as  yet  of  struggles  with  nomads,  but  only 
of  the  conquest  of  the  forces  of  nature  anel  at  most  of  collisions  with  aborigines, 
who  were  at  the  early  hunting  stage.  However  incredible  and  indefinite  in  detail 
these  earliest  traditions  may  be,  yet  the  absence  of  all  accovmts  of  nomad  invasions, 
which  subsequently  were  every-day  occurrences  and  could  hardly  have  been  forgot- 
ten in  an  artificial  construction  of  history,  is  a  very  significant  feature. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  reflect  on  the  early  appearance  of  Arj-an  and  Semitic 
migi'atory  herdsmen  in  the  west,  the  important  fact  results  that  nomadism,  as  an 
economic  form,  migrated  from  west  to  east  and  was  only  adopted  by  tlie  short- 
headed  tribes  of  Central  Asia  comparatively  late.  The  knowledge  of  breeding 
cattle  and  horses,  and  also,  as  Otto  Schrader  has  proved,  the  use  of  the  waggon, 
existed  among  the  Aryans  earlier  than  among  the  Mongols  and  the  tribes  of  the 
Ural-Altai.  The  tribes  that  adopted  nomadism  were  naturally  not  civilized  peo- 
ples like  the  Chinese  or  Babylonians.  They  formed  part  of  the  short-headed  race, 
and,  in  sterile  regions,  had  not  shared  the  advancement  of  the  more  favoured  peo- 
ples, liut  led  a  precarious  existence  on  the  steppes  as  hunters  and  gatherers  of 
natural  products.  That  the  inhabitants  of  Central  Asia  must  have  passed  directly 
from  the  hunter-stage  to  nomadism  is  a  fact  shown  by  the  slight  inclination  to 


136  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapur  ii 

ajii-ieulture  whii'h  most  of  them  show,  aiul  by  the  great  importance  of  hunting, 
ami  of  (.'oUeeting  berries  and  roots  for  food,  to  the  pastoral  tribes  of  Central  Asia, 
Furtlier  in  the  north,  where  the  breeding  of  cattle  and  hoi-scs  is  imremuncrative, 
many  jx'oples  to  the  present  day  have  remained  at  the  hunter-stage,  others  have 
onlv  later  begun  to  tame  the  reindeer,  and  in  this  way  made  a  peculiar  sort  of 
nomadism  possible,  even  in  Xorthern  Siberia.  It  cannot  yet  be  sliown  wliether 
the  nomads  of  Central  Asia  had  a  IJronze  Age  of  a  duration  worth  mentioning,  ur 
whetlier  they  passed  immediately  from  the  Stone  Age  to  the  Iron  Age.  The  last 
alternative  is  more  proV)able  in  the  case  of  most  tribes  of  Central  Asia,  of  course, 
apart  from  the  old  Bronze-region  in  Southern  Siberia  and  its  adjoining  districts. 


2.   CENTRAL  ASIA  AFTER  THE  RISE  OF  THE  MONGOLIAN  NOMADS 

A.  General  Remarks 

('/)  The  Sources  of  our  Information.  —  The  difficulties  which  hinder  any 
survey  of  the  liistory  of  other  nations  low  down  in  the  scale  of  civilization,  are 
felt  when  dealing  with  the  inhul)itants  of  Central  Asia.  We  cannot  rely  on  the 
historical  traditions  of  these  peoples,  but  we  must  content  ourselves  mainly  with 
the  accounts  furnished  by  tlieir  civilized  neighbours.  It  is  true  that  the  arts  of 
reading  and  writing  gradually  spread  even  in  Central  Asia;  in  fact,  indejiendent 
alphabets  were  invented  among  several  races  (see  plate,  p.  168).  But  this  very 
circumstance  prevented  literary  monuments  from  spreading  beyond  narrow  confines 
and  tliiis  being  preserved  from  oblivion.  The  remains  of  the  historical  literature 
of  Central  Asia  are,  therefore,  lamentably  scanty.  For  the  earlier  period,  tiiey  are 
limited  to  a  few  inscribed  tombstones  and  commemorative  columns,  such  as  the 
sepulchral  slabs  of  Orkthon,  which  are  invaluable  for  the  history  of  the  Turks. 
With  these  exceptions,  we  dei)end  almost  exclusively  on  the  accounts  given  by 
the  neighbiiuring  peoples  on  tlie  east  and  west,  the  Chinese,  and  the  iuhaliitants  of 
Western  Asia  and  Greece.  The  Chinese  accounts,  since  China  was  permanently 
influenced  by  the  affairs  of  Central  Asia,  are,  owing  to  the  dry  and  sober  style  of 
their  compilers,  by  far  the  most  trustworthy  and  important ;  for  the  earliest  period 
of  the  history  of  the  Mongolian  nomads  they  are,  indeed,  our  only  materials. 
Unfortunately,  the  peculiarities  of  the  Chinese  language  and  vn-iting  make  any 
comparative  investigation  very  difficult ;  the  ethnical  and  geograpliieal  names  never 
appear  in  tiieir  true  forms,  but  are  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  Chinese  language 
and  are,  therefore,  often  marvellously  disguised  and  distorted.  The  original  form 
can  sometimes  be  ascertained  by  the  help  of  other  accounts  or  by  jihilological 
deductions;  often,  however,  these  aids. are  insufficient,  and  there  is  no  choice  but 
to  accept  the  Chinese  term. 

The  earliest  Western  account  of  the  conditions  of  Central  Asia  was  the  "  Ari- 
maspeia"  of  Aristeas,  whicli  must  have  been  written  in  the  seventh  century  B.C., 
and  was  one  of  the  chief  authorities  of  Herodotus.  This  work,  notwithstanding  its 
poetical  dress,  seems  to  be  based  on  an  actual  journey,  which  the  author  made 
along  the  old  trade-route  of  Central  Asia  as  far  as  the  basin  of  the  Tarim. 

(h)  TJic  Rdation  of  China  to  Nomadism. —  .Vnotlier  reason  why  we  have  only 
Chinese  accounts  of  the  Hrst  movements  of  the  nomads  of  Central  Asia  is  found  in 


S'Sl'^"]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  137 

the  fact  that  the  disturbances,  which  arose  after  the  growth  aud  organisation  of 
warlike  migratorj'  tribes  speaking  a  Mongolian-Turkisli  language  aud  gradually 
convulsed  the  greater  part  of  Asia,  must  have  made  themselves  painfully  felt 
in  China  first.  The  rich  aud  accessible  land  of  Chma  attracted  the  swarms  of 
nomads  like  wasps  to  ripe  fruit ;  if  it  repelled  the  invaders,  they  turned  to  other 
countries,  and  tribe  after  tribe  continued  to  attack  remote  districts.  But  China 
was  for  the  nomads  more  than  a  goal  for  wild  raids,  it  was  also  a  school,  in  which 
they  first  learnt  the  rudiments  of  political  comliiuatiou,  aud  the  advantage  of 
united  action.  We  may  venture  to  assert  that,  without  the  example  of  the  organ- 
ised giant  empire  of  China,  the  nations  of  Central  Asia  would  have  remained  much 
longer,  if  not  permanently,  in  a  petty  find  disintegi-ated  tribal  system,  prohibitory 
of  all  great  actions,  and  that  they  would  not  have  attained  that  measure  of  civili- 
zation which  was  requisite  for  the  discharge  of  their  part  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  From  the  earliest  times  we  see  Chinese  busily  occupied  in  organising 
the  nomads ;  China  was  for  the  IMongols  the  model  State,  to  which  they  owed 
the  possibility  of  oi-ganising  and  administeruig  their  vast  world-empire.  The 
nomads,  on  their  side,  seem  to  have  repaid  these  benefits,  with  base  ingratitude,  by 
raids  and  attacks  on  the  peaceful  Middle  Kingdom.  We  cannot  reconcile  our- 
selves to  the  immeasurable  havoc  which  they  caused  by  the  feeble  consolation  that 
China  with  her  congested  population  would  only  be  benefited  by  the  occasional 
opening  of  a  vein.  But  we  may  recall  more  fairly  how  often  the  Chinese  people, 
unprogressive  and  dulled  by  monotonous  work,  was  stimulated  into  fresh  life  by 
vigorous  dynasties  of  nomadic  races,  and  how  respect  for  manly  virtues,  for  cour- 
age, loyalty,  aud  justice  was  revived  in  the  days  of  degeneracy  by  the  influence  of 
the  nomads. 

These  favourable  aspects  of  the  intercourse  with  her  nomad  neighbours  were 
at  first,  it  must  be  admitted,  only  gradually  and  indirectly  perceived  by  China. 
There  still  remained  the  foremost  duty  of  keepuig  the  restless  inhabitants  of  the 
steppes  away  from  the  agricultural  districts,  and  of  adopting  every  method  to 
render  them  peaceful  and  harmless.  The  Chinese  generals  occasionally  employed 
unworthy  means,  such  as  poisoned  arrows  or  poisoning  the  wells  in  the  deserts,  in 
order  to  attain  these  ol)jects,  and  treachery  of  every  sort  naturally  abounded.  But 
these  petty  resorts  cannot  be  compared  with  the  great  defensive  and  offensive 
methods,  by  the  help  of  which  China  was  in  the  end  victorious.  No  permanent 
results  could  be  achieved  merely  by  repelling  the  foe  with  huge  levies  of  ill-disci- 
plmed  masses,  or  by  the  erection  of  great  ramparts.  The  essential  point  was  to 
gain  influence  over  the  restless  peoples  of  the  steppes  and  to  use  it  in  various  ways 
for  the  advantage  of  China.  We  therefore  find  the  Chinese  statesmen  always 
anxious  to  place  the  power  and  the  superior  civilization  of  Cliina  before  the  eyes 
of  the  rude  nomads,  to  introduce  new  needs  among  them,  to  humanise  their  cus- 
toms, aud,  finally,  link  their  dynasties  to  China  by  bonds  of  marriage.  This  policy 
succeeded  so  well  that  it  gradually  became  the  dearest  ambition  of  a  desert  chief- 
tain to  possess  a  pompous  Chinese  title  and  a  Chinese  princess.  It  is  true  that 
these  marriage  alliances  occasionally  furnished  the  nomad  prmces  with  a  welcome 
pretext  for  interfering  in  the  dynastic  feuds  in  China  or  aspiring  themselves  to 
the  royal  dignity.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  system  was  advantageous  to  the 
Middle  Kingdom. 

A  second  test  of  Chinese  diplomacy  was  to  pit  the  nomads  against  each  other, 


138  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [n,<,j,nr ir 

and  to  !iiir  up  iifsh  antagonists  in  tlie  rear  of  an  invader.  This  attempt  was  par- 
tially the  reason  why  Cliina  entered  into  relations  with  remote  tribes,  —  a  policy 
which  could  not  hut  promote  indirectly  the  spread  of  Chinese  civilization  and  com- 
mercial iutercourse.  Another  more  dangerous  way  of  fighting  the  nomads  with 
their  own  weapons  was  to  settle  small  hordes  in  their  own  frontier  provinces,  ami 
to  intrust  lo  them  the  protection  of  the  country  against  tiieir  nomad  kinsmen. 
Larg.^  uumbe:-s  of  the  inhabitants  of  Central  Asia  were  gradually  civilized  in  this 
fashion  and  absorbed.  But  often  these  frontier  guardians  allied  themselves  with 
the  invaders  and  became  doubly  dangerous  from  their  knowledge  of  the  countr)- ; 
or  they  strove  for  political  power  in  the  centre  of  the  countr)-.  Several  Chinese 
dynasties  arose  from  such  hordes,  and  the  feudal  decay  which  so  long  jeopardised 
the  unity  of  China  is  largely  due  to  this  cause. 

Xu  permanent  victory  of  Chinese  civilization  over  nomadism  was  possible  until 
a  defensive  policy  had  been  exchanged  for  an  aggressive.  An  armed  attack  would 
only  be  the  prelude  to  the  real  and  difficult  work  of  civilization,  for  olhciwise  it 
would  only  have  a  brief  and  transitory  effect.  The  gigantic  armies  of  the  Chinese 
simply  disappeared  in  the  desert,  and  the  nomads,  who  were  scattered  before  them, 
soon  reapjieared  on  the  frontiers  of  the  empire,  thirsting  for  booty.  The  state  of 
things  was  different  when  agriculturists  appeared  in  the  train  of  the  army  or,  as 
privileged  immigrants,  founded  populous  colonies  and  strong  towns  in  suitable 
positions  and  thus  laid  a  solid  foundation  for  the  Chinese  sovereignty. 

This  plan  of  sending  out  colonies  was  not  prompted  so  much  by  the  over-jiopu- 
lation  of  China,  which  in  earlier  times  was  less  marked  than  now,  as  by  the  wish 
to  gain  political  influence  in  the  steppe.  Penal  settlements  of  criminals  are 
known  to  have  existed  at  an  early  period,  and  prove  that  attempts  were  made  to 
carry  out  systematically  the  difficidt  task  for  which  sufficient  volunteers  did  not 
come  forward.  As  might  be  expected,  the  earliest  and  most  successful  settle- 
ments were  planted  along  the  strip  of  oasis  and  the  ancient  trade-route  on  the 
northern  slope  of  the  Kueu  Lun.  They  were  certainly  encouraged  from  the  wish 
to  secure  trade  and  to  enter  into  direct  communication  with  the  inhabitants  of  the 
oasis  in  the  basin  of  the  Tarim.  But  commercial  considerations  did  not  constitute 
the  sole  motives  which  led  China,  formerly  so  pacific,  to  advance  to  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Here  again  we  notice  the  prominent  wish  to  check  the  restlessness  of  the 
nomads  by  advancing  the  sphere  of  Clunese  sovereignty  to  the  farthest  edge  of 
the  steppe  regions.  Similar  considerations  have  forced  Iiussia  in  recent  times  to 
advance  from  Siberia  to  Turkestan,  and  only  to  stop  on  the  far  side  of  the  nomad 
region,  on  the  frontiers  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan.  In  this  way  alone  has  any 
complete  subjugation  of  the  migratory  hordes  been  possible. 

(<•)  The  Mixture  of  Nationalities  in  C'eiitral  Asia.  —  In  Central  Asia  itself 
the  growth  of  nomadism  with  its  warlike  propensities  and  its  mobility  greatly 
favoured  the  mixture  of  nationalities.  We  find  a  proof  of  this  in  the  language. 
While  in  earlier  times  the  Aryan  language  s])read  in  the  west  under  the  iutluence 
of  nomad  life,  at  a  later  period  the  Mongolian  and  Finnish-Ugrian  group  of 
languages  prevailed  in  Central  Asia  and  far  in  the  direction  of  Siberia  and  Europe. 
The  characteristics  of  the  boundless  plains,  in  which  the  nations  combine  and 
blend  like  clouds  of  dust,  are  reflected  in  the  facts  of  history.  In  the  gorges  of  the 
few  mountains  a  people  may  possibly  preserve  its  individuality.     But  any  nations 


c™w....j  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  139 


and  Siberia 


that  have  developed  without  disturbance  for  a  time  will  at  last  ine\itably  be  dis- 
lodged, destroyed,  and  absorbed  in  another  nationality,  only  to  share  with  this  in 
its  turn  a  similar  fate.  Small  tribes  carry  others  along  with  them,  increase  like  an 
avalanche,  and  finally  give  their  name  to  an  enormous  nationality  composed  of 
most  hetert)geueous  elements.  Peoples  before  whom  the  world  tremljled  burst 
like  soap-bubbles,  and  disappear  from  the  pages  of  history  without  leaving  a  trace 
behind.  The  result  is  that  the  population  of  Central  Asia  becomes  more  and  more 
homogeneous  from  the  point  of  view  of  language  and  ethnology,  and  that  the 
national  names  designate  less  and  less  distinct  groups  of  humanity.  New  differ- 
ences are  only  created  by  the  degi-ee  of  civilization  and  by  the  mixture  with 
other  races  on  the  edge  of  the  steppe  region  of  Central  Asia.  Such  racial  mix- 
tures were  naturally  formed  first  where  the  Aryan  nomads  adjoined  the  ilongolian, 
and  wliere  subsecjuently  Iranian  agriculturists  gained  a  footing  on  the  pasture  lands 
of  Turkestan.  The  Aryan  race  lost  much  gi-ound  here  from  the  point  of  \-iew 
of  language,  but  from  that  of  anthropology  it  exerci.sed  great  influence  on  the 
Miingiilian  peoples.  The  old  dolichocephalic  race  is  often  mixed  with  the  Mon- 
golian in  Siberia.  On  the  other  hand,  the  linguistic  affinity  of  the  Mongols  with 
the  Tibetans  and  with  the  inhabitants  of  Further  India  has  nothing  to  do  with  these 
more  recent  occurrences,  but  may  point  to  a  very  earl}-  connection,  which  cannot  for 
the  moment  be  more  accurately  determined.  A  significant  trace  of  this  connection 
is  the  name  of  heaven  and  the  god  of  heaven  (Chinese,  Hen,  Bureyatic,  tcngri, 
Altaic,  tenijere'),  which  crops  up  as  tani/aroa  on  the  islands  of  Polynesia,  and  was 
clearly  brought  there  by  the  Malayan  wave  of  nations  from  Southern  Asia. 

B.   The  Huns 

The  nation  of  Mongolian  nomads,  which  first  formed  a  constitutional  unit, 
and  harassed  Eastern  Asia  for  many  centuries,  bore,  according  to  Chinese  author- 
ities, the  name  of  the  Hiung  nu.  The  similarity  of  the  name  with  that  of  the 
Huns,  who  later  flooded  Europe  and  heralded  the  great  migration  of  nations  (cf. 
Vols.  V  and  VI),  has  long  been  noticed,  and  Joseph  de  Guignes  (1721-1800),  the 
first  real  student  of  the  history  of  Central  Asia  ("  Histoire  g^n^rale  des  Huns,  des 
Turcs,  des  Mogols  et  des  autres  Tatares  occidentaux,"  1756-1758),  had  declared  the 
Huns  to  be  kinsmen  or  descendants  of  the  Hiung  nu.  It  was  left,  however,  for 
Friedrich  Hirth  in  recent  times  to  corroborate  this  conjecture  by  convincing  proofs. 
We  may  therefore  designate  the  old  Hiung  nu  (Hiiin  yiin,  Hiiin  3-0)  by  the  indis- 
putably more  correct  name  of  Hmis.  They  appear  in  the  Indian  epics  as  Huna,  in 
the  Avesta  as  Hunavo,  in  Greek  accounts  as  Funoi  and  Unoi.  Linguistically  the 
nation  was  most  akin  to  the  later  Turks. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Hutis  was  formed  in  the  modern  Mongolia,  about  1200 
B.  c,  apparently  under  the  influence  of  a  Chinese  exile  of  high  rank,  who  created 
out  of  the  scattered  hordes  the  beginnings  of  constitutional  unity  on  the  model  of 
his  own  country.  In  the  preceding  century  some  of  these  hordes  had  made  inroads 
on  China,  but  were  unable  to  achieve  great  results.  After  the  unification  of  the 
Huns,  and  especially  after  the  beginning  of  the  Chau  Tschau  dj-nasty  in  China 
(1122  B.  c),  which  marks  the  commencement  of  the  Chinese  feudal  system,  the 
danger  became  greater.  The  scantiness  of  our  sources  of  information  prevents  us 
from  deciding  whether  any  connection   existed   between   the  wars   against   the 


140  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_vhaj.trr ii 

nomads  ami  the  gi-owth  of  the  feudal  system  of  partitioning  the  land.  The 
fii-st  ruler  of  the  Chau  dynasty,  Wu  wang,  had  still  maintained  friendly  relations 
with  tlie  lluns,  who  certainly  feared  tlie  power  of  the  emjiire  which  had  gained 
fresh  strength  under  his  government  and  tried  to  buy  his  good-will  by  presents. 
As  the  imjierial  ]>ower  decayed,  tlie  attacks  were  renewed  with  increased  force. 
Northern  Shansi  was  laid  waste  iu  910.  Some  decades  later  the  Huns  must  have 
been  driven  out  from  tlie  heart  of  Shaiisi,  where  they  had  established  themselves, 
by  an  army  under  the  personal  commanil  of  the  emperor.  There  was  a  recurrence 
of  similar  events.  There  was  apparently  pasture  land  enough  in  China  at  that 
time  to  attract  the  nomads  to  a  long  sojourn,  just  as  afterwards  small  hordes  of 
nomads  frequently  settled  in  the  interior  of  China. 

About  700  B.  c.  the  Huns  advanced  to  Shantung ;  iu  650  B.  c.  they  devastated 
Pechili,  and  there  was  a  succession  of  attacks  on  the  country,  disintegrated  by 
feudalism,  and  incapable  of  any  combined  resistance,  until  at  last  the  ruler  of  the 
Chin  Empire,  under  the  name  Shi  Huang  ti  (246-210  B.  c),  once  more  transformed 
(in  220  B.  c.)  China  into  a  real  united  State,  enormously  increased  his  power  by  the 
conquest  of  Southern  China,  and  proceeded  to  take  prompt  and  decided  steps  against 
the  nomads.  A  powerful  army  drove  out  the  Huns  from  tlie  country  of  Ordo  within 
the  northern  bend  of  the  Hoangho,  which  was  an  important  jiosilion  as  the  rendez- 
vous for  nomad  invaders.  The  new  possessions  were  protected  by  military  colonies, 
but  China  proper  was  defended  against  the  attacks  of  predatory  hordes  by  the 
gigantic  ramj)art  of  the  "  Great  Wall."  Portions  of  the  Great  Wall  already  existed 
on  the  frontiers  of  some  earlier  feudal  States.  Shi  Huang  ti  connected  them  so 
as  to  form  a  continuous  line  of  defence,  which  stretched  from  the  shore  of  the 
Yellow  Sea  to  the  port  of  Kaiisu,  and.  if  it  had  been  kept  in  repair  and  etticiently 
defended,  it  would  certainly  have  checked  the  inroads  of  the  Huns.  During  the 
first  period  it  served  its  purpose  to  some  extent.  It  was  due  to  the  Great  Wall 
that  the  attacks  of  the  Huns  were  now  directed  against  another  quarter,  and 
remote  regit ms  nf  Asia  indirectly  felt  the  mighty  shock.  But  the  chaotic  condi- 
tion into  which  China  relapsed  immediately  after  the  death  of  Shi  Huang  ti  soon 
stultifted  the  object  of  the  stupendous  erection. 

It  was  then  that  the  power  of  the  Huns  was  ac(iuiring  new  strength  under 
vigorous  leader.s.  The  age  of  Shi  Huang  ti  marks  an  era  in  Chinese  historical 
composition,  since  this  emperor  by  the  great  burnuig  of  the  books  (p.  75)  had 
almost  destroyed  the  ancient  Chinese  literature,  so  that  only  scanty  and  bald  notices 
of  the  period  precedmg  him  have  come  down.  It  is  only  after  his  reign  that  we 
have  more  copious  sources  of  information.  Our  first  comparatively  accurate 
account  of  the  constitution  of  the  Huns  dates  from  the  period  subsequent  to  the 
death  of  Shi  Huang  ti.  The  eyes  of  the  Chinese  were  then  turned  with  anxious 
attention  to  the  increasing  power  of  their  nomad  neighbours.  The  new  growth  of 
the  Hun  Emjure  began  under  the  rule  of  Mete  (Maotun,  ^leghder  ?)  whose  father, 
Tuman  (Deuman),  had  already  extended  his  power  from  Northern  Mongolia  to 
Kansu.  Mete,  who  would  have  been  excluded  from  the  legitimate  succession, 
murdered  liis  father  witli  tlie  help  of  a  devoted  army,  and  was  soon  able  to  rean- 
imate the  old  warlike  spirit  of  his  people.  He  found  tlie  territory  of  the  Huns 
shut  in  by  powerful  neighbours  on  two  sides.  On  the  east  the  Tuiighu  or  Wu 
hwan,  Tungusian  tribes,  akin  to  the  Koreans,  had  founded  a  powerful  realm  and 
felt  themselves  so  superior  to  the  Huns  that  they  took  advantage  of  the  usurpation 


Central  Asia' 
and  Siha'ia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  141 


to  claim  a  liigh  price  for  their  neutrality.  On  the  southwest  on  the  Altyn  in  Tagli 
were  settled  the  Yue  tshi  (Jue-tclii),  a  nomad  people  of  Tibetan  stock,  who  were 
the  connecting  link  of  the  trade  of  China  and  tlie  West,  and  were  perhaps  identical 
with  the  old  Issedones.  The  Tunghu,  deceived  by  the  apparent  compliance  of 
Mete,  were  first  attacked  and  dispersed  (209  B.  c.) ;  they  withdrew  to  the  highlands 
of  modern  Manchuria.  A  part  of  the  Sien-pe  Tartars  (Hsien  pi,  Tungusians^,  a 
people  living  further  to  the  east,  who  also  suffered  from  the  attacks  of  the  Huns, 
migrated  to  Korea  and  Japan. 

On  the  east  the  sea  fixed  an  impassable  limit  to  further  shiftings  of  the  posi- 
tion of  nations  ;  but  on  the  west,  where  the  Huns  now  hurled  themselves  against 
the  Yue  tshi,  the  movement  had  room  to  spread  more  witlely.  The  Yue  tshi  first 
retreated  before  the  advance  of  their  assailants  only  into  more  remote  regions  of 
their  own  country,  to  the  basin  of  the  Tarim-(177  R.  c).  After  the  death  of  Mete 
(170)  they  attempted  to  recover  their  old  territory,  but  suffered  a  second  crushing 
defeat  from  his  successor, which  produced  a  division  of  the  nation  (165  B.C.).  The 
smaller  part  found  homes  south  of  the  Nanshan  range ;  but  the  bulk  of  the  people, 
the  "  Great  Yue  tshi,"  did  not  turn  soutliward,  but  followed  the  natural  trend  of 
the  country  westward.  Driven  out  from  the  Tarim  basin,  they  crossed  the  Tian- 
shan  mountains  and  sought  refuge  in  the  pasture  lands  on  the  confines  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  the  old  arena  of  the  Scythian  nomads.  On  the  Issik-kul  they  came 
across  a  she])lierd  people  of  Iranian  stock,  tlie  She,  who  were  compelled  to  fly 
before  the  overwlielming  invasion  into  Ferghana. 

Meanwhile  the  Huns  had  succeeded  in  conquering  a  part  of  Northwest  China 
and  East  Siberia.  A  policy  was  adopted  with  regard  to  the  subjugation  of  nomad 
tribes  which  was  not  uukuown  to  other  conquering  nations  of  Central  Asia,  and 
became  the  chief  cause  of  the  extraordinary  intermixture  of  races  among  the  Cen- 
tral Asiatics.  The  vanquished  tribes  were  not  dislodged  or  made  tributary,  but  to 
some  degree  absorbed,  since  the  women  were  distributed  among  the  conquerors 
and  the  young  men  enrolled  in  the  army.  In  their  life  and  customs  the  Huns 
appear  as  a  people  who  depended  for  their  existence  on  cattle-breeding,  hunting, 
and  to  some  extent  agi'iculture,  but  gave  the  fullest  play  to  their  warlike  propen- 
sities. The  place  of  honour  was  given  to  the  young  and  efficient  warriors,  and  old 
age  was  despised.  No  one  was  reckoned  to  have  reached  full  manhood  until  he 
had  slain  at  least  one  foe.  The  method  of  fighting  which  afterward  decided  the 
battles  of  tlie  Western  Huns  and  ]\Iongols  —  the  charge  of  moimted  archers,  the 
feigned  Higlit,  and  the  storm  of  arrows  which  laid  low  the  unsuspecting  pursuer  — 
was  already  developed  among  the  ancient  Huns,  as  well  as  the  division  of  the 
army  into  two  wings.  This  military  system  was  maintained  in  times  of  peace 
also.  The  ruler,  Shenyu,  who  to  some  degree  commanded  the  centre,  had  two 
sujireme  officials,  the  Tuchi  (Duchi),  under  him,  one  of  whom  was  over  the  eastern, 
the  other  over  the  western,  wing  or  division  of  the  army  and  the  country.  The 
trend  from  west  to  east  in  the  geographical  configuration  of  Asia  is  again  recog- 
nisable in  this  arrangement,  wliich  was  also  adopted  by  the  later  great  nomad 
empires.  The  Tuchi  and  a  number  of  other  high  officials  could  only  be  chosen 
from  the  kinsmen  of  the  Shenyu,  who  with  some  few  other  families  had  the  \h- 
tual  government  of  the  empire  in  their  hands. 

After  the  death  of  ]\Iete  (170)  the  power  of  the  Huns  increased  at  first.  The 
Yue  tshi  were  completely  beaten,  and  the  Usun,  one  of  the  fair-haired  nomad 


142  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_Chapter  ii 

trilies  of  Central  Asia,  were  driven  from  their  homes  in  Kansu  to  the  west,  where, 
following  on  llie  stejis  of  the  Yue  t.shi,  they  caused  these  latter  to  Hy  before  them 
fix>m  the  Issik-kul  farther  southward.  Tlie  sphere  of  the  Mongolian  language  and 
race  was  thus  considerably  extended  by  the  Huns.  The  growing  power  of  the 
Him  empire  was  most  dangerous  to  China,  the  frontiers  of  which  were  perpetually 
ravaged,  and  seemed  still  more  threatened,  since  the  Tibetan  nomads,  who  were 
settled  iu  the  western  mountains,  now  began  to  form  alliances  witli  tlie  Huns,  and 
to  undertake  their  raids  on  a  mutual  understanding.  It  was  uo  use  merely  to  repel 
these  attacks.  If  the  Chinese  wished  to  free  themselves  from  their  oppressors, 
they  were  compelled  to  advance  along  the  old  road  from  Kansu  to  tlie  Tarim 
basin,  take  up  strong  positions  there,  separate  llie  southern  nomad  countries  from 
the  northern,  and  at  the  same  time  obtain  possession  of  the  indispensable  bases  and 
halting-jjlaces  of  the  Him  armies  to  the  south  of  the  desert  of  Gobi  In  this  way 
the  Western  trade  also,  wliich  had  previously  depended  for  its  prosperity  on  the  ca- 
price of  the  nomads,  was  certain  to  come  luider  the  influence  of  China.  The  ener- 
getic emperor  Wu  Ti  (140-87)  staked  everything  on  the  execution  of  this  colossal 
plan,  entered  into  alliances  with  the  Yue  tshi  and  Usun,  by  this  means  threatening 
the  Huns  in  tlio  rear,  and  finally  forced  them  by  successful  engagements  to  retire 
to  tlie  north  of  Mongolia  (120).  The  first  step  iu  the  advance  westward  was  thus 
taken,  and  a  new  era  inaugurated  in  the  foreign  policy  of  China. 

The  Hun  empire  still  maintained  its  position  in  tlie  mirth  for  some  time,  and 
even  considerably  extended  its  power  toward  the  west,  but  the  okl  sovereignty  was 
a  thing  of  the  past.  The  attacks  of  the  neighbouring  peoples  anil  disputes  for  the 
crown  began  to  disorganise  the  constitution, until  finally,  almut  50  B.C.,  the  empire 
broke  up  into  a  southern  and  a  nortliern  part,  of  which  the  first  recognised  the 
Chinese  suzerainty,  while  the  northern  still  maiutained  its  independence.  Transi- 
tory successes  could  uo  longer  check  the  fall  of  the  Hun  power,  for  the  Chinese 
coidd  now  plaj'  off  the  southern  Huns  successfully  against  the  northern  Huns,  and 
instigate  other  nomad  tribes  against  the  northern  emphe,  which  was  encircled  by 
enemies.  The  northern  Hun  empire  finally,  in  8-4  A.  D.,  succumbed  to  the  attacks, 
in  which  even  Siberian  tribes,  and  especiallj'  the  Sien-j.i^  Tartars,  formerly  the 
victims  of  the  Huns,  but  now  grown  strong  enough  for  a  new  conflict,  took  part. 
Some  of  the  Huns  fled  westward,  where  they  were  destined  yet  to  attain  great  pros- 
perity; the  rest  were  scattered  or  were  absorbed  in  the  Sien  pe,  who  now  possessed 
the  greater  portion  of  Mongolia.  The  Southern  Huns  held  out  longer ;  at  one  time 
as  subjects  and  allies  of  the  Chinese,  at  another  as  their  ojiponents,  or  as  supporters 
of  pretenders  to  the  throne.  But  after  142  A.  D.  there  was  an  end  to  the  southern 
empire  of  the  Huns,  though  not  to  the  influence  of  the  people  on  the  destinies  of 
China.  The  Huns,  who  had  famQiarised  themselves  with  the  Chinese  civilization, 
gradually  began  to  exert  a  political  influence,  and  finally  emjieroi-s  of  Hun  origin 
for  a  time  sat  on  the  throne  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  or  on  those  of  the  fragments 
into  which  it  broke  up.  But  they  no  longer  ruled  as  nomad  princes;  they  had 
become  genuine  Chinese  in  act  and  thought. 

C.   Westekn-  Central  Asia  and  the  adjoining  Countries 

The  nomadic  element  in  the  west  of  Central  Asia  was  of  earlier  origin  than 
that  in  the  east,  and  large  migrations  of  nomad  peoples  had  taken  place  far  earlier 


Cftitral  Asia 
and  Siberia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  143 


there  than  elsewhere.  Some  thousand  years  before  the  founding  of  the  empire  of 
the  Huus  migratory  tribes  of  Arj-aus  had  occupied  Iran  and  India.  But  there  the 
movements  met  with  a  certain  check.  The  Iranians  did  not  succeed  in  penetrating 
westward  into  the  lowlands  of  Babylonia  (of.  Vol.  Ill)  ;  on  the  contrarj-,  they  saw 
themselves  restricted  to  their  new  home,  and  by  the  influence  of  the  inhabitants 
who  had  settled  before  them,  as  well  as  of  the  ancient  civilization  of  the  countrj' 
watered  hy  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  they  were  gradually  brought  over  to  a  settled 
life,  without  immediately  losing  the  warlike  virtues  of  their  old  pastoral  existence. 
The  mixed  Iranian  people,  which  was  formed  from  the  Arj'an  immigrants  and  tlie 
aboriginal  population,  thus  liecame  a  bulwark  of  Western  Asia  against  any  further 
inroads  ol  nomads.  The  shock  of  invading  hordes  was  checked  by  the  resistance 
of  a  people  clinging  more  closely  to  the  soiL  The  Iranians  were  not  pushed 
further  toward  Western  Asia  by  vast  bodies  of  men  pressing  after  them,  but  the 
great  movement  of  the  nations  came  to  a  stop.  "WTien  the  Medes  and  the  Persians 
obtained  the  sovereignly  over  the  whole  of  Western  Asia,  they  were  already  under 
the  spell  of  Western  ci\alization,  and  were  unable  to  give  any  Iranian  character  to 
the  newly  conrpiered  countries. 

It  thus  follows  that  the  Aryan  nomads  of  Western  Asia  generally  are  hardly 
spoken  of  for  more  than  a  thousand  years.  The  Assyrio-Baliylouian  records  know 
nothing  of  them,  and  no  news  of  them  has  reached  the  Chinese.  There  were  no 
doubt  numerous  battles  and  movements  of  nations,  but  these  last  were  not  on  the 
imposing  scale  of  the  migi-ation  to  India  and  Iran.  The  anival  of  brachyceplialic 
nomad  tribes  in  Central  Asia  proper  must  gradually  have  made  its  influence  felt, 
with  the  effect  that  the  Scythian  liordes,  which  had  been  pushed  far  toward  the 
east,  were  partly  absorbed,  parti)'  driven  back  to  the  west;  these  shucks  con- 
tinued, wave  upon  wave.  The  last  consequence  of  the  mightiest  onslaught  was 
the  invasion  of  Asia  Minor  by  the  Cimmerians  about  the  j-ear  700  B.  c.  These 
were  a  nomad  people  of  Thracian  stock,  who  pastured  their  flocks  north  of  the 
Danube.  After  them  pressed  on  the  Scythians  (Scolotaj),  who  again  were  expelled 
by  the  Sarmatians.  The  first  cause  of  the  movement  may  perhaps  be  considered 
to  be  the  westward  advance  of  the  Huns,  who  had  long  since  founded  an  emphe, 
and  clearly  pressed  on  not  only  against  China,  but  also  toward  the  west.  The  Cim- 
merians tlireatened  Assyria  from  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia,  and  by  so  doing  came 
into  contact  with  the  Medes,  who  were  pressing  on  from  the  east  (of.  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  132;  Vol.  IV,  p.  52). 

The  period  of  more  certain  histor)',  wliich  begins  with  tlie  founding  of  the 
Medo-Persian  Empire,  shows  us  at  once  the  settled  Iranians  at  war  with  the 
nomads.  An  incon-ect  idea,  which  is  explained  by  the  failure  of  the  Greek  liisto- 
rians  to  understand  the  conditions  of  I'ei-sia,  and  Eastern  Persia  in  particular, 
represents  the  Persians  as  the  aggressors,  who  coveted  the  territory  of  the  nomad 
herdsmen.  In  reality  the  half  mythical  expedition  of  Cyrus  against  the  JVlassagette 
(530),  and  the  well-authenticated  march  of  Darius  against  the  Scythians  (515), 
were  only  attempts  to  attack  the  ever  restless  neighboms  in  their  own  country  and 
by  this  means  to  secure  the  frcmtiers.  The  expedition  of  Darius  in  particular  was 
probably  based  on  tire  plan  of  attacking  the  nomad  tribes  by  a  sweeping  flank 
movement,  and  of  thus  preventing  their  retreat  and  finally  subjugating  them. 
The  Persian  Empire  was  too  .short  lived  to  complete  so  colossal  an  undertaking, 
which  would  have  required  the  dogged  patience  of  the  Chinese.     The  attempt  of 


144  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [c/.npt.r  ir 

Darius,  which  effectively  secured  the  lower  line  of  the  Danube  for  the  Persians, 
was  not  rt'i^ieated.  The  Scythians,  on  the  otlier  hand,  realised  the  weak  points  in 
the  Pei-siau  Empire,  as  is  proved  by  their  soiuewliat  later  plan  (N'ol.  IV,  p.  77)  of 
attacking  Persian  territory  by  way  of  the  Caucasian  isthmus,  for  wliicii  they  tried 
to  obtain  the  aid  of  the  Spartans,  who  were  intended  to  make  a  simultaneous 
invasion  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  system  of  colonisation,  which  alone  promised  permanent  results,  seems  to 
have  been  prosecuted  all  the  more  vigorously  from  Eastern  Iran,  and  the  fact 
that  the  majority  of  the  nomads  were  of  Iranian  stock,  like  the  Persians,  facili- 
tated the  movement.  It  is  prol)able  that  in  (piite  early  times  on  the  Oxus  and 
Jaxartes,  that  is  to  say,  in  Baclria  and  Sogdiana,  States  possessing  an  Iranian 
civilization  were  developed,  which  were  afterward  politically  united  with  Persia, 
although  they  can  hardly  have  remained  in  permanent  and  complete  dependence. 
By  the  expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great  (327)  they  were  more  closely  united  with 
the  new  world  empire  of  that  monarch,  and  the  foundation  was  laid  for  a  Grseco- 
Iranian  civilized  State,  the  Bactriau  Empire,  which  was  developed  in  the  Seleucid 
period  (250  B.C.)  and  showed  a  considerable  vitality  (cf.  Vol.  IV,  p.  157).  Tiiis 
empire,  like  the  ancient  Iranian  Bactria,  was  a  bulwark  against  the  onset  of  the 
nomads.  It  showed  itself  a  inatch  for  the  migratory  Iranian  tribes,  and  it  was 
only  the  impact  of  a  non-Arjan  shepherd  people  from  Central  Asia  that  for  the 
first  time  shook  once  more  the  strong  rampart  wliich  guarded  Western  Asia  and 
India.  This  new  tide  of  nations,  which  set  in  about  IGO  B.C.,  was  certainly,  even 
if  indirectly,  due  to  the  Huns. 

The  nomad  tribe  of  the  I'sun  had  abandoned  its  home  on  the  borders  of  China 
and  had  retreated  westward  away  from  tlie  si)here  of  the  power  of  tiie  Huns 
(cf.  above).  Since  it  followed  the  roads  which  led  away  along  the  Tian.shan  and 
finally  crossed  that  range,  it  reached  the  Issik-Kid,  where  the  Yue  tshi,  tlieir 
predecessors  on  the  same  path,  had  won  homes  for  themselves.  These  latter  were 
now  compelled  to  give  way ;  but  tliey  did  not  again  turn  westward,  where  warlike 
Scythian  tribes  barred  the  way,  but  southward  against  the  Baetrian  Empire,  the 
internal  disruption  of  which  would  have  been  well  known  to  them  as  neighbours. 
The  result  was  that  Northern  Bactria,  the  country  on  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  fell 
easily  into  their  hands,  while  tlie  rest  of  the  Greek  State  south  of  the  Hindu  Kush 
maintained  its  position  for  the  time.  The  Parthian  kingdom,  which  successfully 
undertook  the  defence  of  the  frontiers  against  the  nomads,  had  grown  up  since 
250  B.C.  in  Western  and  Central  Iran  (cf.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  274).  But  if  Iran  was 
closed  to  the  Yue  tshi,  they  did  not  allow  the  road  to  India,  which  from  all  time 
had  possessed  a  magic  attraction  for  every  conquering  people,  to  be  permanently 
blocked.  The  southern  part  of  the  Baetrian  Empire  stood  for  some  humired 
years  more.  Tlien,  about  25  B.  c,  Kozulo  Kadphises  (Kieu  Tsieu  Kio;  cf.  Vol.  1\', 
p.  160),  who  had  reunited  the  Yue  tslii  after  their  division  into  five  clans,  subdued 
the  modem  Afghanistan.  This  immediately  opened  the  road  to  the  Indian  posses- 
sions of  the  Baetrian  Empire.  About  the  year  10  .\.  d.  his  successor,  Hiiemo 
Kadphises,  or  Kadaphes,  advanced  into  Northwestern  India,  and  thus  laid  tlie 
foundation  of  the  Indo-Scythian  Empire.  The  Yue  tshi  now  appear  in  history  as 
Indo-Scythians.  They  have  frequently  been  confused  at  a  later  date  with  the 
"White  Huns,"  or  Ejihtalites,  with  wiiom  they  are  absolutely  unconnected.  Unde- 
niably the  fact  that  Bactria  as  far  as  the  borders  of  Central  Asia  was  then  united 


Central  Asia 
4ind  Siberia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  14/ 


with  large  portions  of  India  under  one  rule,  did  much  to  make  Indian  influence, 
especially  the  Buddhism  then  flourishing  in  India,  felt  far  away  uortliward.  India 
generally  entered  into  closer  and  more  direct  relations  with  Central  Asia.  Fifty 
years  after  the  founding  of  tlie  Indo-Scythian  Empire  the  Buddhist  propaganda  had 
already  reached  China.  The  empire  of  the  Yue  tshi  showed  a  stubborn  vitality, 
and  only  broke  up  in  the  year  579  a.  d. 

D.  The  Tarim  Basix  (East  Turkestax) 

(a)  The  T<irim  Basin  and  the  T rude  from  West  to  East. —  While  a  large 
part  of  Central  Asia  fii-st  acquires  importance  for  the  history  and  culture  of  man- 
kind, on  tlie  appearance  of  nomad  peoples,  and  as  the  fountain-head  of  a  disin- 
tegrating force,  the  Tarim  basin,  which  is  also  called  East  Turkestan  or  High 
Tartary,  claims  the  attention  of  the  historian  far  earlier  and  in  anotlier  sense. 
By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  plain  lying  between  the  Tianshan,  the  Pamirs,  and 
the  Kueu  Lun  is  emphatically  a  region  of  steppe  and  desert.  But  the  mountain 
streams,  the  largest  of  which  unite  in  the  river  Tarim  and  the  Lob-nor,  create 
a  series  of  fertile  oases,  which  support  a  considerable  permanent  pojmlation,  and 
form  a  chain  of  trading  posts  along  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  In  all  proba- 
bility the  oases  were  more  numerous  in  early  times,  and  the  intermediate  barren 
stretches  less  desolate.  The  Tarim  b.isin  could  thus  form  in  ancient  days  the 
bridge  between  the  civilization  of  Eastern  and  Western  Asia,  even  if  it  was  not  an 
international  highway,  and  saw  at  the  same  time  a  higher  civilization  develop  in 
its  fertile  regions.  The  key  to  many  problems  of  the  prehistoric  period  lies  under 
the  burning  sands  of  Eastern  Turkestan. 

The  ancient  trade  communications  through  the  Tarim  basin  are  certainly  to 
be  regarded  as  a  relic  of  the  former  connection  with  civilization,  which  was  main- 
tained notwithstanding  the  increasing  poverty  of  the  soil  anil  the  appearance  of 
barbarous  nomad  tribes.  Those  who  wish  to  see  in  tlie  nomads,  with  their  rest- 
less m(jbility,  the  first  promnters  of  trade,  forget  that  these  tribes  never  showed 
a  pronounced  predilection  for  it,  although  from  the  example  of  others  they  fre- 
(piently  recognised  the  profits  derivable  from  a  transit  trade,  and  familiarised 
themselves  with  it.  The  nomad  as  such  is  not  inclined  to  amass  the  heavy 
goods  which  the  town  merchant  stores  in  his  vaults.  His  chief  wealth  lies  in 
his  flocks  and  herds,  which  again  depend  for  their  numbers  on  the  possession 
of  the  reipiisite  pastm-e  land.  Even  in  the  Tarim  basin  the  real  traders  were  thus 
always  to  be  found  among  the  settled  inhabitants  of  the  oases,  although  the  secu- 
rity and  success  of  their  commerce  depended  on  the  good-will  of  the  nomads,  and 
altliough  sometimes  closed  trade  routes  were  reopened  by  the  gi-eat  migiations  and 
conquests  of  nomads,  and  districts  which  had  long  been  estranged  were  once  more 
united  (cf.  the  empire  of  the  Yue  tshi). 

The  earliest  recorded  trade  which  passed  through  the  Tarim  basin  and  brought 
Eastern  and  Western  Asia  into  some  sort  of  communication  was  the  silk  trade. 
The  breeding  of  silkworms,  if  Chinese  tradition  does  not  err,  was  practised  by  tliat 
people  from  verj'  ancient  times ;  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Huang  Ti  was  renowned 
as  a  keen  promoter  of  this  industry.  The  Cliinese  themselves  seem  to  have 
attached  no  especial  importance  to  the  silk  trade  with  the  West,  as  is  shown  by 
the  silence  of  the  ancient  accounts.     The  trade  accordingly  must  have  been  chiefly 

VOL.  II  — 10 


140  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chajjter  ii 

coiulueted  by  foreignei-s,  who  were  eager  to  obtain  in  exoliange  the  higlily  valued 
product  of  Chiua,  while  it  was  long  a  matter  of  iudillereiiee  to  the  Chinese,  who 
were  aware  that  they  could  very  well  dispense  with  the  goods  received  m  return. 
Tlie  imagination  of  the  West  was  all  the  more  excited  by  the  mysterious  Eastern 
land,  which  produced  the  costly  silk,  and  attempts  to  gain  further  information  were 
made  from  early  times.  Herodotus  was  able  to  refer  to  a  book  of  travels,  which 
ilid  not  indeed  throw  light  on  Cliina  itself,  but  only  on  the  route  of  the  silk  trade 
and  the  condition  of  things  in  the  valley  of  the  Tarim  ;  this  was  the  "  Arimaspeia" 
of  Aristeas,  which  appeared  in  tiie  seven'.li  century  A.  D.,  soon  after  the  Cimmerian 
expedition  (cf.  untf,  pp.  I'M  and  143).  Tliis  narrative,  uotwitlistanding  its  romantic 
dress,  was  jn-obably  based  on  actual  explorations  and  travels,  as  "Wilhelm  Toma- 
schek  has  been  at  pains  to  show.  The  Issedones,  wliom  Aristeas  ])rofesses  to  have 
reached,  were  an  actual  people,  and  their  homes  probably  lay  in  the  Tarim  basin. 
The  western  neighbours  of  the  Issedones  were  the  Massagetie,  that  is,  the  Iranian 
nomads  who  pastured  their  herds  in  Western  Turkestan.  The  name  of  the  Isse- 
dones may  be  of  Iranian  origin,  and  have  been  given  to  the  people,  who  styled 
themselves  otherwise,  by  the  merchants,  wlio  were  mainly  Iranians.  We  thus  see 
why  Chinese  recoids  do  not  mention  the  name.  The  Issedones  were  probably  a 
brancli  of  the  Tibetan  stock,  which  once  spread  further  northward  than  now. 
They  are  possibly  identical  with,  or  at  least  allied  to,  the  later  Yue  tshi,  who  were 
ex]ielled  by  the  Huns  from  their  homes  in  the  Tarim  basin.  But  the  population 
of  that  region  can  hardly  have  been  homogeneous  at  the  time  of  Aristeas.  The 
Tibetan  Issedones,  who  are  occasionally  called  Scytliiaus,  weie  far  more  probaldy 
a  nomad  people,  who  exercised  sovereignty  over  the  coimtry  of  the  oases ;  but  the 
remnants  of  the  representatives  of  an  earlier  civilization  may  well  have  settled  in 
these  oases,  precisely  as  in  modern  times  the  towns  of  Eastern  Turkestan  are  in- 
habited by  a  very  mixed  population.  Dolicliocephalic  Iranians,  who  came  into  the 
country  as  traders  or  immigrated  as  agriculturists,  may  well  have  mixed  here  in 
early  times  with  the  permanently  settled  brachycephalic  inlialutants  and  with, 
the  tribes  of  the  Tibetan  nomads. 

The  Arimaspes,  a  warlike  tribe  of  nomads,  which  seems  to  have  made  frequent 
inroads  into  the  Tarim  basin,  are  mentioned  by  Aristeas  as  northern  neighbours  of 
the  Issedones.  By  this  title  he  undoubtedly  means  the  Huns,  whom  we  have 
already  seen  as  invaders  of  China.  In  the  second  century-  B.  c.  they  also  funda- 
mentally altered  the  conditions  of  Eastern  Turkestan  by  driving  the  Yue  tshi 
westward.  The  settled  population  of  the  oases  probably  was  little  influenced  by 
these  movement.s.  Aristeas  gives  noteworthy  accoimts  of  the  battles  of  the  Ari- 
maspes with  the  "  gritlins,"  the  guardians  of  the  gold,  who  lived  to  the  north  of 
them.  These  "  griffins  "  are  certaiidy  the  nations  on  the  Altai,  the  representatives 
of  the  old  bronze  culture  of  Southern  Siberia,  and  the  builders  of  those  tombs  in 
wliich  great  quantities  of  gold  ornaments  have  recently  been  found.  Tims  the 
jiicture  of  tlie  activity  of  the  warlike  nation  of  the  ancient  Huns,  that  leaven  of 
tlie  nomad  jjeoples,  is  complete  on  every  side.  On  the  east  the  indefatigable  sons 
of  the  desert  continually  advanced  against  the  rich  plains  of  China ;  on  the  south 
tliey  directed  their  raids  against  tlie  re]iresentatives  of  the  transit  trade  of  Central 
.Asia,  tlie  Tiljetan  nomads,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  oases  in  the  Tarim  basin; 
and  on  the  north  they  harassed  the  industrious  tribes  of  the  Altai  with  tlieir 
expeditions.     The  great   Hun  campaign,  which  finally  convulsed   Europe   to  its 


S'llnfJ  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  147 

foundations  (Vol.  V),  was  onlj-  a  gigantic  continuation  of  these  earlier  struggles 
for  power  and  booty.  While  Aristeas  has  exhaustively  described  the  Issedones 
and  Arimaspes,  he  appears  to  confound  the  Chinese  with  the  Hyi)erboreaus,  the 
peaceful  people  on  the  uttermost  border  of  the  world;  at  any  rate,  his  account 
of  the  Hyperboreans  as  reported  by  Herodotus  almost  coincides  with  the  later 
descriptions  of  the  Seres  (cf.  p.  57). 

The  towns  and  trading  settlements  in  the  Tarim  basin,  which  Aristeas  mentions, 
can  partially  be  identified  with  still  existing  modern  localities.  This  is  impossible 
in  the  case  of  many,  as  may  be  concluded  from  the  great  number  of  towns  buried 
beneath  the  sand,  which  have  been  recently  ex|ilored  by  Sven  Hedin.  Further  aids 
toward  identification  are  supplied  by  the  accounts  of  the  Macedonian  merchant 
Maes,  or  Titianus,  who  enables  us  to  fix  the  stations  on  the  East  Asiatic  trade  route 
in  the  first  century  A.  D.  This  road  led  from  Samarkand  to  Ferghana,  whence  the 
"Stone  Tower  "and  the  valley  of  the  Kisil  Su  were  reached,  at  the  entrance  of 
which  an  important  trading  town  lay  in  the  territory  of  Kasia.  This  was  cer- 
tainly the  modern  Kashgar,  for  which  natural  advantages  of  situation  liave  secured 
uninterruptedly  since  ancient  times  a  foremost  position  among  the  cities  of  the 
Tarim  basin.  The  "  Scythian  Issedon  "  may  be  represented  by  the  modern  Kuchar, 
the  most  important  mart  of  the  Turkish  tribes  settled  to  the  north  in  the  Tiau- 
shan ;  Asmira  may  be  the  present  Hami.  The  first  Chinese  trading-town  in  the 
district  of  Kansu  which  was  reached  by  the  caravans  coming  from  the  west, 
the  modern  Su  chau,  is,  according  to  Tomaschek's  belief,  to  be  rediscovered  in  the 
ancient  Drosache.  The  larger  centres  of  trade,  fi-om  a  political  point  of  view,  en- 
joyed certainly  some  share  of  independence,  although  they  did  not  venture  on  any 
very  stringent  measures  against  the  nomads  from  fear  of  interruption  to  commerce. 
The  different  vicissitudes  in  the  relations  of  the  nomads  to  the  dwellers  in  the 
country  and  the  towns  will  have  been  repeated  on  a  small  scale  in  the  Tarim 
basin ;  at  one  time  brute  force,  at  another  the  refinements  of  civilization,  gained  the 
day.  The  cormection  with  India,  the  beginnings  of  which  are  obscure,  was  of 
great  importance  to  this  civilization.  In  this  way  Eastern  Turkestan  became  the 
bridge  on  which  Indian  manners  and  cu.stoms,  and  above  all  Indian  religion,  passed 
both  to  China  and  the  rest  of  Central  Asia,  in  order,  in  course  of  time,  to  work  great 
revolutions  in  the  character  and  habits  of  tlie  Central  Asiatic  peoples. 

(h)  The  CIinn;/cs  in  Commercial  Intercourse.  —  The  trade  which  moved  on  the 
long  commercial  liighway  of  Central  Asia,  a  road  unparalleled  for  its  length  and 
difficulties,  could  not  always  be  prosecuted  with  unvarying  uniformity.  External 
influences  and  internal  commotions  produced  the  inevital)le  result  that  the  traffic 
l)ecame  brisker  at  one  time,  and  at  another  flagged  or  almost  died  away,  and  that 
the  character  of  the  trade  altered.  In  fact,  so  far  as  we  can  survey  the  conditions 
generally,  we  see  continual  changes  occurring.  The  routes  along  which  the  main 
bulk  of  trade  passes  are  changed,  the  customs  of  commerce  are  altered,  and  finally 
even  the  wares,  which  east  and  west  exchange,  are  not  always  the  same,  but  new 
ones  are  added  to  the  old. 

It  is  quite  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  commercial  intercourse  that  it 
always  seeks  out  paths  for  itself  along  the  line  of  least  resistance.  This  resistance, 
the  effect  of  which  is  shown  in  the  risks  and  costs  of  transport,  and  therefore 
admits  of  being  roughly  calculated,  appears  in  the  form  of  natural  obstacles  or 


148  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_Chapter  ii 

humaa  opposition.  The  two  are  reciprocally  connected.  A  somewhat  dillicult  and 
laborii'u.s  route  is  preferred  to  the  best  mad,  if  this  involves  risk  and  cojjt  from 
repealed  robberies,  exorbitant  tulls,  and  other  vexatious  imposts.  In  Central  Asia, 
where  on  the  one  hand  difl'erent  routes  were  available  for  the  trade  between  Eastern 
and  Western  Asia,  and  on  the  otlier  hand  the  nomads  were  always  ready  to  plunder 
the  merchants  directly  by  brigandage  or  indirectly  by  tolls,  commerce  clearly 
changed  its  roads  more  frequently  than  the  extant  accounts  give  us  to  understand. 
The  supremacy  of  the  Huns  in  the  north  doubtless  largely  contributed  toward  the 
result  that  the  northern  routes  were  deserted  and  the  trattic  restricted  to  the  roads 
in  the  Tarini  basin.  The  wars  of  the  Ariinaspes  with  the  Issedoues  may  well  have 
partially  had  the  object  of  securing  to  the  former  the  monopoly  of  trade.  After 
the  expulsion  of  the  Yue  tshi,  who  possibly  are  to  be  identified  with  the  Issedones, 
the  lluns  had  the  nortliern  highway  through  the  Tarim  basin  in  their  power,  while 
in  the  south  Tibetan  nomads,  the  Khiaug,  commanded  the  roads.  It  appears  from 
the  account  furnished  in  the  year  122  B.C.  by  Chang  kien  to  his  emperor  Wu  Ti, 
after  an  inquiry  into  the  roads  leading  to  the  west  and  the  possibilities  of  trade, 
that  trallic  then  went  quite  in  the  south  through  Szechwan  and  T.saidam  to  the 
southern  border  of  the  Tarim  basin,  while  in  the  north  the  Huns  and  in  the  centre 
the  Khiang  barred  the  roads.  These  unfavourable  conditions  largely  contributed 
to  the  result  that  the  Chinese  abandoned  their  former  policy  of  indifference  toward 
the  peoples  of  ihe  stepjie. 

The  opening  up  of  new  connections  on  quite  different  routes  between  China 
and  the  other  civilized  countries  must  have  exercised  a  more  important  and  unfa- 
vourable influence  on  the  traffic  of  Central  Asia.  No  success,  it  is  true,  attended 
the  attempts  to  come  into  direct  communication  with  India  through  Tibet,  and  thus 
obviate  the  necessity  of  bringing  Indian  goods  by  a  d(5tour  through  tlie  Tarim  basin, 
although  the  emperor  Wu  Ti  made  various  efforts  with  this  object,  and  a  small 
transit  trade  from  India  to  Tibet  must  have  been  in  existence  long  before  his 
time.  JIaritime  trade  flourished  all  the  more  at  a  later  time,  when  the  distance 
between  the  Chinese  and  Indian  ports  had  been  immensely  lessened  by  the  coij- 
quest  of  Southern  China.  It  is  significant  that  the  real  impetus  to  maritime  com- 
merce was  not  given  until  the  second  century  A.  d.,  when  the  Chinese  had  again 
lost  the  command  of  the  highways  of  Central  Asia. 

There  must  also  have  been  changes  in  the  customs  of  trade.  Over  vast  dis- 
tances trade  can  be  prosecuted  in  two  wilys :  either  one  tribe  hands  on  the  goods 
to  another  by  a  system  of  frontier  trade,  until  they  finally  reach  their  farthest 
destination  after  various  exchanges,  or  the  memliers  of  one  or  more  peoples  adopt 
the  carrying  trade  as  a  profession  and  traverse  the  whole  distance  with  their  wares. 
It  is  of  course  conceivable  that  for  part  of  the  distance  caravan  trade  was  usual, 
and  for  the  other  transit  trade.  On  the  Central  Asiatic  routes  both  methods  may 
have  been  popular,  according  to  circumstances.  The  transit  trade  is,  however,  cer- 
tainly older  than  the  caravan  system  on  a  large  scale.  Whether  it  actually  in 
places,  as  early  western  accounts  report,  took  the  simple  form  of  "dumb  trade," 
or  whether  customs  had  been  ascribed  to  the  half  mythical  Seres,  which  were 
observed  elsewhere  in  intercourse  with  primitive  nations,  can  no  longer  be  ascer- 
tained. It  is  in  accordance  with  the  whole  attitude  of  China  to  the  outer  world 
that  the  Chinese  did  not  engage  until  late  in  the  carrying  trade,  while  on  the  con- 
trarj'  the  merchants  of  Iranian  stock  were  continually  exerting  themselves  to  obtain 


ZTstit]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  149 

the  caravan  trade  over  the  whole  distance.  The  opponents  of  the  direct  traffic 
between  east  and  west  were  naturally  the  nomads,  above  all  the  Huns,  who  pre- 
ferred to  make  the  roads  a  desert  rather  than  to  lose  the  high  profits  obtainable 
from  the  transit  trade.  The  laboriousness  and  insecurity  of  the  traffic  produced 
the  result  that  large  emporiums  grew  up  in  different  places,  which  served  also  as 
markets  for  the  surrounding  tribes ;  such  were  Samarkand  in  Western  and  Kashgar 
in  Eastern  Tm-kestan. 

The  changes  in  traffic,  which  affect  the  goods  themselves,  are  most  marked. 
The  products  of  Central  A.sia  itself,  jade,  rliubarb,  musk,  and  gold,  were  exported  as 
objects  of  trade  to  China,  as  well  as  to  the  West  and  to  India.  But  on  the  whole 
it  was  the  demand  of  the  Western  nations  for  Chinese  commodities  that  kept  the 
traffic  alive  in  earlier  daj-s.  In  this  connection  man}-  changes  took  place  in  the  ex- 
ports of  China,  as  well  as  in  the  goods  which  the  West  had  to  offer  in  exchange. 

The  most  important  and  most  prized  product  which  China  supplied  was  un- 
questionably silk.  The  ancient  authorities  of  the  West  designate  the  Chinese  by 
the  name  of  Seres,  the  silk  growers.  It  is  difficult  to  fix  the  date  when  this  trade 
in  silk  and  silken  materials  began.  Aristeas,  strangely,  seems  not  to  mention  it, 
but  since  Wilhelm  Gesenius  has  pointed  out  that  some  passages  of  the  Bible  be- 
longing to  the  sixth  century  B.C.  (Ezekiel  xvi,  10,  13  and  Isaiah  xlix,  12)  refer 
to  silken  materials  and  the  Chinese  nation,  no  weight  need  be  attached  to  that  cir- 
cumstance. The  mere  existence  of  a  flourishing  trade  with  China  could  hardly  be 
exjilained  unless  some  such  potent  attraction  as  silk  had  been  present  in  the 
Far  East.  A  large  part  of  the  silks  seem  to  have  gone  to  Phcenicia,  where  they 
were  dyed  brighter  colours  or  were  unravelled  and  rewoven  into  half-silk  fabrics, 
in  order  once  more  to  be  put  on  the  market.  The  export  of  silk  from  China  must 
inevitably  have  received  a  considerable  blovtr  so  soon  as  the  attempt  to  rear  silk- 
worms in  other  countries  succeeded,  and  such  a  contingency  could  not  long  be 
avoided.  As  a  fact,  the  silk  industry  gradually  spread  along  the  line  of  the  old 
trade  route.  The  advance  of  the  Chinese  toward  the  west  introduced  in  140  B.  c. 
the  culture  of  mulberry-trees  and  silkworms  into  Turkestan,  after  which  that  coun- 
try graduall}-  became  an  important  centre  for  the  export  of  silk.  The  Persians, 
also,  were  acquainted  with  the  new  industry ;  indeed  for  a  time  Persia,  which  both 
produced  silk  and  commanded  the  routes  to  China,  had  the  silk'  trade  almost 
entirely  in  her  hands.  It  was  only  in  the  year  557  that  the  Byzantines  succeeded 
in  introducing  the  eggs  of  the  silkworms  aud  thus  breaking  down  the  Persian 
monopoly.  This  naturally  caused  a  fresh  and  important  diminution  in  the  export 
of  silk  from  China,  and  it  was  "only  much  later,  when  European  powers  began  to 
foster  the  maritime  trade  with  China,  and  thus  tlie  cheaper  freight  by  sea  influ- 
enced the  prices,  that  it  became  one«  more  possible  for  Chinese  silk  to  compete 
with  that  of  the  Nearer  I'ast. 

A  second  group  of  products  which  were  sent  from  China  to  the  West  were 
lacquers  and  varnishes.  Certain  kinds  of  lacquer  from  Eastern  Asia  even  at  the 
present  day  are  highly  esteemed,  and  the  trade  in  them  may  weU  have  been  pro- 
fitable in  ancient  times.  Probably  articles  of  lacquered  wood,  such  as  are  now 
sent  in  endless  numbers  from  Japan,  were  early  exported. 

The  case  is  quite  different  with  the  two  articles  which  subsequently  became  of 
the  tinst  importance  to  the  trade  of  China,  and  to  some  degree  took  the  place  of  the 
then  less  prized  silk,  namely,  porcelain  and  tea.     Porcelain,  even  if  previously  dis- 


150  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chopt,;- ii 

covered,  was  not  produced  in  any  considerable  (jiiantity  by  the  Cliinesc  before  the 
seventh  century  A.  n.,  although  pottery  was  known  to  them  from  earliest  times. 
Tea  did  not  Iwcome  an  ini^xu-tant  article  in  China  itself  before  the  fourth  century 
A.  I).,  and  it  was  long  before  it  was  ajipreciated  in  foreign  countries,  and  became  for 
the  nomads  of  Central  Asia  in  jwrticular  so  indispensable,  that  the  demand  for  it 
tended  to  make  the  unruliest  tribes  dependent  on  China. 

Wiile  China  at  all  periods  was  able  to  supply  goods  which  were  eagerly  sought 
for  by  the  Western  nations,  there  was  always  the  great  question  to  be  solved, 
what  could  be  offered  in  exchange  to  China  and  to  India,  which  were  both  amply 
supplied  with  all  that  they  needed.  India  and  China  either  did  not  re(|uire  the 
goods  which  European  and  Western  Asiatic  tiaders  supplied,  or  only  required  them 
in  small  quantities ;  the  deficit  had,  therefore,  to  be  made  up  by  the  precious 
metals,  the  only  product  prized  by  tlie  civilized  nations  of  the  East.  The  result 
was  that  gold  and  silver  flowed  into  India  and  Eastern  Asia  to  an  alarming  extent, 
and  thus  the  requisite  medium  of  circulation  was  withdrawn  from  Western  trade. 
The  elder  I'liny  calculated  tlie  anntial  loss  which  the  world-empire  of  Eorae  sus- 
tained from  this  cause  at  £1,000,000  .sterling,  more  than  half  of  which  was  con- 
sumed by  India. 

The  West  could  not  permanently  pay  for  the  imports  from  the  East  with  the 
3-ield  of  her  mines,  but  only  with  the  products  of  a  superior  civilization  and  indus- 
trial activity.  In  this  connection  it  is  a  significant  fact,  as  well  as  a  proof  of  the 
extreme  antiquity  of  barter,  that  the  ancient  industries  of  Phoenicia  and  Syria  pre- 
pared articles  for  export  to  Eastern  Asia.  Among  tlie  imports  to  Cliina  the  first 
place  was  taken  by  cloth  stuffs;  but  it  was  not  the  art  of  weaving,  with  wliich  the 
Chinese  also  were  very  fanidiar,  that  made  the  stuffs  highly  valued,  and  prevented 
even  the  cost  of  the  long  transport  appearing  excessive,  so  much  as  the  dyeing. 
An  attempt,  as  might  be  expected,  was  early  made  to  ])ut  on  the  Eastern  market 
the  Phoenician  purjile  stuffs,  which  were  renowned  and  prized  throughout  the 
West.  In  addition  to  the  dyed  stuffs,  there  was  an  article  still  more  valued  for 
centuries,  which  was  produced  to  greatest  perfection  in  Syrian  manufactories, 
name!}-,  glass.  According  to  Chinese  accounts  glass  was  valued  in  the  East  as 
much  as  precious  stones,  and  fetched  a  correspondingly  higli  price,  as  long  as  the 
art  of  making  glass  was  unknown.  But  just  as  the  silk  trade  on  tlie  highway  of 
Central  Asia  suffered  a  severe  Idow  by  the  transference  of  the  cultivation  of  silk- 
worms to  Persia  and  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire,  so  the  imjiortation  of  glass  to 
China  dwmdled  away  when,  with  the  article  itself,  tlie  secret  of  its  production 
finally  spread  to  the  East.  This  happened  in  the  fifth  century  a.  d.,  about  one 
hundred  years  before  the  silk  industry  was  known  in  Byzantium. 

Tlie  above-mentioned  wares  were  not,  of  course,  the  only  staple  of  Central 
Asiatic  commerce.  China  sometimes  supplied  great  quantities  of  iron  ware,  as 
well  as  skins,  which  reached  Cliina  througli  tlie  Siberian  trade,  or  were  given  as 
tribute  liy  nomad  tribes,  while  the  West  imported  spices,  jewels,  etc.  Besides  this, 
the  stream  of  Indian  trade  blended  with  that  of  the  West  and  East  in  the  Tarim 
basin.  But  these  goods  could  not  prevent  the  trade  from  languishing  so  soon  as 
the  demand  for  the  chief  products  diminished  or  entirely  disappeared. 

(c)  The  Chineiie  as  Conquerors  in  the  Basin  of  the  Tarim.  —  China,  as  wc  have 
seen,  originally  had  little  need  for  commerce  with  the  outer  world.     Foreigners 


a^Sli;!Z]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  151 

came  to  the  Middle  Kingdom  in  order  to  purchase  the  valued  Chinese  wares,  but 
the  Chinese  themselves  were  quite  satisfied  to  take  in  exchange  all  kinds  of  for- 
eign products,  with  which  they  could  easily  dispense  in  case  of  need.  The  state 
of  aflairs  could  not  permanently  remain  so  favourable  for  China.  The  constant 
large  exportations  inevitably  led  to  the  growth  of  a  sort  of  export  industry ;  that  is 
to  say,  silk,  lacquer,  etc.,  were  produced  in  greater  quantities  than  the  home  Chinese 
market  required.  If  the  export  trade  suddenly  stopped,  the  consequences  to  China 
were  serious.  Besides  this,  China  became  gradually  accustomed  to  certain  foreign 
commodities,  with  which  it  could  not  dispense,  especially  to  the  spices,  drugs,  etc., 
of  India  and  Arabia.  Thus  any  dislocation  of  trade  was  severely  felt.  Such  a 
result  ensued  when  the  Huns  overthrew  the  Yue  tshi  and  barred  the  valley  of  the 
Tarim,  while  uncivilized  Tibetan  hordes  rendered  the  roads  dangerous  in  the 
south.  It  was  an  intolerable  situation  that  the  Huns  should  be  able  to  cut  off 
trade  communications  entirely,  or  to  cripple  them  by  excessive  tolls,  and  the 
Chinese  were  inevitably  driven  to  reprisals  so  soon  as  an  energetic  ruler  governed 
them. 

Other  considerations  prompted  an  advance  into  the  basin  of  the  Tarim.  It  was 
recognised  in  China  that  the  meuacing  growth  of  the  power  of  the  nomads  could 
not  be  checked  unless  they  took  up  a  strong  position  in  their  rear,  and  divided  the 
steppe  region  into  two  sections  by  a  strongl\"  fortified  military  road.  Even  in  this 
case  the  old  trade  route  through  the  Tarim  basin  suggested  itself  as  the  natural 
line  of  direction  for  the  advance,  while  the  trading  towns  naturally  formed  suit- 
able bases  of  operations. 

The  emperor  Wu  Ti  about  125  B.  c.  tried,  tlierefore,  to  reopen  the  trade  route  of 
Central  Asia,  and  at  the  same  time  to  crush  the  enormously  increased  power  of  the 
Huns.  An  effort  was  made  to  gain  for  this  object  the  alliance  of  the  hereditary 
enemies  of  the  Huns,  the  Yue  tshi,  who  had  just  conquered  Northern  Bactria  and 
Sogdiana,  and  thus  were  masters  of  the  western  extremity  of  the  Tarim  roads. 
Wu  Ti  sent  to  them  his  general,  Chang  kien ;  but  being  taken  prisoner  on  the 
way  by  the  Huns,  he  did  not  reach  the  Y''ue  tshi  until  ten  years  later,  and  returned 
to  China  after  an  absence  of  thirteen  years.  He  had  been  imable  to  accomplish 
his  chief  object  of  concluding  an  alliance  with  the  Yue  tshi  and  arranging  a  com- 
bined attack  on  the  Huns,  since  the  successes  of  the  Yue  tshi  in  Bactria  had  given 
a  new,  and  for  China  an  unfavourable,  turn  to  the  future  policy  of  that  people.  In 
compensation  he  brought  back  to  China  a  store  of  information  about  the  western 
countries  and  India.  The  consequent  attempts  of  Wu  Ti  to  establish  communi- 
cations with  India  through  Tibet  were  a  failure.  On  the  other  hand,  the  war 
against  the  Huns  was  now  vigorously  prosecuted,  and  the  old  trade  road  was 
intentionally  made  the  base  of  operations.  The  Yu-men  Pass  was  occupied  and 
secured  by  military  colonies,  while  the  power  of  the  Huns  was  weakened  by 
repeated  blows  and  ousted  from  the  Tarim  basua.  Trade  revived,  but  with  the 
difference  that  now  even  Chinese  caravans  and  embassies  went  westward  and 
there  formed  political  connections,  especially  with  the  people  of  the  An  hsi  (Ansi), 
by  whom,  according  to  Friedrich  Hirth,  we  are  to  understand  the  Parthians.  The 
most  easterly  point  of  the  Parthian  Emjjire  appears  then  to  have  been  Margiana 
(iVIerv,  the  Mu  lu  of  Chmese  accounts).  The  Chinese,  therefore,  certainly 
advanced  so  far. 

Many  petty  States  of  the  Tarim  basin  and  possibly  of  the  countries  lying 


1-32  HISTORY    OF    THE    WO R  1,0  [chapter ii 

farther  to  the  west  entered  into  closer  i)olitical  union  with  the  east,  and  partially 
ivi'ofjnised  the  suzerainty  of  China.  It  was  not,  however,  before  the  year  108  B.C. 
that  the  ininiediate  possessions  of  China  were  extended  to  the  Lob  nor,  that  is  to 
say,  to  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  basin  of  the  Tarini  and  secured  by  fortifica- 
tions. Chinese  troops  later  advanced  to  Kashgar  (101  B.C.).  Uut  tlie  dominion  of 
China  in  the  Tarim  basin  was  never  firndy  established,  although  alliances  were 
fretjuently  concluded  with  the  Usun  against  the  Huns.  The  power  of  the  latter 
was  still  too  strong  to  allow  the  petty  Slates  of  Eastern  Turkestan  and  the  Uigu- 
rians  any  permanent  connection  with  China.  The  influence  of  the  Huns  on  the 
valley  of  the  Tarini  and  the  AVcstern  trade  rose  or  fell  according  to  their  successes 
or  reverses  in  their  struggle  with  Cliina. 

But  the  other  nomad  tribes  of  Central  Asia  also  interfered  in  the  allairs  of  those 
parts.  The  childless  sovereign  of  the  small  kingdom  of  Yarkand  (Shao  Che)  had 
destined  a  son  of  tlie  king  of  the  Usun  to  succeed  him.  The  inhabitants  of  Yar- 
kand, after  the  death  of  their  monarch,  witli  the  consent  of  tlie  Chinese  emperor 
Hsuan  Ti,  summoned  this  prince  from  China,  where  he  was  being  educated,  and 
placed  him  on  the  throne,  thus  hoping  to  secure  for  themselves  the  protection  of 
the  Usun  and  of  the  Chinese  (G4  B.  c).  But  the  brother  of  the  late  king,  with  the 
help  of  the  Huns,  deposed  the  new  sovereign,  who,  rightly  or  not,  was  accused  of 
cruel  tyranny,  and  put  him  to  death.  A  Chinese  army  then  appeared,  killed  the 
usurper  in  his  turn,  and  placed  on  the  throne  a  new  monarch,  approved  by  China, 
who  appears  also  to  have  asserted  his  power.  The  influence  of  China  in  the  Tarim 
valley  gradually  diminished.  At  the  beginning  of  the  first  century  A.  d.  the  power 
of  Y'arkand  grew  so  strong  that  its  king  claimed  the  suzerainty  of  the  entire  basin 
of  the  Tarini,  after  his  request  to  be  recognised  by  China  as  governor  of  Eastern 
Turkestan  had  been  refused  (33  .v.  D.).  The  prayers  of  the  other  oppressed  minor 
States  and  the  commercial  blockade  maintained  by  the  king  of  Y'arkaud  ought  to 
have  forced  Shi  Tsu  to  take  vigorous  action.  The  war  with  Yarkand,  however,  was 
mainly  left  to  the  Huns,  who  harassed  the  new  kingdom  in  the  Tarim  basin  for 
decades  with  varying  success. 

Tlie  second  great  advance  of  the  Chinese  toward  the  west  did  not  begin  until 
72  A..  I).  The  wish  to  open  up  communications  with  the  West  was  stimulated  then 
by  the  introduction  of  the  Buddhist  teaching,  wliioli  had  entered  Ciiina  through 
the  Tarim  basin.  A  deputation  which  Ming  Ti,  the  second  emperor  of  the  later  or 
Eastern  Han  dynasty,  had  himself  sent  to  the  Y'ue  t.shi  had  returned  in  65  a.  p., 
and  brought  back  detailed  inf(jriuation  about  Buddhism.  The  emperor  in  conse- 
quence was  induced  to  erect  a  statue  of  Biuldha  in  his  capital,  and  to  show  i)ecu- 
liar  favour  to  the  new  doctrine,  without,  however,  giving  it  preference  over  the 
doctrines  of  Kung  fu  tse.  The  chief  cause,  however,  of  the  renewed  advance 
westward  was  doubtless  -the  circumstance  that  the  South  Huns  had  once  more 
c<jnibined  with  the  North  Huns  to  block  the  tratiic,  and  iiad  completely  dis- 
organised the  otherwise  unsatisfactory  conditions  existing  in  the  Tarim  basin. 
Various  Chinese  armies  marched  against  the  Huns  iu  the  year  72,  one  of  which, 
under  the  command  of  the  general  I'aii  Cliau,  followed  the  old  trade  route  to  the 
Tarim  basin.  The  appearance  of  this  renowned  commander  and  dijilomatist  imme- 
diately secured  the  victory  of  Chinese  influence  among  the  petty  States,  which  had 
all  suffered  under  the  insecurity  of  trade  and  the  prevailing  military  policy  of 
the  Huns. 


f^"';lfr]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  153 

This  time  the  Chinese  were  not  content  with  the  easily  acquired  spoiL  They  had 
heard,  meanwhile,  that  a  mighty  empire  of  Ta  ts'iii,  the  Roman  world-empire,  lay  in 
the  west.  The  remarkable  magnetic  force  exercised  on  each  other  by  great  States, 
which  lies  at  the  root  of  their  conditions  of  existence  and  compels  them  graduall}^ 
to  absorb  all  petty  intervening  States  and  to  form  a  well-detined  frontier,  began  to 
assert  its  power  here,  although  its  complete  triumph  was  prevented  by  the  immen- 
sity of  the  distance  to  be  traversed.  The  Chinese  never  obtained  accurate  know- 
ledge of  the  Koman  Empire.  Friedrich  Hirth  has  shown  that  they  probably  were 
partially  auciuainted  with  the  eastern  half  only,  and  thought  that  Antiochia  was 
the  capital  of  the  empire.  The  name  Fu  Im  for  the  Eomau  Empire,  which  subse- 
quently occurs,  seems  to  be  derived  from  Bethlehem,  and  thus  merely  to  point  to 
the  Christian  faith  of  the  later  Romans.  The  campaign  of  Pan  Cluui,  wliich  took 
him  nearly  to  the  coutines  of  Roman  influence,  dates  some  decades  after  the  con- 
quest of  the  Tarim  basin.  Pan  Chau  crossed  the  range  of  mountains  to  the  west, 
traversed  the  teiTitory  of  the  Yue  tslii,  and  finally  reached  the  Caspian  Sea,  whence 
he  sent  explorers  furtlier  to  the  west  in  order  to  prepare  for  an  attack  on  the  Roman 
Empire  (102).  The  unfavourable  report,  however,  which  he  received  and  his 
advanced  age  forced  him  to  return  to  Chiua,  where  he  died  shortly  after. 

The  political  importance  of  his  conquest  was  considerable,  but  could  hardly  be 
lasting.  The  numerous  petty  States,  wluuh  at  the  siglit  of  his  army  liad  sought 
the  protection  of  Chiua,  had  no  choice  but  to  go  their  own  way,  and  to  make  terms 
with  their  other  powerful  neighbours,  now  that  China  ceased  to  lend  them  any 
effective  assistance.  The  revenue  from  tribute,  gifts,  and  tolls  which  Chiua  drew 
from  the  western  countries  was  far  from  being  sufficient  to  cover  the  great  out- 
goings. And  the  traditional  Chinese  policy,  which  would  hear  nothing  of  any 
expansion  of  the  old  boundaries  and  attached  little  importance  to  the  promotion  of 
trade,  now  reasserted  itself.  There  was,  as  early  as  120  A.  D.,  a  feeling  in  favour 
of  abandoning  all  possessions  beyond  the  Yu-men  Pass,  and  it  was  due  to  the  advice 
of  a  son  of  Pan  Chau  that  the  military  road,  at  least  as  far  as  the  Tarim  basin,  was 
retained.  The  long  series  of  disorders  wliich  soon  afterward  bn)ke  out  in  China 
completely  checked  any  vigorous  foreign  polic}^  while  the  growing  prosperity  of 
maritime  commerce  diminished  the  importance  of  the  overland  trade.  The  petty 
States  in  the  Tarim  basin  for  many  years  subsequently  led  a  (piiet  existence,  more 
influenced  by  India  than  by  China. 

E.  The  Western  Huns 

The  advance  of.  the  Chinese  toward  the  west,  in  spite  of  the  bold  plan  of 
Pan  Chau  to  attack  the  Roman  Empire,  inflicted  no  iujmy  upon  civilization,  but 
on  the  whole  was  beneficial  to  it.  Far  more  momentous  was  the  turn  of  events 
when  the  nomad  hordes  of  Central  Asia  sought  an  outlet  in  Western  Asia  and 
Europe.  Northern  India  had  already  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Yue  t.slii,  and 
the  hour  was  approaching  when  a  great  part  of  Europe  also  would  tremble  beneath 
the  scourge  of  the  yelh)w  races  of  the  steppes.  The  main  body  of  the  Huns,  when 
their  star  had  set  in  ^Mongolia,  hurled  them-selves  against  the  civili;:ed  nations  of 
the  west.  The  consequences  which  the  onslauglit  of  the  Huns  and,  in  close  con- 
nection with  it,  the  advance  of  other  Asiatic  nomads  had  for  Europe  do  not  come 
into  the  history  of  Central  Asia  (see  Vol.  Y) ;  but,  aided  by  the  researches  of 


154  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD  [chapter  Ji 

Hirth,  it  is  worth  our  while  to  glance  at  the  development  of  Asiatic  affairs  up  to 
the  invasion  of  the  Huns. 

The  western  civilized  world  had  long  escaped  any  dangennis  attacks  from  the 
nomad  iieojjles  of  Asia  and  Europe,  perhaps  because  tlie  nomads  of  East  Europe 
became  gradually  more  settled  and  paid  more  attention  to  agiicuhure.  The  Alani, 
who  are  identical  with  the  Aorsi  of  earlier  accounts,  seem  to  have  been  the  most 
influential  nation.  Probably  it  is  no  question  of  a  closely  connected  nationality,  but 
rather  of  a  collective  name  for  the  nomad  tribes,  who  oceui)ie(l  the  region  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  Sea  of  Aial,  and  were  composed  partly  of  llie  remains  of  Irano- 
Scythians,  partly  of  Ural-Altaians.  The  proper  bearers  of  the  name  were  settled 
in  the  first  century  B.  c.  to  the  north  of  the  Caucasus,  where  they  fought  against 
Pompev  in  the  year  65  b.  c,  but  then  spread  themselves  further  over  the  steppe,  and 
appear  to  have  ruleil  for  a  time  at  least  over  most  of  the  U(jmad  tribes  of  the  region 
of  Pontus  and  the  Caspian.  There  were  frequent  but  unimportant  contests  with 
the  Romans.  According  to  Chinese  records  a  part  of  the  country  of  the  Alani 
(Ants'ai)  belonged  for  a  lime  to  Sogdiana,  a  fact  whicli  argues  armed  complica- 
tions on  that  frontier.  Attacks  through  the  Caucasian  gate  on  Persian  and  Poman 
territory  occurred  several  times,  but  there  was  no  immense  migration  until  the 
advance  of  the  "Western  Huns. 

The  tii-st  march  of  Hun  nomads  toward  the  west  took  place  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  first  century  B.  c,  when  the  empire  of  the  Huns  was  thrown  into  the 
most  violent  confusion  by  internal  seditious.  Several  rulers  tried  simidtaneously 
to  usurp  the  power,  and  waged  bitter  war  on  eacli  other.  Wlien  at  last  one  of  the 
pretenders,  Huhanyd,  appeared  to  be  victorious,  his  own  brother,  the  "  Viceroy  of 
the  East,"  rose  against  him.  This  "  Chichi,"  as  he  now  called  himself,  expelled  his 
brother  from  the  capital,  but  then  turned  to  the  west,  and,  since  he  could  not  hold 
the  whole  empire,  founded  an  independent  power,  wliich  he  giadually  extended 
further  westward.  The  circumstance  that  a  prince  in  Sogdiana  called  in  his  help 
against  the  Usun  enabled  hun  to  transfer  the  seat  of  his  power  to  the  region  of 
the  Sea  of  Aral.  Part  of  the  Alani  in  that  district  were  perhaps  already  subject 
to  the  Huns.  The  wars  with  the  Chinese  in  the  Tarim  l)asin  ended  with  the  death 
of  Chichi  (36  B.C.),  and  greatly  weakened  the  power  of  the  Huns. 

Their  power  did  not  revive  until,  in  the  year  90  A.  n.,  another  Hun  prince  with  a 
large  part  of  his  ])eople  marched  westward  and  joined  the  earlier  emigrants.  This 
migration  was  due  to  the  comy)lete  collapse  of  the  empire  of  the  Eastern  Huns. 
Hirth  rightly  points  out  that  in  both  the  migrations  of  the  Huns  it  was  the  most 
wai-like  and  strongest  part  of  the  jxipulation  which  turned  westward.  The  West 
Huns,  therefore,  were  the  picked  men  of  their  traditionally  war-loving  and  adven- 
turous race.  Their  people,  can  hardly  have  remained  unmixed  during  its  migra- 
tions, but  it  probably  incorporated  the  bravest  men  from  the  conquered  tribes.  In 
this  way  a  new  nationality  might  well  be  developed,  whose  thirst  for  war  would 
prove  fateful  for  even  distant  regions,  so  .soon  as  an  occasion  should  arise  when  this 
concentrated  energy  could  find  an  outlet. 

Tlie  Chinese,  after  the  advantages  gained  in  the  west  by  the  advance  of  Pan 
Chau  had  Vieen  mostly  relinipiished,  had  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  A.  D. 
to  face  new  contests  with  the  Huns  and  their  li'igurian  allies  in  the  Tarim  basin. 
After  the  middle  of  the  century  the  West  Huns  disappear  from  the  horizon  of  the 
Chine.se,  a  fact  which  suggests  that  the  warlike  nomads,  finally  renouncing  any 


Central  Asia 
and  Siberia 


]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  155 


plans  for  the  reconquest  of  their  old  homes  in  Mongolia,  turned  their  attention  in 
other  directions.  For  two  centuries  more  they  seem  to  have  been  content  with 
minor  hostilities,  until  at  last  iu  350  A.  d.  the  avalanche  began  to  roll.  The  Huns 
attacked  the  Alani  tirst,  killed  their  king  and  partly  brought  the  people  under  their 
power,  partly  forced  them  in  panic  further  to  the  west.  The  great  steppe  of  Eastern 
Europe  and  Siberia  was  thus  opened  to  the  Huqs  and  the  direction  of  their  further 
advance  suggested.  That  the  storm  of  conquest  did  not  sweep  down  on  Persia,  the 
fertile  plains  of  which  certainly  aroused  the  greed  of  the  marauders,  was  due  to  the 
awe  with  which  the  still  powerful  Neo-Persian  empire  of  the  Sassanids  inspired 
the  nomads  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  284). 

The  appearance  of  the  Huns  would  not  have  had  nearly  so  great  an  inflvieuce 
on  Europe  had  it  not  been  that  the  Roman  Empire  was  already  beginning  to  decay 
and  that  the  Germanic  races  were  in  confusion  and  disorder.  The  convulsions 
which  shook  Europe,  when  the  Huns  under  the  leadership  of  Balamir  in  375 
invaded  the  Danubiau  countries,  do  not  concern  the  history  of  Asia  (cf.  Vol.  V). 
It  is  unlikely  that  all  the  Huns  and  Alani  took  part  in  the  movement  toward  the 
west ;  on  the  contrary,  the  supremacy  of  the  Huns  was  still  maintahied  in  the  region 
of  Pontus  and  the  Caspian.  For  when,  after  the  death  of  Attila  (453),  the  European 
empire  of  the  Huns  broke  up,  the  rest  of  the  people  withdrew  once  more  to  the 
east,  and  found  a  refuge  there  iu  the  old  homes  of  the  Huns  and  Alani.  The 
sovereignty  of  those  regions  devolved  on  Attila's  favourite  son  Irnach  (Hemac, 
Imas).  In  the  sixth  century  the  enipiie  gi'adually  disintegrated  into  petty  States, 
whose  princes  frequently  interfered  iu  the  wars  between  Persia  and  Byzantium,  or 
took  up  arms  against  each  other.  In  558  an  army  of  Huns  advanced  to  the  gates 
of  Constantinople.  As  the  power  of  the  Huns  broke  up,  the  se])arate  elements  of 
which  this  heterogeneous  nation  of  warriors  was  comi)Osed  recovered  individual 
importance,  until  finally  even  the  name  of  Huns  disappeared  from  history. 

The  same  fate  befell  another  very  mixed  branch  of  the  Hun  nation,  the  "  White 
Huns,"  or  Hephtalites  (Tin  la ;  cf.  p.  144),  who  had  firmly  planted  themselves  in 
the  modem  Khiva,  and  after  420  made  \-igorous  attacks  on  Persia.  The  Sassauid 
king,  Peroz,  feU  in  battle  against  them  (484).  The  year  531  saw  the  last  fights 
with  these  Huns,  some  of  whom  were  destined  to  reappear  under  a  new  name  and 
mixed  with  other  nations  as  K(a)haresmians. 


F.  Central  Asia  after  the  Fall  of  the  Empire  of  the  Huns 

(a)  The  Sien  Pe  and  the  Yen  Yen. — After  the  disruption  of  the  great  Hun 
Empire  in  Central  Asia  and  the  retreat  of  most  of  the  Huns  to  the  west,  the  major 
part  of  Mongolia  had  fallen  to  the  Sien  pe,  since  the  Chinese  had  neither  the  wish  nor 
the  power  to  hold  the  immense  region  of  the  steppes.  The  Tungvisian  nation  of  the 
Sien  pe  came  originally  from  the  modern  Manchuria,  and  by  its  advance  to  the  west, 
during  which  it  probably  absorbed  the  remnants  of  the  Huns  and  other  inhabitants 
of  the  steppes,  it  introduced  a  new  ingredient  into  the  hotchpotch  of  nations  in  the 
pasture  lands  of  Mongolia.  Like  all  nomad  peoples,  the  Sien  pe  broke  up  into  a 
number  of  petty  States,  which  usually  had  then  own  political  systems,  but  were 
occasionally  united  under  an  energetic  ruler,  and  then  constituted  a  formidable 
power,  which  soon  made  its  influence  felt  in  China  and  in  the  Tarim  basin. 


156  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapter ii 

Some  such  rapid  rise  of  the  Sien  pe  occurred  about  150  a.  d.,  when  Tun  shih 
huai  (Dardjegwe  ?)  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  one  of  their  tribes  and  soon  ex- 
tended his  jxiwer  far  over  the  adjacent  peoples.  This  new  nomad  empire  was 
hardly  inferior  in  size  to  the  earlier  Hun  empire,  and  comprised  roughly  the  same 
countries,  since  then,  as  formerly,  the  line  of  least  resistance  lay  due  east  and  west. 
Even  the  division  of  their  gigantic  territory  into  a  central  kingdom  witli  an  eastern 
and  a  western  province  was  once  more  adopted  by  the  Sien  pe.  Since  it  was  vir- 
tually the  personality  of  the  ruler  which  kept  the  empire  together,  the  power  of  the 
Sien  pe  was  considerably  diminished  by  tlie  death  of  iheir  tirst  prince  (190),  and 
would  certainly  have  given  way  to  the  intluence  of  China,  had  not  this  danger  been 
averted  by  the  overthrow  of  the  Han  dynasty  in  Cliina  (220)  and  by  the  disorders 
which  subsequently  ensued.  The  Sien  pe  were  thus  able  to  realise  for  a  moment 
the  great  ambition  of  the  ruling  nomad  tribes,  namely,  to  bring  under  their  control 
the  Western  trade.  Like  the  Huns  before  them,  they  had,  for  this  purpose,  to  come 
to  terms  with  the  Tibetan  nomads  in  the  south  of  the  Tarim  basin. 

During  the  civil  wars  in  China  several  hordes  of  the  Sien  pe  found  a  welcome 
opportunity  of  migrating  into  that  country,  where  they  either  served  as  merce- 
naries or  founded  independent  States.  The  most  powerful  of  these  tribes  were  the 
To  ba  (Popa,  T'ufa).  Between  3.3S  and  376  the  house  of  To  ba  ruled  the  State 
of  Tai  in  Northern  Shausi.  In  386  Kuei,  who  belonged  to  that  dynasty,  founded 
there  the  Northern  (Pei)  We,  wliicli  expanded  farther  and  farther  over  Northern 
China,  until  it  practically  covered  the  same  area  as  the  We  of  the  "  three  king- 
doms "  (p.  86).  In  534  Pei  We  broke  up  into  the  Eastern  (Tung)  and  the  West- 
ern (Hsi)  We,  wliich  were  overtlirown  in  550  and  557  (p.  89).  Wu  ku,  also  a 
member  of  the  liouse  of  To  ba,  governor  of  Hohsi  after  39-4,  declared  himself  king 
of  Hsi  ping  in  397,  and  formed  the  State  of  Nan  Liang,  which  was  conquered  in 
414  by  the  prince  of  Hsi  Chin.  The  To  ba  had  soon  become  Chinese  in  life  and 
tliought,  and  tliej-  were  forced  to  confront  tlieir  kinsmen,  the  nomads  of  the  steppes, 
entirely  in  the  spirit  of  the  traditional  policy  of  China. 

The  condition  of  Mongolia  had  changed  in  the  course  of  time.  Tlie  empire  of 
the  Sien  pe  crumbled  away  after  the  strongest  and  most  numerous  Imrdes  had 
migrated  to  China,  and  its  place  was  taken  by  a  new  one  under  the  rule  of  the 
Yen  Yen  (Gun  gen,  Shuan  Shuan),  a  mixed  people,  which  apparently  had  incorpo- 
rated fragments  of  primitive  Siberian  peoples,  but  linguistically  belimged  to  the 
Turco-Tartar  race.  In  the  early  stages  of  tlieir  history  the  Yen  Yen  appear  to  have 
acquired  so  invidious  a  reputation  for  barbarity  and  vice,  that  they  aroused  disgust 
even  among  their  nomad  neighboure,  who  certainly  were  not  fastidious  in  this  re- 
spect. The  emperors  of  the  We  dj-nasty  long  held  this  refractory  people  in  check. 
The  Yen  Yen  ultimatelj'  founded  their  power  at  the  close  of  the  fouith  century 
by  the  subjugation  of  the  industrious  tribes  of  the  Altai  range ;  they  proceeded 
further  to  the  west  and  obtained  possession  of  the  Central  Asiatic  trade  routes,  and 
extended  tlieir  intluence  over  Mongolia  as  far  as  the  frontiers  of  Korea.  The 
ruler  to  whom  they  owed  this  rapid  rise  was  Talun  (Shelun,  Zarun).  From  the 
name  of  his  successor,  Tatara  (Dudar),  is  said  to  be  derived  the  designation  "  Tar- 
tars," which  in  time  has  become  usual  for  the  peoples  of  the  Turco-Mongolian 
stock. 

The  To  ba  in  Northern  China  soon  saw  themselves  involved  in  arduous  wars 
with  the  new  nomad  empire,  but  in  the  end  proved  fully  a  matcli  for  it.    After  the 


Central  Asia 
and  Siberia 


]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  157 


Yen  Yen,  in  425  and  on  many  subsequent  occasions,  had  received  heavy  reverses  in 
their  attacks  ou  China,  and  had  been  pursued  into  their  own  territory,  the  Pel  We, 
according  to  the  time-honoured  Chinese  policy,  extended  their  influence  once  more 
along  the  old  trade  route  to  the  west,  and  thus  sapped  the  very  foimdations  of  the 
opposition  of  the  nomads.  Alliances  with  the  two  other  empires,  into  which 
China  then  was  divided,  those  of  the  Simg  and  the  Liang,  brought  little  advantage 
to  the  Yen  Yen ;  they  were  repeatedly  defeated,  and  were  unable  to  regain  the 
command  of  the  trade  routes,  although  in  the  year  471  they  reduced  the  kingdoms 
of  Kashgar  and  Khotan  to  great  straits.  The  Yen  Yen  were  not  completely  over- 
throwTi  Ijy  tlie  Chinese.  It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  that 
their  kingdom,  weakened  b}-  internal  dissensions,  fell  before  the  onslaught  of  the 
Turks.  A  great  part  of  the  people  followed  the  example  of  the  Huns  and  fled  to 
the  west.  The  Avars,  who  soon  afterward  appeared  as  conquerors  in  East  Europe, 
are  probably  identical  with  the  Yen  Yen.  Like  the  remnants  of  the  Yen  Yen  in 
Central  Asia,  the  Avars  finally  disappeared  altogether  or  were  absorbed  by  the 
other  nations. 

(i)  77ie  Uic/urinns.  —  When  we  see  these  nomad  empires  attaining  such  gigan- 
tic size  and  then  completely  disappearing,  we  may  easUy  forget  that  Central  Asia 
was  not  exclusively  a  region  where  wandering  hordes  fed  their  flocks  and  herds, 
but  that  it  offered  homes  and  food  to  more  or  less  settled  peoples.  It  has  already 
been  shown  how  flourishing  and  comparatively  civilized  settlements  developed  in 
the  Tarim  basin,  owing  to  the  favourable  position  for  the  trade  of  East  and  West, 
and  became  the  centres  of  small  States.  But  there  were  trade  routes  even  further 
north  which  led  to  the  west,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  lay  districts  which 
were  adapted  for  agi'iculture.  Still  further  away  towered  the  Altai,  with  its  rich 
mines,  the  focus  of  a  primitive  civilization,  which,  in  spite  of  countless  raids  by 
nomads,  was  still  vigorous. 

It  is  certain  that  numerous  towns  and  permanently  settled  nations  were  to  be 
found  from  the  Tian  shan  to  the  Altai.  Political  power,  however,  lay  mostly  in 
the  hands  of  the  nomads,  who  stamped  their  character  on  the  constitution  of  the 
countrj',  and  thus  do  not  appear  even  in  the  earliest  records  as  true  disseminators 
of  culture.  The  Uigurians  (Jugures,  Igures,  Shui  She)  were  long  the  most  impor- 
tant nation  of  this  region ;  they  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  nine  Oghuz  (hordes), 
to  which  the  Tongra,  Sukit,  Adiz,  Sap,  etc.,  belonged.  A  distinction  was  made 
between  a  northern  branch  of  the  Uigurians  which  was  settled  on  the  Selenga  and 
subsequently  spread  to  the  sources  of  the  Yenissei,  and  a  southern  branch  in  the 
south  and  east  of  the  Tian  shan.  While  the  northern  Uigurians,  called  by 
the  Chinese  Kao  che,  or  Thin  le,  did  not  attain  any  high  degree  of  civilization, 
the  southern  Uigurians,  whose  country  was  touched  or  traversed  by  the  most  im- 
portant trade  routes  from  west  to  east,  were  not  unaffected  by  the  civilized  nations 
(cf.  below,  p.  168).  A  remarkable  mixture  of  civilizations,  which  had  a  momen- 
tous influence  on  the  life  of  the  other  nomad  peoples,  was  developed  in  the  towns 
of  the  southern  Uigurians. 

G.  The  Turkish  E.mpires 

The  supremacy  of  the  Yen  Yen  in  Mongolia  was  broken  by  the  Turks  (Tu 
kiu),  a  nation  which  significantly  became  powerful   on  the   AltaL     The  Turks, 


158  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_a..,{.ter  ii 

it  is  true,  do  not  belong  at  all  to  the  old  representatives  of  civilization  of  Yenissean 
stock  on  the  Altai;  they  were  genuine  nomads  uf  Mongolian  descent,  prolmldy  one 
of  those  fragments  of  the  great  Hun  [leojile,  which  gradually  increased  again  in 
numbers  and  importance.  But  the  miueral  wealth  of  the  Altai  doubtless  furnished 
a  source  of  power,  which  they  knew  how  to  use,  whether  they  themselves  mined 
and  smelted,  or  entrusted  this  work  to  their  subjects,  the  old  settled  inhabitants. 
The  term  "  our  smiths  "  whicii  the  Yen  Yen  applied  to  the  Turks  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  was  probably  only  a  deliberate  taunt,  and  not  in  accordance  with  facts. 
It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  among  the  nomads  of  Central  Asia  the  trade  of 
the  smith  was  hold  in  higli  esteem,  quite  otherwise  than,  for  example,  among  the 
nomad  tribes  of  North  Africa,  and  that  in  Mongolian  tradition  even  the  legendary 
national  hero  Genghis  Khan  appears  as  a  smith.  At  any  rate,  the  superior  arma- 
ment of  breastplates,  helmets,  swords,  and  lances,  and  the  marvellous  "  singing 
arrows,"  rendered  possible  by  the  rich  mines,  contributed  greatly  toward  securing 
for  the  originally  not  very  numerous  Turks  the  victory  over  their  opponents. 

(rt)  The  Beginnings.  —  The  national  legend  of  the  Turks  traces  the  descent  of 
the  nation  from  a  boy  whom  a  she-wolf  suckled.  This  tradition,  which  recalls 
the  story  of  Eomulus  and  Eemus,  refers,  like  it,  to  toteraistic  customs,  for  a  golden 
wolf  head  was  the  badge  of  Turkish  warriors.  The  scanty  Chinese  accounts 
represent  the  Turks  as  a  branch  of  the  Aschin  (Asoua),  Huns  who,  after  tlieir 
expulsion  from  China  Vjy  the  AVe  dynasty,  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
the  Yen  Yen,  and  were  allotted  (in  439)  settlements  by  these  on  the  southern  slopes 
of  the  Altai.  Few  traces  of  Chinese  civilization  seem  to  have  been  retained  by 
them ;  on  the  other  hand,  they  appear  to  have  acquired  some  culture  from  tlie 
Uigurians,  to  which  fact  the  adoption  of  the  Uigurian  script  points  (see  the  inserted 
plate,  "The  Eighth  Page  of  the  Kudatku  Bilik").  The  feuds  of  the  northern 
Uigurians  with  the  I'eu  Yen  oiTered  to  the  Turks  a  welcome  opportunity  of  further 
advances.  At  the  first  contest  of  the  two  peoples  (in  490)  the  Turks  made  no 
movement,  but  when  in  the  year  536  an  Uigurian  army  marched  eastward,  and  in 
so  doing  touched  Turkish  ten-itory,  the  ruling  chief  of  the  Turks,  Tu  myn,  attacked 
and  conquered  them,  and  incorporated  into  his  people  the  whole  tribe  of  fifty 
thousand  I'urtes.  The  ease  with  which  tliis  amalgamation  was  etlected  betokens 
the  close  afifinity  which  existed  between  the  peoples  on  the  boundless  steppes  of 
Central  Asia.  Tu  mju  was  now  in  a  position  to  defy  the  Y'en  Yen,  whose  power 
had  long  been  tottering,  and  he  did  so  after  the  prince  of  the  Y'en  Yen  had  con- 
temptuously rejected  him  as  a  suitor  for  tlie  hand  of  one  of  his  daughters.  In  the 
year  552  the  overthrow  of  the  empire  of  the  Y'en  Y''en  was  complete,  and  the  Turks 
now  assumed  the  headship  of  the  Central  Asiatic  nomads,  whose  conditions  on  the 
whole  were  little  altered  by  this  change  of  rulers. 

Since  the  traditional  policy  of  aggression  against  China  was  rendered  hopeless 
by  the  now  firmly  consolidated  power  of  that  State,  the  Turks  turned  toward  the 
west,  along  the  road  which  the  Huns  had  pointed  out  to  all  succeeding  peoples ; 
even  Uigurian  armies  had  penetrated  to  the  Volga  in  463.  The  first  success  of  the 
Turks  was  the  subjugation  of  Sogdiana,  where  the  descendants  of  the  Yue  tshi 
still  ibaintained  their  supremacy,  and  an  advance  had  been  made  toward  the  Tarim 
basin.  By  the  year  437  nine  States  existed  in  Sogdiana  which  were  ruled  by 
princes  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Can  wu  (Yue  tshi).     The  most  important  of  tliem  was 


THE   EIGHTH   PAGE   FROM   THE   OLD  TURKISH  BOOK   OF   ETHICS, 

THE   KUDATKU   BILIK 


Transliteration 

[VII.   Jaxuk  jaz  fazlin  Uluk  Bokra  kan 
oktusun  ajor. 


Translation 
[VII.   The  Season  of  Bright  Spring,  the  Praise 
of  the  Great  Bokia. 

•] 


36  tapukka  kelikli  kut  kapukta  turur 
kapukta  tiirukli  tapukta  turur. 

37  bu  janglik  tapukka  jilindi  agun 
jaki  bojui  ikti  kojiardi  ozun 

38  a^uu  da  cavi  bardi  Chakan  kozi 
kori  munkli  kozlerde  jini  ozi 

39  a^un  encke  tekti  tiizuldi  tiim 
toi'ii  birle  atin  kopardi  brii 

40  aki  suretin  kirn  kbreiu  tese 
kelib  kiirkii  Chakau  jiizi  ijze 

41  ^"'fa  siz  vefalik  tilese  kutun 
jiirun  kiir  kiliii^i  vcfa  ol  biitiin 

42  liiziiu  kilki  aliiik  bakirsak  kungul 
kiirein  tese  kel  muni  kijr  emol 

43  asik  kolsa  barc'a  oziing  jaz  siriii 
beri  kel  tapuk  kil  kiingiil  barasiu 

44  ej  I'tkii  kilinc  basili  etkii  uruk 
a^un  tiiplasuni  kcsiksiz  kuruk 

45  baj.at  berdi  arzu  etcr  keiig  koti 
niunung  siikri  kilku  okub  niing  ati 

46  eti  kecki  soz  bu  meselde  kelir 
ata  ati  omi  oknlka  kalir 

47  ata  orni  kaldi  ati  da  bile 
atinda  taki  bolku  miug  niiug  jile 

48  tuc'i  neng  neguk  tarti  juz  ming  ilik 
muni  kol  neguki  kudatku  bilik 

49  olarning  neguki  kelir  hem  barir 
niening  bu  neguk  boldi  mingi  kalir 

50  naca  bersa  diiiija  tiiker  alkinur 
biti-sa  kalir  s6z  a^un  tiskinur 

51  Kitabta  bitildi  bu  Chakan  ati 
bu  at  mingi  boldi  eter  keng  kuti 

52  ja  reb  isde  devlet  tiikel  kil  tilek 
kamuk  iske  bolkil  .sen  arki  jiiU-k 

53  severin  esen  tut  jakisin  ketiir 
kevin^n  tolu  tut  sivinjjin  kotur 

54  jaka  turku  jamkur  ja.silku  c'ec'ck 
kovumiiis  jikac  salinku  kesek 

55  bolur  bolsa  ebren  tuci  cbrilir 
kuti  boiku  diismen  basi  kobkoliir 

56  jakiz  jer  liakir  bolniakini'a  kizil 
ja  otta  cecek  tinmekince  jasil 


36  who  enters  service  stands  at  the  gate, 
who  stands  at  the  gate  stands  and  serves. 

37  For  such  service  the  world  has  bestirred  itself, 
the  enemy  has  bowed  his  back  and  risen  up. 

38  The  voice  and  glance  of  the  Chakan  penetrated 
the  world.  ||  with  longing  eye  ...  he  himself  .  . . 

39  The  world  obtiiined  rest,  order  wa.s  created, 
his  name  was  uplifted  with  the  law. 

40  whoever  would  see  the  form  of  magnanimity, 
Kt  liim   come  and  behold  the  countenance  of 
the  Chakan.  [sullcring, 

41  Whoever  would  have  joy  and  happiness  without 
Let  him  look  on  him,  his  acts  are  pure  joy. 

42  If  thou  wouldst  see  one  of  gentle  nature 
and  noble  heart,  come,  look  on  him. 

43  Wouldst  tliou  be  profited,  reveal  thy  whole 
secret,  II  approach  and  serve  with  cheerful  heart. 

44  Oh,  noble  deed,  sprung  from  noble  stock, 
may  the  world  honour  unceasingly  .  .  . 

45  God  has  granted  the  wish,  and  given  complete 
happiness,  ||  thanks  must  be  rendered  him  and 
his  name  praised  for  ever. 

46  A  vciy  ancient  saying  lies  in  this  proverb  : 
"The  father's  name  and  place  remain  for  the 
son." 

47  The  father's  place  remained  with  his  name 
may  his  name  remain  among  others  a  thous;ind 
and  a  thousand  years. 

48  A  hundred  thou.sand  liands  have  carried  away 
all  possessions  and  dignity,  ||  seek  tlys  dignity, 
the  "  happy  knowledge." 

49  Your  dignity  conies  and  goes  away  again, 

this  my  dignity  remains  for  ever.  [sitorj-, 

50  All  that  the  world  gives  is  delusive  and  tran- 
hut  the  written  word  endures,  so  long  .as  the 
world  moves.  [book, 

51  This  name  of  the  Chakan  was  written  in  the 
this  name  h.is  become  everlasting  and  gives  rich 
store  of  hapiiiness.  [doings, 

52  Oh  God  !  h:t  happiness  bo  perfected  in  his 
in  every  action  be  thou  a  supiwrt  and  help. 

53  Keep  his  friend,  banish  his  enemy. 

Fill  him  with  confidence,  bless  him  with  joy. 

54  Let  the  rain  fall,  let  the  flowers  spring  np. 
The  parched  trees  shall  shake  their  branches. 
Fate  revolves  ever  as  it  wills,  ||  Let  him  succeed, 
and  the  head  of  the  enemy  is  hollowe<l  out. 
Lentil  the  grey  earth  becomes  red  as  copper 
or  until  green  grass  grows  in  the  fire 


55 


56 


57  tirilsuni  .  .  .  ozi  ming  kutim 
tiikiilku  knniki  koriiiiu'Z  uriin 

58  taki  da  lu-gu  trsji  arzu  tilok 
U-ijattiii  jetilkii  uiiggii  kut  jiilck 

59  siviu^in  obiii|tin  ki-bitiiii  ja^  Ali 
Osaka  jn&isuui  Ixikmau  jili 

VIII.   Jeti  jolJuz  on  iki  ogek  burc  un  ajor 

1  Bajat  ati  birle  suzuk  baslatim 
turetken  jikitken  keciirkeii  IJim 

2  Tiiretti  tilpktek  Uizi  alciiiin 
jarutti  a^Diia  kiiniin  hem  ajin 

3  jaratti  kiir  abran  tuci  abrilur 
auing  birle  teskin  J  jime  teskinur 

4  jasil  kijk  jaratti  jime  jolduzi 
kara  tUn  jarutti  jaruk  kiindiizi 

5  bu  kokteki  jolduz  bir  naca  bekek 
bir  naca  kiitez  oi  bu  jekkc  jekck 

6  bir  naca  kiilakuz  Iwlur  jitsa  jol 
bir  naea  jarutmis  chnlik  ke  ol 

7  kajusi  oriirek  kajusi  koti 
kajusi  jarukrak  kaju  iiksUti 


57  may  be  ever  live  with  thousand  fold  happiness, 
may  his  eye  reach  to  lauds  invisible. 

58  Whatever  be  his  wish  and  desire,  ||  Uajipiuess 
and  help  thereto  shall  come  from  God. 

59  With  joy,  pleasure,  and  contentment 
may  he  live  happily  to  the  age  of  Lokman. 

VIII.   On  the  Seven  Stars  (rianets)  and  the 
Twelve  Signs  of  the  Zodiac. 

1  With  the  name  of  God  I  have  begun  my  speech. 
Oh  God,  my  creator,  who  doth  destroy  and 
forgive. 

2  He  created  at  will  all  the  worlds,  II  he  made  the 
sun  and  the  moon  to  shine  in  the  world. 

3  Behold  !  ho  created  the  ever  circliug  heaven, 
all  things  move,  moving  together  with  it. 

4  He  created  the  blue  .sky  and  all  the  stars, 

he  made  the  black  night  as  bright  as  the  day. 

5  of  the  stars  in  the  heaven  some  .  .  . 
Some  are  the  sentinels  of  these  .  .  . 

6  Some  show  the  path  to  men  who  liave  lost 
their  way,  ||  some  are  illumined  by  the  creator. 

7  one  is  higher,  the  other  is  beneath, 
one  is  bright*,  the  other  is  dark. 


Tlie  Kudatku  Bilik  ("  the  Blcssinf»  of  Knowledge ")  is  a  system  of  moral  philosophy  in 
rhymed  verses,  which  e.xpounds  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  the  transitory  world  and  to  the 
inexorable  destinies  of  fate.  It  deiils  with  the  duties  of  a  prince  toward  his  people,  with  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  different  olficial  classes,  and  with  the  virtues  which  belong  to  an  honest  career 
.ind  the  vices  which  corrode  society.  It  is  a  code  of  morals  according  to  the  old  Turki.sh  ideas. 
The  work  w;is  composed  in  eighteen  mouths  by  a  certain  Nusuf  iu  the  reign  of  Bokra  (or  Boghra) 
Khan,  by  whom  he  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  Privy  Vizier.  The  full  name  of  the  author, 
therefore,  runs,  Nusuf  Kli;i.ss  Iladjib.  The  first  half  w;is  composed  in  the  most  eastern  part  of 
East  Turkestan  (Khami  ()>  the  second  in  Kiushgar.  The  work  has  been  preserved  for  us  in  a  copy 
made  at  Herat  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira,  843  (=  1440  A.  D.),  which  thirty-six  years  later  came  to 
Tokat  in  Asia  Minor  and  rejiched  Constantinople  in  1492  A.  D.  Thence  it  came  into  the  pos.session 
of  Baron  Jos.  von  Hammei^Purgstall,  from  whom  it  passed  to  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna. 

The  Kudatku  Bilik,  the  oldest  linguistic  monument  and  literary  product  of  the  Turkish 
nations,  furnishes  the  first  trustworthy  information,  not  merelj'  of  the  particular  dialect,  but  of  the 
whole  life  and  habits  of  the  Uigurians,  one  of  the  oldest  tribes  of  the  Turkish  nationalities,  who 
led  a  nonjad  existence  in  Eastern  Turkestan  (Hami,  Turfan,  and  Karashar),  between  the  Manchus 
in  the  east  and  the  Parsees  in  the  west.  The  Kudatku  Bilik,  dating  from  the  year  4G2-463  of 
the  Hegira  (1068-1069  A.  d),  mentions  an  independent  Kashgar  kingdom,  where  the  above-men- 
tioned Bokra  Khan  reigned,  and  a  prince  in  the  east.  The  Uigurians  therefore  composed  several 
small  separate  States.  The  upper  classes  of  the  tribe  were  the  Black  People  (the  nobles)  and  the 
olficials  or  servants.  The  population  was  made  up  of  merchants,  farmers,  and  cattle-breeders; 
there  were  also  Seiil,  phj'sician.s,  magicians,  and  astrologers.  Among  the  government  officials  are 
mentioned  the  vizier,  the  genend,  tlie  secretary,  the  ambassador,  and  the  keeper  of  the  gate.  The 
jiublic  and  private  life  was  of  a  com]iletfly  Jiatriarchal  character.  The  emphasis  laid  on  the 
importance  of  science  and  learning  is  especially  noteworthv. 

Uigurian  is  the  first  dialect  of  Turkish  which  was  reduced  to  writing,  and  has,  therefore, 
retained  the  oldest  forms  and  roots  of  the  language.  The  aljihabet  is  the  SvroSab.ean.  It  was 
not  until  the  descemlants  of  Genghis  Khan  profeR.sed  Islam,  and  the  learning;  of  the  western 
Mnhammc<lans  comiuered  Central  Asi:i,  that  the  olil  Uigurian  characters,  in  which  Emir  Timur 
as  late  as  1379  issuerl  proclamations  on  the  banks  of  the  Dni(']M-r,  had  to  give  way  to  the  newly 
adopted  Araliian,  anil  were  ilriven  back  into  the  v.olleys  of  the  Tienshan. 

(Mostly  from  Hermann  Vamber)-,   "  Uigurische  Sprachmonumente  und  das  Kudatku  Bilik." 

Innsbruck,  1870.) 


■ —  w>-  • — l^it*  — *^ 


—    *-'♦   ,«■•"  -AO    »-'•    "'»--n  _ 


^"«»*A^  JO^—  "  tew—  /«tij>j^  ji>3— 


^  n  ■  1  _1    Aj^  /**'<^     *i»-v    >->es»   ■ Aj9kt»  '  ^    »^a4*  ■—  «XflUfc  —    a^^j  .tl. 

vv^^i-    lyoA^   fe-^j-^  ya^  It.  <?~ '^"—  /'      ■•  cs"  ^^a«a^>  «  — •tvSis 

' **<^*,<  M.  '^    " 


«^AA-     k»^    ^A^M^ 


TiiF.  Kiiiiirii  T'AiiK  KHOM  TiiK  Old  Ti'itKisii  I'.odK  UK  Ktiiics,  the 

KlDATKT     I'lII.IK 


(From  tilt;  M.S.  in  tin-  Iiii|n-riul  Uiliiaiy  at  Viniim.) 


central  Axin 
and  Siberii 


■;"]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  159 


Samarkand.  In  Tashkent,  Ferghana,  and  Kharismia  other  dynasties  occupied  the 
thrones.  The  conquest  of  Sogdiana,  the  petty  States  of  which,  however,  had  hardly 
disappeared,  gave  the  Turkish  conquerors  an  interest  in  the  Western  trade, 
especially  in  the  export  of  silk  from  Sogdiana,  which  was  then  hindered  by  the 
Persians,  probably  because  in  Persia  itself  the  breeding  of  silkworms  was  a  preva- 
lent industry,  and  also  because  silk  was  obtained  from  China  by  the  sea  route. 
Tlie  attempt  to  win  the  desired  object  from  the  Persians  by  diplomacy  led  to  a 
long  series  of  hostile  complications.  The  Turks  then  determined  to  enter  into 
direct  communication  with  the  Byzantines,  who  must  have  been  equally  interested 
in  breaking  the  Persian  trading  monopoly  (569).  A  Turkish  embassy  arrived  at 
Constantinople,  in  consequence  of  which  Zimarch  (Zemarkh)  went  to  the  capital 
of  the  Turkish  Great  Khan  in  the  Altai  with  a  commission  from  Justin  II,  the 
Byzantine  emperor.  We  possess  his  detailed  account  of  the  journey  and  of  the 
battles  of  the  Tinks  against  the  "  Wliite  Huns  "  and  the  Persians,  at  some  of  which 
he  was  present.  We  learn  from  him  also  that  the  west  of  the  Tarim  basin  then  fell 
into  the  power  of  the  Turks.  Later,  the  Byzantines  also,  in  spite  of  their  cautious 
policy,  were  hard  pressed  by  the  Turks,  since  with  the  period  of  the  Turkish  power 
generally  a  fresh  flood  of  Central  Asiatic  tribes  poured  over  Western  Asia  and 
Europe.  The  Khazars,  wht)  advanced  in  626  to  East  Europe,  were  a  detached 
fragment  of  the  Turkish  nation.  As  might  be  expected,  attacks  were  made  on 
China  so  soon  as  any  opportunity  presented  itself. 

{h)  The  Eastern  and  Western  Turks.  —  China  now  adopted  her  successful 
policy  of  sowing  seeds  of  dissension  among  the  nomads.  The  Turkish  Empire, 
like  the  earlier  empires,  split  up  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  province,  which 
were  governed  by  a  viceroy,  while  the  centre,  both  in  peace  and  war,  was  under  the 
command  of  the  supreme  ruler.  The  Chinese,  about  the  year  600,  succeeded  in 
weakening  permanently  the  power  of  the  Turks  by  dividing  the  empire  into  an 
eastern  and  a  western  part. 

In  the  year  630  the  Chinese  armies  won  a  brilliant  factory  over  the  eastern 
Turks,  in  which  the  khan.  Kin  Li,  was  captured ;  thus  Chinese  influence  was 
again  extended  to  Sogdiana.  The  eastern  empire  then  broke  up  into  a  number  of 
weak  and  petty  States  ;  but  part  of  the  Turks  migrated  to  China,  where  settlements 
were  assigned  to  them  in  order  that  they  might  serve  as  a  frontier  guard  against 
other  nomad  tribes.  The  people,  which  had  not  forgotten  its  old  fame,  became  in 
Chinese  territory  once  more  so  strong  that  in  681,  under  Qutluq  (Ko  to  lo,  Ku  tut 
luk),  it  was  able  to  shake  off  the  Qiinese  ride  and  spread  its  influence  over  Mon- 
golia. The  power  of  the  Tmks  grew  still  stronger  under  Me  chun  (Me  tsu),  the 
brother  and  successor  of  Qutluq,  who  skilfidly  availed  himself  of  the  disputes  for 
the  Chinese  throne.  Once  more  the  Turkish  Empire  became  a  mighty  power. 
Even  the  western  Turks  seem  temporarily  to  have  been  subjugated,  and  the  Turkish 
supremacy  was  re-established  in  Sogdiana,  where  the  petty  States  of  the  Yue  tshi 
still  existed. 

After  Me  chun's  death,  Kultegin,  the  commander  of  the  army,  a  nephew  of  the 
dead  man,  murdered  the  lawfid  heir,  his  cousin,  and  placed  his  own  brother  Me  ki 
lien  on  the  throne.  We  have  accurate  accounts  of  these  events  from  the  inscrip- 
tions on  the  grave-piUars  of  Orkhon.  The  east  Turkish  Empire  still  kept  its  posi- 
tion as  a  formidable  power.     But  its  decline  recommenced,  and  the  end   was 


160  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter ii 

produced  bv  a  coalition  of  the  Uigiirians  and  Chinese  in  the  year  745.  From  that 
date  the  Turks  almost  disappear  from  the  history  of  Central  Asia.  The  fall  of  the 
Turkish  power  was  hastened  by  tlie  advance  of  the  Arabs,  wlio  in  the  meantime 
had  conquered  Persia  and  penetrated  to  Sogdiana,  where  some  of  the  jirinces  sought 
help  from  the  Turks  and  fought  with  chequered  success  against  their  new  oppres- 
sors. In  712  the  Arabs  won  a  brilliant  %-ictory  over  the  allied  Sogdiaus  and  Turks, 
the  latter  probably  led  by  Kultegin.  In  tlie  year  730,  Imwever,  they  met  with  a 
severe  defeat  at  Samarkand  from  the  same  antagonists.  The  necessity  under  which 
they  lay  of  defending  themselves  on  different  sides  certainly  helped  to  effect  the 
rapid  fall  of  the  east  Turkish  Emjiire. 

The  western  Turks,  soon  after  their  separation  from  the  east  empire,  had  been 
forced  to  acknowledge  a  sort  of  suzerainty  of  Persia.  In  620,  however,  they  felt 
themselves  strong  enough  to  e.xtend  their  empire  (which  must  have  lain  between 
the  Altai  and  the  Sea  of  Aral),  and  to  invade  Persia  and  Sogdiana.  Turkish  mer- 
cenaries or  allies  played  a  momentous  part  in  the  contests  for  the  Persian  throne 
at  that  time.  All  the  conquered  ten-itory,  indeed,  was  very  loosely  united,  as  is 
invariably  the  case  witli  nomad  empires,  and  when  occasion  offered  it  was  the 
more  easily  broken  up  again,  since  the  nomad  is  never  so  closely  attached  to  his 
countr)'  as  the  agriculturist.  Instances  occur  where  entire  nations  crossed  the 
steppes  of  Central  Asia  in  their  fullest  extent,  in  order  to  escape  the  yoke  of  a 
hated  conqueror  and  to  seek  protection  perhaps  on  the  Chinese  frontier.  The 
western  Turks  then  had  command  of  the  northern  trade  routes  of  Central  Asia  so 
far  as  they  passed  through  the  Uigurian  country.  Since  the  Chinese  thereupon 
favoured  the  southern  roads  through  the  Tarim  basin,  Turks  and  Uigurians  com- 
bined and  invaded  the  petty  States  of  that  district,  attacked  Hami,  wliich  was 
occupied  by  the  Chinese,  and  thus  compelled  China  to  act  on  the  defensive  (639). 
These  disorders  lasted  for  a  long  time,  but  finally  ended  in  favour  of  the  Chinese. 
Soon  afterward  the  advance  of  the  Arabs  througli  Persia  was  felt  by  the  western 
Turks,  wliile  the  Chinese  armies  pressed  on  threateningly  from  the  east.  The 
result  was  the  almost  complete  fall  of  the  power  of  the  western  Turks,  and  their 
inheritance  passed  for  a  short  period  to  the  Tibetans,  wlio  had  become  powerful  in 
the  interval.  It  was  not  until  the  year  700  tliat  the  empire  revived,  only  to  find 
itself  soon  entangled  in  bitter  wars  with  the  Arabs.  It  was  almost  more  shattered 
by  remarkable  factions  at  the  court  and  within  the  trilial  federation,  the  true  cause 
of  which,  whether  ethnic,  social,  or  political,  cannot  be  discovered.  There  was  a 
black  and  a  yellow  party,  which  often  fought  furiously  together  and  put  forward 
their  own  candidates  whenever  the  succession  to  the  throne  was  disputed.  The 
complete  overthrow  of  the  empire  was  effected  in  760  by  the  Qarluk  (Ko  lo  lu), 
a  tribe  of  the  Turco-Mongolian  race  living  to  the  west  of  the  Altai  range.  The 
remnants  appear  in  later  history  as  Ghuzes  ( Oghuz).  We  have  already  seen  in 
Vol.  Ill  how  the  Turkish  tribes,  which  conformed  to  Islam,  sucli  as  tlie  Seljuks 
and  later  the  Osmans,  found  a  field  for  their  warlike  activity  in  West  Asia. 

(c)  The  Kirghiz  and  the  Khitan.  —  In  Central  Asia  the  place  of  the  Turks  as 
the  dominant  people  was  taken  by  the  nomad  Uigurians,  who  were  then  called 
Hoei  he  (Goei  he,  Shui  she).  Their  chief  opponents  were  the  Kirghiz  (Hakas) 
in  southwestern  Siberia,  who  now  for  the  first  time  came  forward  as  a  powerful 
people  and  tried  to  enter  into  direct  relations  with  China.     In  alliance  with  the 


•Central  Asia 
-and  SI 


;^^.;r]  HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD  161 


Chinese  they  shattered  the  Uiguiian  supremacy  in  the  year  830.  The  question  at 
issue  seems  once  more  to  have  been  tlie  command  of  tlie  trading  communications 
with  the  west.  The  Kirghiz  tlien  appeared  as  the  connecting  agents,  who  con- 
ducted with  armed  escorts  Arabian  caravans  to  China  through  the  hostile  Uiguriau 
territory.  The  Kirghiz  never  founded  an  empire  of  equal  extent  with  that  of  the 
Huns  or  Turks.  The  Uigurian  empire  was  always  restricted  to  a  limited  area 
{cl.  the  explanation  of  the  plate,  p.  158). 

Later,  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  the  nation  of  the  Khitan  (Chilan), 
which  was  mainly  of  Tungusian  stock,  extended  its  rule  from  Manchuiia  over  a 
large  jiart  of  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia,  until  the  Mongols  founded  a  new  world- 
empire  in  that  region. 

//.  Tibet 

Tibet  for  a  long  period  was  little  affected  by  the  enormous  revolutions  that 
convulsed  Central  Asia,  and  in  any  case  it  was  only  its  frontier  that  felt  them. 
These  frontier  tribes  of  Tibet  were  formerly  further  removed  from  the  centre.  On 
the  south  the  Himalayas  always  formed  a  strong  barrier,  but  to  the  north  Tibetans 
were  settled  as  far  as  the  Tarim  basin,  and  even  a  great  part  of  Sovitheasterii  Cliiua 
was  filled  with  Tibetan  tribes,  which  were  only  gradually  absorbed  by  the  Chinese 
population.  Tibet  proper  lay  completely  off  the  main  track.  The  roads  of  trade 
and  culture  did  not  traverse  the  country ;  nor  did  the  desolate  plateaii,  scorched  by 
mtolerable  summer  heats  and  lashed  by  winter  snowstorms,  allure  the  neighbour- 
ing nomads  to  daring  raids,  which  might  at  least  have  interrupted  the  stereotyped 
monotony  of  existence,  and  thus  created  movement  and  life.  The  achievements 
of  civilization  were  slow  in  permeating  to  this  region,  and  it  was  long  before  the 
seeds  of  progress  sprang  up  from  the  barren  ground. 

Originally  all  Tibetan  peoples  must  have  lived  that  life  of  mere  hunters  which 
appears  to  be  the  lowest  grade  of  human  existence.  Tibet,  in  spite  of  its  desola- 
tion, was  adapted  for  this  mode  of  life.  However  poor  it  might  be  in  edible  wild 
plants,  it  teemed  with  beasts  of  the  chase,  which  even  now  cover  the  country  in 
immense  herds.  The  old  agricultural  life,  which  originated  with  the  brachy- 
cephalic  race,  was  only  followed  in  the  advanced  posts  of  the  Tibetan  people, 
which  were  settled  in  the  Tarim  l)asin  on  the  trading  route,  and  found  in  the  oases 
suitable  tracts  of  country  at  their  disposal.  The  reason  wh)-  they  did  not  spread 
further  toward  Tibet  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  only  districts  at  all  adajited 
for  agriculture  lay  far  to  the  south,  in  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Brahmajnitra  and 
the  Indus.  Any  germs  of  culture  that  developed  in  these  southern  tracts  were 
brought  from  India,  and  naturally  not  until  the  Aryan  inhabitants  of  India  had 
created  a  civilization  of  their  own.  This  circumstance  thus  helps  to  explain  the 
slow  advance  of  civilization  in  Tibet  as  well  as  the  enormous  influence  of  India  on 
what  was  once  purely  a  Central  Asiatic  region. 

Wliat  the  inhabitants  of  Northern  and  Central  Tibet  derived  from  Central  Asia 
was  not  the  old  agricultural  life,  but  the  newer  social  economy  of  the  nomad  tribes. 
It  must  remain  a  moot  point  whether  Tibetans  were  in  this  matter  mere  recipients, 
or  whether  by  the  domestication  of  the  yak  they  did  not  greatly  add  to  the  number 
of  useful  animals.  The  wild  yak  is  spread  so  far  to  the  north  that  a  tribe  of  Turco- 
Mongolian  or  even  Aryan  race  may  have  made  the  first  attempts  at  breeding  them. 
In  any  case  the  wagon  was  hardly  known  in  Tibet  as  a  means  of  transport,  but 

VOL.  II-  U 


162  HISTORY     Ol-^    THK    WORLD  {chnj.u-r it 

tininmls,  and  esjiecially  the  yak,  were  exclusively  used  to  carry  burdens.  The 
inlruduci ion  of  nomadic  hahits  pave  the  Til)etaus,  especially  those  of  ilie  north,  a 
greater  mobility,  allowed  an  increase  of  population,  and  graihially  taught  them  the 
warlike  marauding  life  peculiar  to  all  nomads.  It  would  seem  that  the  bow  also, 
which  is  not  the  national  weapon  in  Tibet,  was  introduced  from  the  north. 

(n)  Prehistoric  Age  of  Tibet.  —  The  Tibetan  tribes  may  have  waged  little  wars 
on  each  other,  and  also  on  the  nomatl  peoples  of  Mongolian  race  living  to  the 
north,  but  no  historically  important  struggles  took  place  until  the  growing  power 
of  Tibet  sought  its  booty  among  the  settled  nations.  The  roads  to  the  south  and 
west  were  completely  barred,  but,  in  compensation,  the  great  commercial  route  on 
the  north,  with  its  trading  stations  and  oases,  was  exposed  to  attack,  and  on  the 
northeast  the  riches  of  China  itself  presented  a  goal  for  profitable  raids.  In 
lilongolia  the  mighty  empire  of  the  Huns  had  already  been  formed  out  of  small 
tribes,  which  combined  for  such  marauding  expeditions.  In  Tibet,  where  the  con- 
ditions were  far  less  favourable,  the  political  unification  of  the  separate  hordes  began 
far  later  and  was  less  successful.  Occasionally,  indeed,  some  frontier  tribes  had 
an  opportunity  of  interfering  in  the  internal  aflairs  of  China.  A  doubtful  account 
states  that  Tibetan  auxiliaries  appeared  in  the  Chinese  service  in  1123  B.C.,  but  no 
large  empire  appears  to  have  been  formed  until  the  advent  of  Buddhism,  which 
with  its  proselytising  power  levelled  the  barriers  between  rival  tribes,  first  stimu- 
lated national  union. 

The  Tibetan  history,  the  "  Book  of  the  Kings,"  which  only  appeared  compara- 
tively late  under  the  influence  of  Chinese  models,  contains  a  legendary  account  of 
the  prehistoric  period,  which  naturally  is  untrustworthy  in  its  details,  but  proves 
from  what  sources  the  Tibetans  themselves  derived  their  civilization.  According 
to  it  there  appeared,  in  the  first  century  B.  c,  in  the  country  to  the  south  of  the 
modern  Lhasa,  a  marvellously  endowed  child,  whom  the  wild  natives  soon  regarded 
as  their  heaven-sent  leader.  This  child,  an  invention  clearly  on  the  model  of 
the  infant  Dalai-Lamas  of  a  later  age,  was  a  direct  descendant  of  Buddha.  He 
founded  a  kingdom,  the  subjects  of  which  were  gradually  raised  by  his  successors 
to  higher  grades  of  culture,  precisely  in  the  way  in  which  Chmese  prehistory 
traces  the  progress  of  civilization.  Under  tlie  seventh  monarch,  in  the  second  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  smelting,  the  use  of  the  plough,  and  irrigation  were  discovered.  In  the 
fifth  century  the  fields  were  enclosed,  articles  of  clothing  were  made  from  leather, 
and  walnut-trees  were  planted.  Soon  afterward  the  yak  was  crossed  with  the  ox, 
and  mules  were  bred,  etc.  Although  the  legend  does  not  acknowledge  any  direct 
introduction  of  Indian  civilization  into  Tibet,  still  the  fact  that  the  centre  of  cul- 
ture lay  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Indian  frontier,  and  that  the  genealogy  of  the  royal 
house  was  traced  from  Buddlia,  ])oints  unmistakably  to  this  source.  The  widening 
dissemination  of  Buddliist  doctrine  in  India  (cf.  Section  IV  of  this  \olumc)  had 
fired  a  missionary  zeal  there,  which  brought  the  new  faith,  and  in  its  train  a 
higher  civilization,  over  the  dreaded  barrier  of  the  Himalayan  snows.  From  the 
West,  also,  where  the  Buddhist  doctrine  spread  as  far  as  the  Tarim  basin,  Tibet 
felt  this  same  influence,  and  wlien  tlie  new  faith  struck  root  even  in  Cliina,  Tibet 
as  the  connecting  link  between  China  and  Central  Asia  on  the  one  side,  and  India 
on  the  other,  suddenly  acquired  a  new  imjwrtance ;  and  finally,  after  the  decay 
of  Buddhism  in  the  Indian  mother-country,  Tibet  became  the  peculiar  home  and 
sanctuary  of  the  northern  worsliijijiers  of   lluddlia. 


f^'^l^r]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  163 

"While  in  Southern  Tibet  a  small  civaized  State  gradually  developed,  which 
depended  for  its  power  and  prosperity  on  agriculture,  the  northern  nomads  had 
also  begun  to  organise  themselves,  and  in  so  doing  may  have  been  influenced  by 
tlie  example  of  the  neighbouring  Chinese  constitution,  and  of  the  nomad  kingdoms 
in  Central  Asia.  Tiie  northeastern  tribes  of  Tibet,  called  by  the  Chmese  Ti 
(Tufan),  played,  in  the  first  century  after  the  Christian  era,  on  a  small  scale  the 
role  of  the  Central  Asiatics,  since  they  figured  at  one  time  as  enemies,  at  another 
as  allies,  of  the  Chinese  kmgdoms  and  their  claimants.  Tibetan  chieftains  even 
appear  as  rulers  of  small  Chinese  States  in  the  same  way  as  Hun  and  Turkish 
princes  usurped  the  thrones  of  isolated  kingdoms.  The  Khiang,  who  lived  to  the 
southeast  of  the  Tarim  basin  and  menaced  trade  communications  with  the  west, 
were  another  branch  of  the  Tibetan  race. 

(b)  The  Empire  of  Tibet.  —  No  real  empire  was  established  until,  in  the  course 
of  the  sixth  century  B.  c,  the  civilized  State  in  the  south  brought  the  northern 
nomads  also  under  its  influence.  A  power  was  created  which  had  a  large  share  in 
the  further  political  development  of  Central  Asia.  Almost  impregnable  in  its  own 
countrj',  it  held  a  menacing  position  on  the  southwest  frontier  of  China  and  on  the 
trade  routes  which  crossed  the  Tarim  basin.  The  shifting  fortunes  of  the  Turkish 
empires  offered  ample  opportunities  of  interference. 

The  empire  of  Tibet  first  aroused  the  attention  of  the  Chinese  in  the  year  589. 
With  what  deliberate  purpose  the  Tibetan  rulers  endeavomed  to  advance  their 
civilization  by  Indian  influence  is  shown  by  the  embassy  to  India  in  632,  which 
resulted  in  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Buddhist  religion  and  in  the  inven- 
tion of  a  script  formed  after  the  Indian  model.  Even  then  Lhasa  was  the  capital 
of  the  empire  and  the  focus  of  religious  life.  The  relations  of  the  new  empire 
with  China  were  friendly  at  first ;  but  very  soon  the  pretext  for  war  was  given  by 
an  incident  of  a  kind  not  unusual  in  the  history  of  Central  Asiatic  kingdoms : 
the  request  of  the  Tibetan  monarch  for  the  hand  of  a  Chinese  princess  was  insult- 
ingly refused.  Since,  however,  the  king  obtained  his  wish  in  the  end,  the  cam- 
paign caimot  have  resulted  so  favourably  for  the  Chinese  as  their  historians  would 
have  us  believe.  But  the  Tibetan  preferred  to  turn  his  arms  for  the  future  against 
the  Tarim  basin,  where  there  was  a  state  of  anarchy  which  offered  greater  prospects 
of  successful  conquest ;  and  by  the  j-ear  680  the  power  of  Tibet  extended  as  far  as 
the  Tian  shan.  A  combmed  attack  of  the  Chinese  and  Turks  in  692  had  indeed 
the  momentary  effect  of  driving  back  the  Tibetans;  but  they  returned  to  the 
attack,  and  pressed  on  in  715  as  far  as  Ferghana,  after  they  had  concluded  an 
alliance  with  the  Arabs.  During  the  whole  of  the  eighth  century  Tibet  remained 
the  foremost  power  in  the  south  of  Central  Asia,  and  a  formidable  enemy  of  China, 
the  capital  of  which  was  actuall}-  stormed  and  plundered  by  the  TiV)elans  in  the 
)'ear  763.  It  was  not  until  820  that  a  permanent  peace  was  concluded  between 
Tibet  and  China,  and  a  pillar  with  an  inscription  was  erected  in  Lhasa  to  com- 
memorate the  event. 

(c)  The  Fall  of  the  Tibetan  Empire.  —  In  the  coinse  of  the  ninth  century  the 
power  of  Tibet  rapidly  diminished.  The  Uigurians  seized  the  borderland  on  the 
north,  and  Hsia  successfully  took  over  the  duty  of  guarding  the  frontier  against 
the  decaying  empire  of  Tibet.     This  kmgdom  (more  accurately  Hsi  Hsia,  Western 


164  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapter  ii 

Hsia ;  cf.  p.  92)  had  been  formed  in  884,  at  the  time  of  the  Tang  dynasty,  on  the 
upper  course  of  the  Hoangho.  The  royal  house  was  descended  from  the  Toba 
dynasty  of  Pei  We,  which  had  been  destroyed  in  Nortli  China  in  557  ;  but  Tau- 
gutes,  that  is  to  say,  near  kinsmen  of  the  Tibetans,  formed  the  picked  warriors  of 
the  people.  In  1032  the  Slate  made  itself  completely  independent  of  the  northern 
Sung  dynasty  which  ruled  in  Southern  China  and  subseijuently  maintained  its 
position,  since  it  allied  itself  at'  one  time  with  the  Sung,  at  anotlier  with  the 
Khiian,  and  later  with  the  Kin,  who  were  supreme  in  Northern  China.  The  inde- 
pendent position  of  the  country  was  outwardly  demonstrated  (and  this  is  a  fea- 
ture which  frequently  recurs  in  Central  Asia)  by  the  invention  of  a  new  script, 
which  was  mainly  based  on  the  ancient  Chinese  signs.  We  have  only  brief  rec- 
ords of  the  wars  of  the  Hsia  kingdom.  An  invasion  of  the  Tibetans  in  1076 
ended  in  a  precipitate  retreat,  the  result,  it  is  said,  of  a  superstitious  panic  which 
seized  the  army.  In  1227  the  Hsia  kingdom  was  annihilated  by  the  Mongols 
(cf.  below,  p.  17;!). 

The  fall  of  the  political  power  of  Tibet  must  be  ultimately  traced  to  the  fact 
that  Buddhism  then  permeated  the  country,  cripjded  the  secular  power,  and 
effected  a  thorough  spiritual  revolution  in  tlu'  minds  of  tlie  people.  Buddhism 
soon  assumed  a  peculiar  character  in  that  isolated  country.  The  priests  of  Tibet 
showed  little  appreciation  of  the  more  subtle  theological  and  iiliilosophical  dis- 
putes and  doctrines  of  their  Indian  or  Chinese  co-religionists.  Hut  all  the  more 
important  was  the  influence  of  the  originally  Shamanistic  national  religion,  wliich 
exalted  the  Buddliist  clergy  and  monks  into  magicians  and  ascribed  to  them  all 
the  various  arts  of  a  degraded  mysticism.  This  is  the  ejqtlanation  of  the  com- 
manding position  which  the  Buddhist  priesthood  was  able  to  acquire  in  Tibet,  and 
of  the  chaos  of  superstitious  ideas  which  gradually  spread  thence  over  Central 
Asia. 

After  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  Tibet  led  a  quiet  existence,  which  in  no 
respect  excited  the  attention  of  its  neighbours.  In  tlie  year  1015  alone  an  armed 
([uarrel  with  China  caused  a  short  interruption  of  this  trancpiillity.  llelations  with 
China  had  again  slightly  improved  the  culture  of  the  country.  After  the  entry  of 
the  Chine-se  princess  mentioned  on  page  16.''>,  the  knowledge  had  been  accpiired  of 
making  wine  from  rice  or  barley,  of  erecting  water  mills,  and  weavmg  stuffs. 
Chinese  artisans  also  had  come  into  the  country,  and  the  sons  of  the  best  families 
were  frequently  sent  to  China  to  be  educated.  Tibetan  civilization,  which  had  been 
at  first  entirely  subject  to  Indian  influence,  took  more  and  more  a  Chinese  stamp, 
until  finally  the  storm  of  the  Mongols  swept  over  Tibet,  and  brought  the  coiuitry 
into  a  still  closer  political  union  with  Ciiina. 

/.  The  State  of  Civilization  and  Religion  in  Central  Asia  down  to  the 

Time  of  the  Mongols 

Thk  example  of  Tibet  .shows  how  closely  the  progress  of  civilization  is  con- 
nected with  religifms  propaganda,  and  how  the  wisli  to  spread  tlicir  own  peculiar 
creed  can  be  the  chief  cause  why  members  of  a  more  highly  civilized  people  ven- 
ture to  be  the  apostles  of  culture  in  the  most  remote  and  most  uninviting  legions 
of  the  world.  But  this  is  not  a  unique  piienomenon  in  Central  Asia.  However 
greatly  the  trade  between  East  and  West  promoted  the  civilization  of  Central 


Central  Asia 
and  SiberUt 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  165 


Asia,  it  cannot  be  disputed  that  the  most  strenuous  work  in  the  cause  oi  culture 
was  done  by  those  who,  as  preachers  of  the  different  world  religions,  penetrated 
into  the  heart  of  Asia,  or  marched  toward  the  east  on  the  great  commercial  roads. 
Religious  zeal  alone  created  that  endurance  and  self-denial  which  all  must  possess 
who  attempt  to  sow  in  backward  nations  the  seeds  of  a  higher  culture  and  of 
nobler  modes  of  life.  It  is  an  important  fact  that  among  the  civilized  countries 
which  border  upon  Central  Asia  China  alone  produced  no  world  religion,  properly 
so  called,  and  sent  out  no  missionaries  apart  from  Buddhists.  In  consequence  of 
this,  the  Chinese  never  succeeded  in  firmly  attaching  the  Central  Asiatics  to  them- 
selves until  they  finally  found  in  their  encouragement  of  the  Buddhist  teaching  a 
substitute  which  did  them  inestimable  service  in  taming  the  wild  nomad  hordes. 

The  original  "  religion  "  of  the  Central  Asiatics  was  doubtless  that  simple 
mysticism  which  under  various  forms  is  to  be  found  in  all  primitive  peoples.  The 
chief  duties  of  the  wizard  priests,  who  are  revered  as  possessors  of  mystic  powers, 
consist  in  averting  evil  influences  and  in  healing  diseases.  That  belief  in  one 
supreme  divinity,  which  is  usually  found  in  such  cases,  ha^*  only  a  subordinate 
significance  and  has  little  influence  on  the  spiritual  life.  The  characteristic  form 
of  lower  mysticism  among  the  Northern  and  Central  Asiatics  is  Shamanism.  The 
shaman,  or  sorcerer,  works  himself  up  to  a  frenzy  by  beating  a  drum  or  by  other  simi- 
lar methods,  and  then  enters  into  communication  with  the  spirit  world,  about  the 
nature  of  which  very  different  ideas,  partly  influenced  by  the  civilized  religions,  pre- 
vail among  the  various  nations.  Even  where  a  higher  form  of  religion  has  alieady 
penetrated.  Shamanism  usually  remains  for  a  long  time  as  a  popular  national  cus- 
tom ;  in  fact,  it  stamps  a  peculiar  local  character  on  these  religions.  In  the  eyes 
of  the  nomads  of  Central  Asia,  all  priests  were  a  kind  of  shamans,  from  whom 
cures,  prophecies,  and  miracles  might  be  expected.  This  led  to  perverted  forms  of 
the  (jriginal  religious  doctrines,  from  which  neither  Buddhists  nor  Nestorians  were 
exempt. 

Every  higher  form  of  religion  is  based  on  written  records  and  has  its  sacred 
books.  It  thus  follows  that  writing,  the  first  great  step  toward  culture,  spreads 
most  quickly  in  the  train  of  a  religious  propaganda.  Art  also  follows  in  the  steps 
of  religion.  Images  of  deities  and  saints,  or  temples  erected  in  their  honour,  form 
part  of  the  indispensable  equipment  of  the  missionaries,  and  announce  the  victory 
of  the  new  doctrine  (^see  the  illustration,  "The  Gate  of  Kiu-yung  Kuan,"  p.  168). 
It  is  thus  conceivable  that  the  position  of  Central  Asia  between  important 
spheres  of  civilization  and  foci  of  religious  doctrines  must  certainly  have  led  to  a 
marvellous  mixture  of  influences,  amongst  which  the  original  racial  characteristics 
were  still  discernible.  We  must  not  forget  in  this  connection  that  the  oases  of 
Central  Asia  were  themselves  the  sites  of  an  ancient  civilization,  but  that  this 
civilization  after  the  irruption  of  warlike  nomad  peoples  rested  on  so  narrow  a 
foundation  that  it  could  not  have  made  any  continuous  progi-ess  without  the 
stimulating  example  of  other  civdizations.  The  blending  of  religions  and  civiliza- 
tions was  accelerated  by  the  fact  that  rival  doctrines  did  not  make  their  appear- 
ances successively,  but  that  the  majority  of  them  began  to  strike  root  in  Central 
Asia  side  by  side  during  the  centuries  preceding  and  following  the  Christian 
era.  Buddhism  appeared  the  earliest  on  the  scene,  and  also  exercised  the  greatest 
influence  on  Central  Asia.  Zoroastrian  sun-worship  was  not  vigorously  dissemi- 
nated until  250  A.  D.,  when  under  the  Sassanids  its  priests  were  stimulated  to  under- 


IGG  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [a.ajjter if 

take  the  work  of  missionaries  by  the  renascence  of  Iranian  life  and  thought  (Vol. 
Ill,  p.  2S3);  hut  concurrently  Christianity  began  to  enlist  sujiporters  (Vol.  IV, 
p.  212).  Neither  of  these  religious  was  completely  victorious  until  finally  Islam 
gaineil  the  supremacy  in  one  part  of  that  region,  while  Buddhism,  disseminated 
from  Tibet,  held  the  field  in  the  e;ist.  The  earlier  Buddhism  of  Eastern  Turkestan, 
which  was  directly  connected  with  India,  entirely  disapi^eared. 

We  are  tolerably  well  informed  from  literarj'  sources  as  to  the  religious  condi- 
tions of  Central  Asia.  Our  knowledge  has  been  widened  by  recent  archaeological 
investigations  in  Central  Asia,  which  have  yielded  a  rich  harvest  of  results,  notably 
in  the  Tarim  basin,  and  give  us  a  vivid  idea  of  the  influence  exercised  by  the  various 
civilizations  and  doctrines.  The  British  excavations  in  the  western  valley  of  the 
Tarim  have  brought  to  light,  in  addition  to  Indo-liuddhist,  Chinese,  and  Persian 
antiquities  and  inscriptions,  rude  copper  images,  which  probably  served  Slianian- 
istic  purposes,  and  may  have  come  from  the  old  civilized  pro\ince  of  the  Altai, 
where  Shamanism  still  exists  even  at  the  present  day. 

(a)  Buddhism  in  Central  Asia.  —  The  importance  of  Buddhism  for  the  west  of 
Central  Asia  was  chiefly  felt  before  the  Mongol  period.  The  activity  of  Buddhist 
missionaries  outside  the  confines  of  India  could  not  be  vigorously  exerted  imtil 
the  new  religion  had  taken  firm  root  in  its  native  country.  The  period  of  the 
great  Asoka  (263-226  b.  c.  ;  cf.  Section  IV  of  this  volume)  marks  both  the  victory 
of  Buddhism  in  Northern  India  and  the  extension  of  the  political  and  religious 
influences  toward  the  northwest.  Kashmir,  the  bridge  to  Central  Asia,  recognised 
the  suzerainty  of  Asoka.  Even  if  Buddhism  was  unable  to  gain  a  firm  footing 
there,  and  was  driven  to  wage  frequent  struggles  with  remnants  of  the  old  native 
snake-worship  and  a  repressed  Brahmanism,  still  access  had  been  obtained  to  the 
civilized  oases  of  the  Tarim  basin,  where  the  new  religion  quickly  found  ready 
acceptance. 

In  externals  this  Buddhism  was,  it  must  be  admitted,  no  result  of  purely  Indian 
culture.  In  the  first  place,  the  Iranians  had  encroached  upon  India  and  left  traces 
of  their  nationality  on  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people ;  but  after  the  age  of 
Alexander  the  Great  an  offshoot  of  Hellenistic  civilization  existed  in  Bactria,  which 
exercised  an  effective  influence  on  art  and  culture  both  in  the  Tarim  basin  and  in 
Northwestern  India.  "Wliere  the  missionary  zeal  of  Buddliism  appeared  at  this 
time,  it  was  accompanied  and  permeated  by  the  elements  of  Greek  art.  This 
Grieco-Buddhist  art  and  culture  of  Northwest  India  found  a  new  home  in  the 
Tarim  basin.  Here,  too,  the  difference  between  the  more  ancient  western  form 
of  Buddhism  and  the  more  modern  eastern  form,  which  took  its  shape  in  Tibet,  is 
clearly  defined.  Generally  speaking,  Indians  of  pure  race  preached  the  new  faith, 
and  their  labours  led  naturally  enough  to  a  wide  diffusion  of  the  Indian  language ; 
since  a  knowledge  of  Sanscrit  was  necessary  for  the  comprehension  of  the  sacred 
books.     A  large  non-religious  immigration  also  probivbly  took  ])lace. 

The  influence  of  India  apparently  first  made  itself  felt  in  Khotan,  where  a  son 
of  Asoka  is  said  to  have  fouiuled  a  dynasty.  Khotan,  owing  to  its  gei>giaiihical 
position,  has  generally  formed  the  connecting  link  between  Central  Asia  and  India, 
and  shows  in  its  civilization  abundant  traces  of  Indian  influences.  A  large  number 
of  Buddhist  shrines  and  monasteries  were  to  be  found  in  Khotan.  Tlie  densely 
populated  oasis,  helped  by  its  religious  importance,  repeatedly  obtained  great  power, 


fL"'Ilrr]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  167 

although  it  could  not  permanently  keep  it,  since,  as  the  key  to  the  trade  route  from 
India  and  the  southern  road  from  tlie  West  to  the  East,  it  appeared  a  vahialile 
prize  to  all  conquering  tribes  of  Central  Asia.  From  Khotan  13uddhism  spread 
farther  over  the  Tarim  basin  and  its  northern  boundary.  The  clearest  proof  of 
this  is  found  in  the  numerous  cave  temples  constructed  on  the  Indian  model,  as 
well  as  in  the  products  of  Gnuco-Buddhist  art,  which  modern  explorations  have 
brought  to  light,  especially  in  the  western  part  of  Eastern  Turkestan.  It  was  cer- 
tainly the  settled  portions  of  the  nation,  which  were  steejied  in  the  ancient  civili- 
zation, that  most  eagerly  adopted  this  higher  form  of  religion.  The  nomads  were 
less  satisfied  with  it.  The  counsellor  of  a  Turkish  prince  candidly  stated  his 
opinion  that  neither  the  building  of  towns  nor  of  Buddhist  temples  was  advan- 
tageous to  the  nomads,  since  it  was  opposed  to  their  traditional  mode  of  life  and 
would  Ineak  their  spirit.  This  opinion  was  justified,  for  in  reality  it  was  Buddhism 
which,  thanks  to  the  crafty  support  of  the  Chinese,  finally  destroyed  the  savage 
bravery  of  the  Central  Asiatics. 

(b)  Zoroastrianism  in  Central  Asia.  —  The  second  great  religion,  Zoroastrian- 
ism,  had  naturally  its  chief  sphere  of  expansion  in  Western  Turkestan,  which 
repeatedly  stood  completely  under  Iranian  influence.  Following  the  line  of  the 
trade  routes,  which  were  chiefly  frequented  by  Persian  merchants,  it  forced  its  way 
farther  to  the  East,  without  being  able  to  win  for  itself  there  any  considerable  posi- 
tion as  compared  with  Budtlhism.  Zoroastrianism  spread  also  among  the  western 
nomads,  especially  the  Scythians  of  Iranian  stock,  and  left  some  remarkable  traces 
behmd.  The  ancient  Slavonic  mythology,  with  its  contrast  between  deities  of  light 
and  deities  of  darkness,  seems  to  have  been  influenced  by  the  Iranian  suu-wor.ship ; 
so,  too,  were  the  ideas  of  the  heathen  Turkish  tribes  on  the  Altai,  according  to 
which  the  human  race  held  the  middle  place  between  the  powers  of  light  and  of 
darkness.  Among  several  nations,  such  as  the  Uigurians,  Buddhism  and  Zoroas- 
trianism for  a  time  counterbalanced  each  other.  We  cannot  now  decide  wliether 
their  domestic  dissensions,  which  were  numerous  and  important  especially  among 
the  Turks,  had  also  a  religious  tinge. 

(c)  Christianity  in  Central  Asia.  —  Even  bef(jre  the  Iranian  sun-worship 
acquired  fresh  powers  of  winning  adherents  at  the  beginning  of  the  Sassanid 
period,  the  missionaries  of  Christianity  had  already  traversed  Iran  and  set  foot 
in  Central  Asia.  The  revival  of  Zoroastrianism  must  parti}'  be  regarded  as  a 
reaction  against  the  irresistible  advance  of  Christianity,  so  imacceptable  to  the 
true  Iranians.  It  was  not  indeed  the  great  united  Christian  Church  that  broke 
down  tlie  Iranian  barriers  by  her  emissaries,  but  a  branch  separated  from  the 
parent  stem,  that  of  the  Nestorians  (cf.  Vol.  IV,  p.  211).  The  latter  planted  the 
seeds  of  Western  civilization  far  away  toward  the  East,  but  in  their  isolation  they 
soon  became  degenerate,  since  they  were  thrown  upon  their  own  resom'ces  and 
were  unable  to  keep  up  any  constant  connuunieations  with  the  West. 

The  Nestorian  Church,  nevertheless,  attained  for  a  time  to  great  prosperity.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  Mongol  period,  when  the  Western  Chm-ch  began  to  con- 
cern herself  about  her  estranged  sister  in  the  East,  it  did  not  appear  hopeless  to 
think  of  converting  the  Mongol  rulers,  and  thus  to  assure  the  victory  of  Christianity 
over  its  rivals,  of  whom  Islam  had  long  been  the  most  dangerous.     There  were 


IGS  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [n>.,j,f,'r  ii 

Cliristian  communities  and  even  small  States  with  Christian  princes  in  China  after 
the  seventh  century.  Here  lay  originally  the  half-legemliuy  realm  of  Prester 
John,  the  discovery  of  which  was  I'ue  of  the  motives  for  the  Toriuguese  explora- 
tions, until  it  was  thought  to  have  been  rediscovered  in  Abyssinia.  Besides  the 
Nestorians,  missionaries  of  the  Manichieans  (see  Vol.  Ill,  p.  2S4)  found  their  way 
to  China  about  the  year  1000. 

(</)  Islam  in  Centrnl  Asia.  —  The  prospects  of  the  older  forms  of  religion  in 
western  Central  Asia  were  completely,  even  if  not  immediately,  destroyed  by  the 
advance  of  Islam.  It  was  its  appearance  late  on  the  scene,  full  of  fresh  ideals,  that 
secured  it  the  victory  over  the  other  faiths  which  were  honeycombed  by  Sliamanist 
influences  and  had  degenerated  in  their  isolation.  In  the  decisive  contest  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Mongolian  chieftains,  which  secured  spiritual  supremacy  for  the 
successful  religion,  Islam  was  finally  victorious  in  the  West.  The  struggle  never- 
theless lasted  for  centuries.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  the  Arabs  had 
already  become  lords  of  western  Central  Asia,  and  had  then  advanced  on  their  vic- 
torious career  to  the  Tarini  basin.  Khotan,  the  chief  seat  of  the  Buddhists,  had 
resisted  attacks  for  twenty-five  years.  Among  the  inhabitants  of  Eastern  Tur- 
kestan the  traditions  of  these  religious  wars  found  a  concrete  expression  in  the 
legendary  hero  Ordan  Padjah,  whose  marvellous  deeds  are  supposed  to  have 
decided  the  victory  of  Islam.  The  new  doctrine  did  not  triumph  until,  in  the 
tenth  century,  Satuk,  the  Turkish  ruler  of  Kashgar  (cf.  the  explanation  of  the 
plate,  p.  158),  adopted  it,  and  conquered  a  large  part  of  the  Tarim  basin  and 
even  of  Western  Turkestan.  After  his  death  in  1037  the  power  of  the  new  empire 
rapidly  diminished.  Keligious  difterences  gradually  acr|uired  a  certain  ethnic  im- 
portance, even  for  the  nomad  tribes  of  Central  Asia.  The  Turco-Tartar  branch  now 
comprised  mainly  the  Central  Asiatics  won  over  for  Islam,  the  Mongolian  branch 
contained  the  adherents  of  the  Buddhist  creed,  while  originally  both  branches  were 
quite  closely  related,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  were  of  common  origin  and  only 
partially  altered  by  admixture  of  foreign  blood.  Among  the  Uigurians  in  particular 
Islam  found  at  a  comparatively  early  period  numerous  believers,  by  the  side  of 
whom,  however,  the  representatives  of  other  religions  long  maintained  their 
position. 

The  mixture  of  religions,  to  which,  in  the  West,  Hellenic  mythology  may  have 
slightly  contributed,  corresponded  to  the  mixture  of  civilizations,  which  found  its 
most  permanent  expression  in  the  native  script  and  styles  of  art.  Modern  excava- 
tions in  Turkestan  have  furnisheii  more  exact  information  on  the  point,  especially 
as  to  the  existence  of  a  style  which  has  grown  up  out  of  Indian,  Greek,  and  Persian 
influences. 

If  this  mixed  style  betrays  the  effort  made  to  rise  from  mere  imitation  of  for- 
eign forms  to  a  certain  individuality,  this  tendency  appears  still  more  clearly  in 
the  fact  that  Central  Asia  produced,  in  addition  to  foreign  methods  of  writing, 
a  large  number  of  peculiar  scripts,  which  were  naturally  suggested  by  alreaily 
existing  models,  but  nevertheless  possess  distinctive  features  of  their  own  (cf.  the 
explanatory  note  to  the  illustration,  "  The  Gate  of  Kiu-yung  Kuan  ").  The  Chinese 
script  seems  least  of  all  to  have  served  as  a  model,  since  its  defects,  as  contrasted 
with  the  syllabic  and  alphabetic  scripts  of  the  other  civilized  nations,  were  too 


EXPLANATION   OF  ACCOMPANYING   ILLUSTKATION 

The  gate  of  Kiu-yuiif;  kwaii  (Clm  yung  kuaii)  stan.ls  on  the  roaJ  whah  leads  from  Peking 
in  a  iiortliwesteily  ilireclion  to  Kalgan  anil  the  Great  Wall,  in  the  ])a--is  of  Nan  kau  between 
Chang  i)ing  and  llwai-lai-hsien,  and  forms  part  of  the  outer  wall.  This  g-ate  is  celelirated  hoth  for 
the  richness  of  its  decorations,  ;is  sliown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  and  fur  tlu'  two  long 
inscriptions  on  the  two  perpendicular  inside  walls  of  the  archway,  which  rivet  the  attenliun  of 
linguists.  These  inscriptions  dale  from  the  year  134.'3  a.  d.  They  are  coiu])ose(l  in  six  languages, 
Sanscrit,  Tibet^m,  Mongolian  in  the  'I'hags  pa  character,  Uigurian  Turkish,  Chinese,  and  a  lan- 
guage as  yet  unknown,  which  is  only  preserved  in  this  instance.  Wylie,  who  w:is  the  first  to 
attempt  the  deciphering  of  this  interesting  series  of  inscriptions  (18711),  thought  that  the  niys. 
terious  dialect  w;is  the  ya  chen  or  niu  fslie  of  the  Kin  dyna.«ty  (Ku  chi)  ;  G.  Di-veria,  on  the  other 
hand,  supported  the  view  that  it  was  the  character  of  the  Tangute  tribe,  which  founded  the  king- 
dom of  Hsi  Hsia  (Sia  hja)  on  the  upper  Vellow  River,  between  N.  lat.  34°  and  4i°.  The  two 
inscriptions,  in  large  letters,  are  abbreviated  versions  of  two  mystic  prayers  (dharani),  on  the 
east  wall  from  the  Sarra-duryati-paricodhaiia-intiiiiKt-dhlrant,  and  on  the  west  wall  from  the 
Samanta-iHukha-prtur^(i-rfinni-ruimi(i.'<nUa-pr<ibh(h!i(irva-tiilhthiiit(i-hr<laya-Miin(i-^^  ilhihuiiti. 

The  Chinese  and  Mongolian  text  (in  the  'Phags  pa  lama  character)  has  been  translated  by  Edouard 
Chavannes,  the  Tibetan  by  Sylvaiu  Levy,  the  Uigurian  by  W.  Kailloff  (1894),  ami  Georg  Huth 
(189.'))  has  carefully  re-examined  the  Mongolian  text  and  translateil  it  into  French  (".Inurnal 
Asiatiipie  "). 

Our  illustration  sliows  the  gate,  seen  from  the  west,  which  was  restored  in  144.")  by  Lin  P'uu 
hien,  but  has  since  fallen  once  more  into  decay.  At  the  top  we  see  Gariida  above  two  Nagas  with 
the  tails  of  snakes.  On  the  lower  side  to  the  left,  shadeil  by  the  tree,  is  a  bas-relief,  —  an  elephant, 
mounted  by  a  fantastic  form,  on  whom  a  small  human  figure  is  seated.  The  narrow  stri|i  of  orna- 
mentation to  the  left  is  a  chain  of  vajras.  On  the  inside  of  the  vaulting,  which  is  not  shown  in 
the  picture,  on  the  triangul.ar  ceiling,  a  liuddha  is  seated  in  each  of  the  inscribed  compartments. 
On  the  perpendicular  walls  there  are  the  two  great  inscriptions  between  four  Maharajas  (l)hrlaras- 
tra,  playing  on  a  mandolin  and  companions)  as  guardians  of  the  gate. 

(From  a  copy  in  the  possession  of  the  editor  of  the  "  Documents  de  I'epoiiue  niongole  des  XIII'  't  XI\* 
siecles,"  by  Prince  Roland  Bonaparte.     I'aris,  1895.     Tiivately  printed.) 


„.„.„  .,  r™„.  E»u  .r«r  p., V... a  ,.— .  •■  ■--"'- ^« '■".-."  »«...,..  .1.  x,n. .  x.v  .m..   ,.,,.,  ,s»5, 


rA 


Central  Asia 
and  Siberia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  169 


vividly  prominent.  Tlie  influence  of  the  Indian  scripts  was  greater,  especially  in 
the  Tarim  basin.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Persian  I'ehlevi  script  had  been  adopted 
by  the  Uignrians,  probably  through  the  medium  of  the  Yue  tshi,  and  the  Turkisli 
tribes  in  their  turn  learnt  it  from  them.  After  that,  through  the  influence  of  the 
Nestorian  missionaries,  the  use  of  the  Syrian  script  was  extended,  and  this  soon 
served  as  a  model  for  new  native  systems  (see  illustration,  p.  158).  The  Mongols 
and  the  Manchus  used  varieties  of  the  same  script.  The  numl)er  of  foreign  and 
native  scripts  in  Central  Asia  during  the  eighth  and  nintli  centvnies  seems,  as 
numerous  discoveries  prove,  to  have  been  unusually  large.  This  circumstance 
leads  us  to  infer  a  certain  inooherency  in  the  prevailing  civilization.  The  char- 
acteristics of  the  Central  Asiatic  culture,  which  was  local  and  at  the  same  time 
most  susceptible  to  foreign  influences,  are  also  clearly  shown  in  this. 

3.  CENTRAL   ASIA   FROM   THE   MONGOL   PERIOD   TO   MODERN 

TIMES 

A.  Genghis  Khan 

The  efforts  of  civilization  and  religion  to  tame  the  barbarous  people  of  Central 
Asia  had  been  continued  for  many  centuries.  Temples  of  Buddha,  Zoroastrian 
seats  of  culture,  Christian  churches,  and  Moslem  mosques  arose  in  the  oases;  in- 
dustries flourished,  trade  brought  foreign  merchants  into  the  country,  and  those 
who  aimed  at  a  refinement  of  manners  and  customs  and  a  nobler  standard  of  life 
were  amjily  provided  with  brilliant  models.  Of  the  nomads  a  less  favourable 
account  must  be  given  ;  and  yet  in  many  of  them  the  higher  forms  of  religion  had 
struck  root.  Skilled  writers  were  to  be  foimd  among  them,  and  the  allurements 
of  civilized  life  made  considerable  impression.  The  road  which  was  destmed  to 
lead  these  tribes  out  of  their  ancient  barbarism  had  been  alread)-  often  trodden ; 
the  forces  of  civilization  seemed  pressing  on  victoriously  in  every  direction.  The 
nomad  spirit  then  once  more  rallied  itself  to  strike  a  blow  more  formidable  than 
any  which  had  previously  fallen.  The  effort  was  successful,  and  as  the  result  of  it 
a  region  once  prosperous  and  progressive  lay  for  generations  at  the  mercy  of  races 
whose  guiding  instincts  were  the  joy  of  battle  and  the  lust  of  pillage.  The  world 
glowed  with  a  blood-red  light  in  the  Mongol  age.  Twice,  first  under  Genghis 
Khan  and  his  immediate  successors,  and  secondly  under  Timur,  the  hordes  of 
horsemen  burst  over  the  civilized  countries  of  Asia  and  Europe  ;  twice  they  swept 
on  like  a  storm-cloud,  as  if  they  wished  to  crush  every  country  and  convert  it  into 
pasture  for  their  flocks.  And  so  thoroughly  was  the  work  of  ravage  and  murder 
done,  that  to  the  present  day  desolate  tracts  show  the  traces  of  their  destructive 
fury.  These  were  the  last  great  eruptions  of  the  Central  Asiatic  volcano.  Civili- 
zation conquered,  and  the  hordes  of  the  wide  steppes  were  no  longer  a  danger  at 
which  it  needed  to  tremble. 

That  which  now  sti'uck  at  the  civilized  world  was  once  more  the  full  power  of 
the  nomads  of  Central  Asia  welded  together  for  a  time  by  a  master  spirit.  The 
new  people  which  suddenly  appeared  on  the  scene,  and,  although  hardly  known  or 
noticed  before,  now  advanced  with  gigantic  armies,  in  reality  dealt  only  the  first 
blow,  and  represented  the  vanguard  of  hosts  which  grew  larger  and  larger,  like  an 
avalanche.     The  vanguard  gave  its  name  to  the  hosts  who  followed  and  rekindled 


170  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  {chuj.terii 

in  them  the  wild  enthusiasm  for  war,  which  had  died  away,  owing  to  the  inter- 
course witli  civilization.  But  the  personality  of  some  individual  is  always  of  para- 
mount value.  The  man  who  feels  hiuisself  born  to  rule,  and  is  not  prematurely 
torn  from  his  heroic  jiath  b}-  a  harsh  fate,  may  belong  to  the  smallest,  most  de- 
spised, horde,  but  he  will  always  end  as  leader  of  a  great  people.  The  tribes  of 
Central  Asia,  with  their  different  names  but  their  practically  identical  manners 
and  customs,  are  easQy  moidded  by  the  iron  hand  of  a  ruler  into  a  gigantic  national 
power.  The  empires  of  the  steppes  do  not  indeed  enjoy  a  long  life,  for  so  soon 
as  the  pressure  is  relaxed,  the  enormous  fabric  breaks  up  again.  Then  once  more 
in  the  different  regions  separate  nations  and  empires  are  formed  from  the  chaotic 
confusion  of  the  tribes  and  men  of  Central  Asia. 

(a)  Tlie  Beginnings  of  the  Mongols.  —  The  Mongols  play  so  small  a  part  in  the 
earlier  history  of  Central  Asia  that  we  may  fairly  doubt  whether  in  their  case  we 
are  dealing  with  a  race  whose  roots  stretch  far  back  into  the  past.  The  original 
home  of  the  Mongols  lay,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  on  the  northern  edge  of  the 
Central  Asiatic  steppe,  in  the  region  of  Lake  BaikaL  Now  it  was  this  same  north- 
ern edge  which  was  the  scene  of  the  most  important  nomad  States,  and  was  the 
true  home  of  the  conquering  pastoral  peoples.  It  was  there  that  the  Huns  held 
their  own  until  the  last,  and  the  centre  of  the  Turkish  power  lay  there.  The 
nomad  population  of  that  region  was  mainly  due  to  the  disruption  of  the  older 
nationalities,  and  contained  remnants  of  all  earlier  inhabitants.  The  Mongols  in 
particular  rose  from  the  remains  of  the  Tm-kish  people,  which  again  was  a  mixture 
of  Hun  and  other  stocks.  It  was  no  mere  accident  that  this  people  rekindled  the 
ancient  nomad  love  of  war  and  rapine.  In  their  remote  homes  they  had  been  the 
least  softened  by  civUizaticjn  or  tamed  by  religious  influence,  and  thej-  had  most 
loyally  preserved  their  warlike  traditions.  The  longing  for  plunder  and  sovereignty 
over  countless  nations  had  been  transmitted  to  these  rude  nomads  by  a  long  line 
of  vigorous  ancestors.  Even  the  legends  of  the  origin  of  the  Mongolian  dynasty, 
whether  it  be  traced  from  a  sun-god  or  from  a  wolf,  are  only  echoes  of  earlier 
traditions. 

The  Mongolian  horde  had  l)egun  to  make  a  name  for  itself  in  Central  Asia  at 
the  commencement  of  the  twelfth  century.  Tlie  conditions  of  that  period  were 
favourable  for  its  rise,  as  there  was  no  great  power  in  Central  Asia  at  the  time. 
The  Kin,  or  Nu  chl,  who  in  1125  had  conquered  and  dislodged  the  Khitan  (Chitan, 
Liao),  were  the  most  powerful  in  the  eastern  jiarts  of  the  country ;  both  i)eoples 
were  of  Tungusian  stock,  and  a  part  of  North  China  recognised  their  suzerainty. 
The  Mongols  seem  to  have  been  tributarj-  to  the  Xu  cliT.  In  the  west  the  power 
of  the  Hakas  had  greatly  weakened ;  the  Uigurians  and  some  Tartar  hordes,  such 
as  the  partially  Christianised  Kerait  (Vol.  IV,  p.  21. '^),  led  an  independent  life. 
Yesukai  (YissugSy),  the  father  of  Genghis  Khan,  tii-st  brought  a  number  of  nomad 
tribes  under  his  rule,  and  thus  aroused  the  distrust  of  the  Nu  chi,  who  in  1135, 
and  again  in  1147,  made  futile  efforts  to  nip  in  the  bud  the  growing  world-power. 

(b)  Genghis  Kltan  {Temujin).  —  Little  is  known  of  the  other  exploits  of 
Yesukai.  His  empire  seemed  ready  to  collapse  as  quickly  as  it  had  arisen.  On 
Yesukai's  death  (1175)  his  son  Temujin  (in  Chinese,  T'ie  mu  chen)  was  only 
twenty,  or  according  to  some  accounts,  twelve,  years  old.     This  was  a  sufficient 


Cmtrnl  Asia 
and  Siberia 


]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  171 


reason  why  the  subjugated  hordes  revolted  from  him,  so  that  the  new  ruler,  who 
was  imder  his  mother's  guardiaushi}),  had  scarcely  more  left  him  tlian  the  original 
parent  tribe.  But  an  iron  will  animated  the  youth.  He  rallied  his  adherents  and 
fought  with  Ong  khan  (Wang),  the  rival  ruler  chosen  by  the  other  hordes,  a  battle 
which  at  once  put  an  end  to  any  further  spreading  of  the  revolt,  while  a  year  later 
he  won  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  insurgents,  who  renewed  their  attack.  He 
thoroughly  vindicated  his  power  as  a  monarch  by  the  barbarous  punishment  of  the 
rebel  leaders.  Some  tribes  now  sought  the  friendship  of  the  conqueror,  others 
plotted  against  him  or  openly  attacked  him,  but,  in  the  midst  of  unceasing  wars, 
the  power  of  Temujin  steadily  increased.  He  defeated  the  Naiman,  the  Kerait, 
who  were  at  first  his  allies,  and  other  tribes,  in  a  series  of  campaigns,  until  in  the 
year  1206  he  was  able  to  hold  on  the  banks  of  the  Onon  (a  tributary  of  the 
Amur)  a  great  review  and  council,  at  which  he  saw  the  greater  part  of  the  nomad 
fighting  strength  collected  round  him.  Here,  at  the  wish  of  his  followers,  he 
assumed  the  name  of  Genghis  Khan  ("perfect  warrior;"  in  Chinese,  Ch'eng  chi 
sze).  It  now  seemed  time  to  adopt  a  bolder  policy  and  to  carry  his  victorious 
arms  into  the  adjoining  civilized  countries. 

A  pretext  for  furtlier  wars  was  aft"orded  by  the  machinations  of  the  Naiman 
prince  Kushlek  (Gutsliluk,  K'u  cli'u  lu),  who  had  dealt  the  deathblow  to  the 
empire  of  the  Kara  Khitai  in  1201 ;  he  was  compelled  to  fl}-  for  refuge  to  the  Nu 
chi.  The  Kirghiz,  and  after  them  the  Uigurians  (1209),  volmitarily  submitted  in 
the  meantime.  The  war  with  the  Nu  chi,  after  some  unimportant  skirmishes, 
broke  out  in  the  year  1211,  and  in  it  the  Khitan,  who  had  been  subjugated  by  the 
Nu  chi,  lent  valuable  aid  to  the  ]\Iongols.  Genghis  Khan's  chief  object  was  to 
gain  possession  of  Northern  China,  the  best  part  of  the  Nu  chi  Empire.  Hsuan 
Tsung,  the  emperor  of  the  Nu  chi,  finally  fled  to  the  south,  and  was  thus  en- 
tirely cut  off  from  his  northern  resources  (1214).  Yen  King,  the  capital  which 
roughly  corresponds  to  the  present  Peking,  now  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mon- 
gols ;  but  the  war  only  ended  in  1234  with  the  overthrow  of  the  Kin  dynasty, 
seven  jears  after  the  death  of  Genghis  Khan  (p.  95).  It  was  fortunate  for  the 
Nu  chi  that  they  could  place  in  the  field  against  the  Mongols  the  forces  of  half 
China  and  could  fall  back  on  the  strongly  fortified  Chinese  towns.  The  Mcmgols 
learnt  gradually  in  the  school  of  necessity  the  art  of  laying  siege,  in  which  later 
they  were  destined  to  perform  great  feats  at  the  cost  of  the  civilized  peoples  who 
were  hard  pressed  by  them.  The  employment  of  gunpowder  in  siege  warfare  was 
already  familiar  to  the  Chinese,  who  could  teach  many  other  lessons  in  this  branch 
of  warfare,  where  scientific  knowledge  was  more  important  than  impetuous  valour. 

During  the  wars  between  the  Mongols  and  the  Nu  chi,  the  Khan  Kushlek  had 
journeyed  to  Turkestan,  had  formed  an  alliance  there  with  Qutb  (Ala)  ed-dir 
Mohammed,  the  sultan  of  the  Kharismiaus,  and  was  on  the  point  of  building  an 
empire  in  western  Central  Asia  with  his  help.  The  interference  of  the  Kharis- 
miaus on  behalf  of  Kushlek  may  partly  be  attributed  to  trade  jealousy.  Genghis 
Khan  had  certainly  tried  to  bring  the  trade  over  the  northern  roads,  but  encoun- 
tered the  distinct  opposition  of  the  rulers  of  Turkestan,  of  whom  the  most  powerful 
was  the  sultan  of  Kharismia  (Chwarizm).  Mohammed,  who  was  master  of  Kash- 
gar,  and  therefore  of  the  southern  roads,  had  ordered  the  envoys  of  Genghis  Khan, 
who  wished  to  conclude  a  sort  of  commercial  treaty,  to  be  put  to  death  on  the 
spot.     The  prince  of  Turkestan  could  not  but  have  been  aware  of  his  power.     It 


172  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [c/.apter if 

seemed  as  if  the  Kharismiaus  would  be  the  successors  of  the  enfeebled  Seljuks  in 
their  dominion  over  Western  Asia  and  in  their  protectorate  over  the  khalifs  of 
Bagdad  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  :i63).  As  always  happens  in  such  cases,  a  considerable  part 
of  the  Kharismian  power  rested  on  the  wealth  which  they  derived  from  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Central  Asiatic  and  Indian  trade  roads. 

But  now  this  power,  and  all  the  covetous  dreams  which  were  connected  with 
it,  received  an  overwhelming  shock  by  the  onslaught  of  ihe  Mongols.  First  of  all, 
Kushlek,  who  had  raised  a  considerable  army,  was  completely  defeated  and  slain 
during  the  rout  (1218).  The  Mongolian  forces  then  swept  on  against  Kliarismia, 
which  at  that  time  comprised  a  great  portion  of  Turkestan  and  Persia,  besides  the 
modern  Khiva.  Bokhara,  the  garrison  of  which  oll'ered  only  a  feeble  resistance 
was  plundered  and  burnt;  Otrara,  on  the  middle  Syr-Daria,  the  proper  border 
fortress  facing  Central  Asia,  held  out  longer,  but  finally  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Genghis  Khan,  as  did  Khojend,  Uzgent,  and  other  fortified  towns  (see  map, 
p.  123).  The  main  army  turned  toward  Samarkand,  which  soon  surrendered,  but 
had  to  pay  for  the  sins  of  its  ruler  by  a  terrible  massacre.  The  resistance  of  the 
sultan  Mohammed  was  now  broken ;  he  did  not  venture  on  a  battle  in  the  open 
field,  but  fled  in  Persia  from  town  to  town,  continually  pursued  by  the  Mongolian 
troops,  only  to  die  at  last  in  misery  on  an  island  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  greater 
part  of  Persia  submitted  to  the  Mongols  (1220).  A  counter-blow  which  Moham- 
med's son,  Jelal  ed-din  Mankburui,  dealt  temporarily  repulsed  the  troops  of  Gen- 
ghis Khan.  Nevertheless,  the  appearance  of  the  Mongol  sovereign  in  person  forced 
the  Kharismian  to  fly  to  India,  upon  which  various  revolted  towns,  Herat  among 
them,  were  relentlessly  massacred  and  burnt.  The  Mongols  pressed  on  toward  the 
Indus  and  laid  waste  Peshawar,  Lahore,  and  Malikpur. 

Thus  the  old  path  of  conquest  to  India  had  been  already  trodden  when  Genghis 
Khan  took  the  first  steps  on  the  beaten  road  which  leads  from  the  plains  of  West- 
ern Siberia  to  Europe.  Pretexts  for  a  campaign,  which  was  first  directed  against 
the  nomad  tribes  in  the  north  of  tlie  Caucasus,  were  soon  forthcoming.  When, 
therefore,  the  Russians  from  Kieff  appeared  in  the  field  as  allies  of  these  peoples, 
Jlongolian  and  European  troops  for  the  first  time  faced  each  other  in  battle  (1233). 
The  Russians,  who  were  victorious  at  the  outset,  were  finally  beaten,  and  the 
grand  duke  of  Kieff  himself  was  taken  prisoner.  The  Mongols,  however,  to  guard 
against  whose  attacks  even  Constantinople  had  been  more  strongly  fortified,  did 
not  follow  up  their  victory. 

In  the  year  1224  Genghis  Khan  planned  a  campaign  in  person  against  India, 
but  was  induced  by  a  portent,  or  more  probably  by  the  esliaustion  of  his  war-worn 
army,  to  retire  to  Karakorum,  the  former  capital  of  the  Christian  Kerait,  which 
had  now  become  the  centre  of  the  Mongolian  I'^mpire  (see  map,  p.  174).  In  the 
previous  year  he  had  organised  in  the  steppe  of  South  Siberia  with  his  whole  army 
a  gigantic  battue,  an  enormously  exaggerated  example  of  the  method  of  hunting 
familiar  to  the  nomads  of  Central  Asia,  both  as  a  sport  and  as  a  means  of 
livelihood. 

In  the  meantime  the  war  in  China  had  continued.  Even  the  West  Chinese 
Empire  of  the  Hsia,  with  its  partly  Tibetan  (Tanguse)  population,  had  been 
drawn  into  the  whirlpool  of  war,  and  had  been  wasted  in  the  years  1209  and  1217. 
Now,  after  losing  its  northern  pro\-ince  Ordos,  it  suffered  a  still  more  sweeping 
devastation  at  the  hands  of  the  Mongols  (1223-1226),  until  in  1227  the  last 


central  A  sia 
and  Siberia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  173 


I 


prince  of  the  dynasty  was  captured  and  the  country  completely  conquered  by  the 
generals  of  Genghis  Khan.  The  Kin,  or  Nu  chi,  in  Northern  China,  on  the  other 
hand,  still  resisted  (until  1234)  the  attacks  of  the  Mongols,  whose  best  general, 
Mogli,  died  in  1225. 

Genghis  Khan  only  survived  his  general  two  years.  He  died  in  1227  in  a 
town  on  the  Upper  Hoangho ;  whether  from  natural  causes  or  poisoned  by  one  of 
his  wives  is  uncertain.  With  him  passed  away  the  most  genuine  representative  of 
the  wUd,  untaineable  nomads  of  Central  Asia,  who,  in  the  old  Hun  fashion,  had 
buQt  up  for  himself  a  giant  empire  over  dead  bodies  and  ruined  cities.  A  thirst 
for  power  and  a  savage  joy  in  destruction  were  the  guiding  motives  of  his  policy. 
The  need  of  professing  any  nobler  aims,  even  as  a  specious  pretext  for  his  cam- 
paigns, was  absolutely  unfelt  by  him.  And  yet  he  was  not  wanting  in  those  traits 
of  rough  honesty  and  magnanimity  which  are  redeeming  points  in  the  heroes  of 
nomadism ;  indeed,  a  certain  receptivity  of  civilization  is  apparent  in  him.  The 
lesson  which  all  the  savage  commanders  of  Central  Asia  learned  in  the  end  was 
destined  to  be  revealed  in  him,  and,  above  all,  in  his  descendants.  Civilization, 
down-trodden  and  bleeding  from  a  thousand  woimds,  showed  itself  the  stronger  in 
the  spiritual  contest,  and  crushed  the  obstinate  pride  of  the  princes  of  the  steppes, 
until  at  last  they  humbly  did  homage  in  chapels  and  temples  to  the  ideals  of  the 
civilized  world,  and  painfully  accustomed  their  mail-clad  hands  to  hold  the  peiL 

(f)  The  Administration  of  the  Empire  under  Genghis  Khan.  —  It  was  the  suc- 
cessors of  Genghis  Khan  who  submitted  to  these  influences ;  but  already  by  the 
side  of  the  gloomy  blood-stained  figure  of  the  first  Mongol  monarch  a  man  had 
appeared  whom  the  powerful  nomad  prince  seemed  to  have  chosen  as  a  representa- 
tive and  advocate  of  civilization.  This  was  Hi  chu  tsai  (Yeliu  Chutsai),  a  scion 
of  the  royal  house  of  the  Kin,  a  Tungusian,  and  therefore  acquainted  with  Chinese 
culture  (cf.  pp.  94  and  169).  The  motive  that  induced  Genghis  Khan  to  bring 
this  member  of  a  hostile  family  to  his  court,  and  soon  to  entrust  him  with  the 
complete  internal  administration,  was  certainly  less  the  wish  to  promote  the  cul- 
ture of  his  Mongol  subjects  than  the  effort  to  organise  his  empire,  and  especially 
his  revenue,  on  the  model  of  China.  This  succeeded  so  well  that  lU  chu  tsai  con- 
tinued to  hold  his  high  position  under  the  successors  of  Genghis  Khan  and  until 
his  death.  But  it  reflects  far  more  honour  on  him  that  he  regarded  himself  at  the 
same  time  as  the  advocate  of  an  advanced  ci\'ilization,  that  he  boldly  opposed  the 
cruel  commands  of  the  monarch,  protected  the  oppressed,  and,  wherever  he  could, 
preserved  the  monuments  of  art  from  destruction.  He  devoted  his  own  property 
to  these  objects,  or  emplojed  it  in  collecting  archives  and  inscriptions.  A  number 
of  these  latter  and  a  few  musical  instruments  composed  the  whole  wealth  which 
he  was  found  to  possess,  when  calumniators  suspected  his  official  administration. 
In  Genghis  Khan  and  his  minister  we  see  the  embodiment,  side  by  side,  of  two 
great  and  antagonistic  principles, — barbarous  despotism  and  civilized  self-restraint. 
These  two  men  seem  an  epitome  of  the  whole  history  of  Central  Asia. 

It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  Mongol  Empire  on  the  death  of 
Genghis  Khan;  it  was  still  an  incompleted  structure  (see  map,  p.  174).  The 
steppes  of  Mongolia  and  Southwest  Siberia  were  the  immediate  possessions  of  the 
new  ruling  nation,  or  were  governed,  as  the  country  of  the  Uigurians  was,  by  native 
rulers  in  complete  subjection  to  the  conqueror.     Turkestan  might  rank  as  con- 


174  HISTORY    Ol-    THE    WORLD  la,<,j,nr ii 

quered,  whereas  in  Persia  the  Mongul  power  was  still  insecurely  establisiied,  and 
Northwest  India  had  been  raided  rather  than  really  subjugated.  In  China  the 
empire  of  the  Western  Hsia  was  completely  annexed ;  the  Nu  chi,  on  the  contrary, 
still  offered  stubborn  resistance  in  the  provinces  on  the  Lower  Hoangho.  The 
extent  of  the  ilongol  intiuence  toward  the  south  is  the  most  uncertain.  No  large 
campaigns  were  undertaken  in  the  Tarini  basin  or  in  Tibet ;  but  probably  a  part  at 
least  of  the  States  in  the  oases  of  Eastern  Turkestan  voluntarily  submitted.  Many 
of  these  petty  States  were  proliably  subject  to  the  suzerainty  of  the  Uigurians,  the 
Kerait,  and  other  nations,  and  shared  their  fate ;  others,  like  Kashgar,  had  been 
already  conquered  in  the  wars  against  the  Kharismiaus. 

The  constitution  of  the  Mongol  Empire  was  organised  tlii-oughout  on  a  military 
footing,  and  from  this  aspect  was  a  mere  renewal  of  the  ancient  Central  Asiatic 
system  which  obtained  among  the  Huns  and  Turks.  All  men  capable  of  bearing 
arms  in  the  different  tribes  were  enrolled  by  tens,  himdreds,  or  thousands.  The  army 
recruited  its  ranks  from  the  young  men  of  the  subjugatetl  districts,  who  were  dis- 
tributed among  the  existing  troops,  or,  if  the  country  had  voluntarily  surrendered, 
formed  distinct  regiments.  Standards  of  yak-tails  or  horse-tails,  of  which  the  most 
important  were  the  nine-tailed  Mongol  ensign  and  the  banner  of  the  Khan  made 
of  four  black  horse-tails,  were  equally  in  accordance  wdth  Central  Asiatic  custom. 
The  nine-tailed  flag  denoted  the  nine  great  divisions  or  army  corps  into  which  the 
Mongolian  levies  were  distributed.  Genghis  Khan  regulated  the  internal  afl'airs 
of  his  people  by  a  series  of  laws,  most  of  which  were  derived  from  traditions  and 
earlier  precedents  and  were  still  suitable  to  the  nomad  life.  The  attitude  which 
he  maintained  toward  religion  is  noteworthy.  On  the  one  side  there  is  the  evident 
wish  to  elevate  the  traditional  Shamanistic  creed  by  laying  greater  stress  on  the 
belief  in  the  existence  of  a  divine  being ;  on  the  other  side,  it  is  recommended  that 
consideration  be  shown  to  all  other  religions  and  to  their  priests.  Public  offices, 
however,  were  not  to  be  entrusted  to  the  priests.  Generally  speaking,  the  enact- 
ments of  Genghis  Khan  are  principally  concerned  with  military  matters ;  at  the 
same  time  they  regulate  family  life  in  a  very  simple  fashion,  deline  the  close  time 
for  game,  and  make  universal  regulations  of  certain  Mongol  customs ;  such  as,  for 
instance,  the  slaughtering  of  animals  by  slitting  u]>  the  body,  and  the  prohibition 
of  bathing,  and  so  on.  In  his  latter  days  Genghis  Khan  displayed  some  leaning 
toward  Buddhism,  but  showed  otherwise  that  indifferent  toleration  of  the  various 
religions  which  is  everywhere  characteristic  of  the  Mongols.  Keligious  zeal, 
the  excuse  for  so  many  cruelties,  never  prompted  the  massacres  perpetrated  by 
Mongols. 

B.  The  Mongol  Empire  down  to  its  Partition 

The  great  nobles  of  the  Mongol  Empire  met  in  solemn  deliberation  in  1227  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Kerulen  (Kyrylun)  in  the  nortlieru  stepi)e.  Genghis  Khan 
by  his  will  had  nominated  as  his  successor  his  third  son  Ogdai  (Ogotai  Khan;  in 
Chinese,  Wo  k'uo  t'ai,  or  T'ai  Tsimg),  who  soon  afterward,  at  a  great  imperial  diet  at 
Karakorum,  received  the  homage  of  his  subjects.  Since  Ogdai  still  conceded  con- 
siderable powers  to  Hi  chu  tsai,  liis  father's  first  minister,  the  latter  was  able  to 
continue  the  internal  development  of  tiie  emjiire,  to  organise  thoroughly  the  system 
of  taxation,  and  to  draw  up  lists  of  the  men  liable  to  military  service,  thus  laying 
a  firm  foundation,  which  enabled  the  Mongol  monarchs  to  extract  the  maximum 


accordhiff  Xu  S<±iurty,  ,  v,  Spruner.DrOTsen  £  c  - 
i :  2S  000  000? ^^  .,^^=2i-.^-=^Endiiih  3Ifl™ 


♦♦*♦♦**  jlpproji/nate  ttoamtarf  of  Uit  Jlongolian  Empire 

at  i/ie  dral/L  of  JrngfiO:  Shtui  1227 

Bouttdarr  of  Msluunmedi  l^iiplrr  KhiitofMm  betbr^ 

thf  OHU/utst  br  Jaig/iUr  Shan  iniS  -  J10> 
~—  ffoiuufiuy  oT  Tunur's  Btipar  al  fiLt  dtalh. 

fKip-pt  rf"  /^pc/iaJb    iranr  su^ect  In  tritule  i 

Indtr  lAe  sueaeaors  of  JaigfwiXfuui  Mif  Monnolian  Unpirr: 

siparated  into  a  luuii&a-  oTSlalis  wfdtfi  are  skairtL  in  mlaur. 

on  the  Ma/I  and  rttnmned  ind^auknt  tor  indfttnitf  prriodx 

■——"-—  ImportiU 


Jfar  Tcrk  Sodd.  Mead  &  C 


London.  W^  MemaiuinA 


Central  Asia 
and  Siberia 


■]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  175 


profit  from  the  subjugated  civilized  countries  without  cnisliing  them  completely. 
The  magaificently  executed  orgauisation  of  the  Mongol  Empire,  which  at  a  later 
time  moved  the  admiration  of  Marco  Polo,  was  mainly  the  work  of  this  minister. 

The  conquering  power  of  the  united  nomad  peoples  made  bold  advance  under 
Ogdai.  Persia,  where  the  Kliarismiau  Jelal  ed-din  had  recovered  a  part  of  his 
inheritance  (cf.  p.  173),  was  once  more  subjugated,  and  the  unfortunate  prince  was 
compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  August,  1231,  among  the  western  mountains,  where  he 
was  murdered  by  Kurdish  robbers.  Ogdai  himself  directed  his  attention  against 
China,  where  the  empire  of  the  Kin  (Nu  Chi)  was  struggling  for  existence  with 
failing  strength.  The  provinces  of  Pechili,  Shantung,  Shansi,  and  Liautung  were 
then  already  in  the  possession  of  the  Mongols.  The  Kin  held,  their  own  only  to 
the  south  of  the  Hoangho  in  Sheusi  and  Honan.  Tuli  (Tului,  T'olei),  the  youngest 
brother  of  Ogdai,  was  commamler-in-chief  of  the  ^longols  in  most  of  the  later 
battles.  The  siege  of  the  capital,  Kaifongfu,  at  which  the  beleaguered  Chinese 
employed  powder  with  great  effect,  was  unsuccessfully  attempted  in  the  year  1232. 
But  subsequently  an  alliance  was  negotiated  between  the  Mongols  and  the  Chinese 
Empire  of  the  southern  Sung,  which  quickly  crushed  the  resistance  of  the  Kin. 
In  the  year  1234  the  last  emperor  of  the  Xu  chi  was  defeated  by  a  combined  army 
of  Mongols  and  Chinese.  Shensi  fell  to  the  Mongids,  Honan  principally  to  the 
Sung,  although  misunderstandings  already  arose  between  the  allies  which  were 
precursors  of  subsequent  events.  The  conquest  of  North  China  was  of  paramount 
importance  to  the  Mongols.  Chinese  civilization  was  the  first  with  which  they 
had  any  lasting  intercourse,  and  thus  the  political  institutions  of  China  served  in 
many  respects  as  models  for  the  wild  people  of  the  steppes,  while  the  Uigurian 
civilization,  which  had  originally  been  imitated,  sank  into  the  background.  The 
ancient  power  of  China  in  transforming  and  absorbing  the  peoples  of  the  steppe 
gradually  asserted  itself  more  strongly.  The  farther  the  Mongols  penetrated  into 
the  Middle  Kingdom,  the  more  Chinese  they  became,  until  at  last  the  disruption 
of  the  gigantic  world-empire  into  the  districts  of  Central  Asia  on  the  one  side  and 
of  China  on  the  other  was  inevitable. 

The  forces  which  were  set  free  by  the  overthrow  of  the  Kin  were  destined  to 
extend  the  Mongol  Empire  toward  the  west.  The  Mongol  hordes  under  the  com- 
mand of  Batu  swept  on  after  1235  against  Europe,  where  the  protection  of  the 
frontiers  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  Eussian  princes.  Kiazan  was  captured  on  Decem- 
ber 21, 1237,  and  on  February  14,  1238,  Vladimir  fell  on  the  Kliasma.  The  Rus- 
sian chiefs  had  to  submit  to  the  suzerainty  of  the  Mongols,  while  Kief  was 
destroyed  on  December  6,  1240.  Poland  was  now  ravaged,  Duke  Boleslav  V,  the 
Modest  (or  the  Chaste),  was  forced  by  Sandomir  to  take  refuge  in  Hungary,  and 
a  mixed  army  of  Poles  and  Germans  under  Henry  II  of  Lower  Silesia  was  anni- 
hilated at  Liegnitz  on  April  9,  1241.  But  there,  at  the  edge  of  the  steppe  region, 
the  western  march  of  Paidar  (Peta)  and  his  Mongols  ended.  They  turned  to 
Hungary,  which  Batu  himself  had  ah-eady  invaded  (March,  1241).  There  was 
imminent  danger  that  these  Mongols  would  establish  themselves  firmly  in  the 
Hungarian  steppe,  and  that  Hungary  would  now,  as  on  several  previous  occasions, 
become  the  nest  of  predatory  swarms  of  nomads,  who  would  perpetually  harass 
Europe.  The  Magyars  suffered  the  very  fate  which  their  forefathers  had  inflicted 
on  so  many  prosperous  countries.  The  Jlongols  seemed,  in  the  summer  and  autumn 
of  1241,  to  have  formed  the  intention  of  making  room  for  themselves  and  of  extermi- 


176  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_Chapter  ii 

nating  the  inliabitants.  However,  on  the  tidings  of  the  deatli  of  tlie  Great  Khan 
Ogdai,  which  occurred  at  Karakoiuni  on  December  11,  1241,  tliej-  resolved,  in  tlie 
spring  of  1242,  to  withdi-aw  throu<jli  Kuniania  to  liussia. 

The  expansive  power  of  the  Monjjol  Empire  was  even  then  immense  (see 
the  map,  p.  174,  "  Central  Asia  in  the  Times  of  Genghis  Klian  and  Timur "). 
While  war  was  being  waged  in  Europe,  Ogdai's  armies  threatened  Irak  and  Asia 
Minor.  Like  Turkish  armies  earlier  and  hiter,  the  Mongols  used  the  road  through 
Armenia,  and  repeatedly  attempted  to  attack  IJagdad.  Simultaneously  there  began 
in  Chma  the  attack  on  the  kingdom  of  the  southern  Sung,  whose  princes,  in  blind 
infatuation,  had  heljied  to  destroy  the  bulwark  of  their  power,  the  empire  of  the  Kin. 
The  troops  of  the  Sung  held  for  a  long  time  llie  lines  of  the  middle  Hoanglio  and 
of  the  Weiho  by  dint  of  hard  fighting;  at  the  same  time  the  contest  was  raging  in 
Szecliwan  on  the  upper  Yangtse  Kiang,  during  which,  at  the  siege  of  Lu-cheng,  a 
strong  Mongolian  army  was  almost  totally  destroyed.  There  also  the  death  of 
Ogdai  temporarily  put  an  end  to  the  operations. 

The  Great  Khan  had  bequeathed  the  empire  to  one  of  his  grandsons,  a  minor ; 
but  in  1241  the  first  wife  of  (Jgdai,  Xai  ma  chen  (Jurakina),  usurped  the  regency  in 
his  place.  Ili  chu  tsai,  the  aged  chancellor  of  the  first  two  Great  Khans,  who  wished 
to  secure  to  the  defrauded  heir  his  riglits,  died  suddenly.  The  empress  now  suc- 
ceeded in  carrying  at  a  great  kuruUai,  or  imperial  diet,  the  nomination  of  her  son 
Kuyuk  Khan  (tJajuk;  in  Chinese,  Kuci  yu,  or  Ting  Tsung)  as  sovereign  (1246). 
Thus  ended  an  interregnum  which  had  greatly  inijmired  the  aggressive  poweis  of 
the  Mongols.  It  is  this  which  partly  explains  why  in  many  places,  especially 
when  confronting  the  western  States  of  Europe,  the  policy  of  conquest,  notwith- 
standing all  sorts  of  threatening  jnvparations,  was  abandoned.  Besides  this,  envoys 
of  the  pope  (p.  9S)  had  appeared  at  tlie  diet,  in  order  to  ask  the  Jlongols  to  abstain 
from  further  expeditions  against  the  Christians.  It  is  true  that  they  had  irritated 
the  self-conscious  sovereigns  of  a  world-empire.  Nevertheless  the  mutual  hostility 
of  the  Christians  and  the  Mongols  to  the  ^lohainmedans  seemed  to  offer  the  basis  for 
an  understanding,  especially  in  Syria,  where  Crusaders  and  ^longols  were  forced  to 
stand  by  one  another.  Indeed,  finally,  there  appeared  some  prospect  of  converting 
even  the  Mongol  dynasty  to  Christianity,  and  of  thus  winning  a  mighty  triumph 
for  the  Church. 

Kuyuk  turned  his  attention  principally  to  the  east  and  attacked  Korea,  which 
at  the  same  time  might  form  a  bridge  to  Japan.  He  died,  however,  in  the  year  1248, 
and  ]Mangu  Khan  (MOngko,  or  Hsien  Tsmig),  a  son  of  Tuli  and  grandson  of  Genghis 
Khan,  came  to  the  throne,  althougli  only  after  long  deliberations  by  the  groat  nobles 
(1251).  The  gigantic  extent  of  the  Mongol  Empire  of  that  day  is  shown  by  the 
length  of  time  required  to  summon  and  assemble  the  great  councils  of  the  realm. 
The  decay  of  the  unwieldy  structure  was  onh-  a  question  of  time.  ]\Iangu  himself 
took  the  first  step  toward  it  when  he  nominated  his  brother  Kublai  governor- 
general  in  China  (Monan,  or  "  the  countries  south  of  the  desert"),  and  thus  placed 
his  destined  successor  under  the  immediate  influence  of  Chinese  civilization.  The 
Mongol  dynasty  was  fated  to  become  Chinese  at  no  very  distant  date. 

For  the  time  being,  however,  the  frontiers  of  the  Mongol  Empire  continued  to 
expand  under  Mangu.  Tibet,  hitherto  protected  by  its  situation,  was  attacked  and, 
as  Marco  Polo  testifies,  was  completely  devastated.  A  second  advance,  under  the 
leadership  of  Hulagu  against  Irak  and  Syria,  was  momentous  in  results.     The  war 


f,:."*l^;r]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  177 

was  first  waged  with  the  Assassins,  whose  eastern  or  Persian  branch  was  almost 
exterminated  (llokn  ed-din  Chershali,  killed  on  November  19,  1256;  see  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  368).  The  Mongol  arms  were  then  turned  against  Bagdad,  which  the  feeble 
resistance  of  the  ruling  klialif  failed  to  save.  A  frightful  massacre  almost  extermi- 
nated the  whole  population  of  this  leligious  cai)ital  of  the  Islam  world.  The  hos- 
tility then  evinced  by  the  Mongols  to  the  Mohammedan  faith  strengthened  the  hope 
that  the  Mongols  would  let  themselves  be  won  over  to  Christianity.  Cliristians  did, 
indeed,  obtain  a  favoured  position  at  the  Great  Khan's  court ;  but  Mangu  regarded 
baptism  and  other  rites  meiely  as  a  sort  of  convenient  magic  formula.  The 
behaviour  of  the  unorthodox  Nestorian  and  Armenian  jiriests  could  not  but  confirm 
him  in  this  belief.  The  Mongol  princes  must  have  had  very  hazy  notions  as  to  the 
inner  meaning  of  the  various  religions,  the  ceremonies  of  wliich  they  occasionally 
observed. 

After  a  great  part  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  had  been  ravaged,  the  attention  of  the 
Mongol  sovereign  was  once  more  directed  to  the  dominions  of  the  southern  Sung, 
which  were  now  vigorously  attacked  for  some  successive  years.  Kublai,  who  had 
satisfactorily  averted  the  disfavour  which  threatened  him,  conquered  the  western 
borderlands  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  Szechwan  and  Yunnan,  and,  by  advancing  his 
armies  as  far  as  Tongking  and  Cochin  China,  surrounded  Southern  China  on  all 
sides.  Once  more  the  death  of  the  Great  Khan  temporarily  brought  the  operations 
to  a  standstill.  Mangu  died  in  the  year  1259,  and  all  the  Mongol  leaders  went  off 
to  the  Tartar  steppe  to  attend  the  imperial  diet. 

C.   The  Fall  of  the  Mongol  World-Empire 

{a)  The  Beginning  of  the  Fall.  —  The  fall  of  the  gigantic  empire  could  no 
longer  be  delayed.  It  was  not  merely  due  to  the  enormous  size  of  the  Mongol 
State,  and  the  impossibility  of  preserving  the  unity  of  the  realm  in  the  face  of  such 
immense  distances.  Still  more  destructive  was  the  influence  of  the  different  civil- 
izations which  everywhere  forced  their  way,  as  it  were,  through  the  layer  of  sand 
spread  over  them  by  the  storm-wind  of  the  desert:  a  spiritual  revolution  was 
at  work. 

If  Kublai  was  on  the  point  of  being  transformed  into  a  civilized  Chinese,  the 
western  governors  felt  themselves  surrounded  by  the  civilizations  of  AVesteru  Asia 
and  Europe,  while  the  ancient  and  genuine  Mongol  spirit  in  its  primitive  bar- 
barism was  only  to  be  found  in  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia.  The  force  of  the 
geographical  position,  which  had  first  called  to  life  the  earlier  States  and  civiliza- 
tions, made  itself  again  irresistibly  felt ;  out  of  the  provinces  of  the  Mongol  world- 
empire  were  formed  once  more  national  States  under  the  rule  of  dynasties  of 
Mongol  origin.  The  way  in  which  the  fall  would  take  place  dei^ended  on  the 
point  to  which  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  empire  was  shifted.  If  toward  the 
east,  then  the  west  at  once  wrested  itself  free ;  if  toward  tlie  civilized  countries  of 
the  west,  it  was  a  natural  consequence  that  Cliina  sliould  attain  independence 
under  a  Mongol  ruler. 

In  1260  the  choice  of  the  Mongols  fell  on  Kublai  Khan  (Chinese,  H'u  pi  lie, 
Shi  Tsu,  or  Wen  wu  Huang  ti) ;  by  this  election  the  centre  of  gravity  was  shifted 
toward  the  east.  Kublai  still  indeed  was  reckoned  the  supreme  lord  of  all  Mon- 
gols ;  hut  iu  truth  he  ruled  only  the  eastern  steppe-districts  of  Central  Asia  and 

VOL   II  — 1 J 


ITS  HISTORY'    OV    THE    WORLD  [ci,„pter  ii 

the  parts  of  China  hitherto  conquered.  Iran  and  the  possessions  in  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor  fell  to  his  Imither  Hulagu ;  in  Kipchak,  the  steppe  country  of  AVest 
Siberia  and  the  adjoining;  European  regions,  the  descendants  of  Balu  ruled,  and 
other  Mongol  dynasties  were  being  formed  in  Turkestan. 

Chinese  civilization  now  triumphed  in  the  main  eastern  empire.  What  con- 
quering energy  still  existed  among  the  ilongol  people  was  employed  on  the  subju- 
gation of  the  emjiire  of  the  southern  Sung  and  on  futile  attacks  against  Japan,  after 
the  disoixlers  in  Mongolia  which  followed  on  the  cliange  of  sovereigns  had  been 
quieted.  Serious  operations  against  the  Sung  were  not  commenced  until  the  year 
1267,  and  twelve  years  elapsed  before  the  final  resistance  of  the  Southern  Chinese 
was  ended.  But  wliile  Kublai  thus  won  the  dominion  over  the  whole  of  China,  he 
was  threatened  by  the  danger  of  losing  his  possessions  in  Central  Asia  through 
rebellious  Mongol  princes.  At  Karakorum,  in  the  years  1260  to  1264  appeared  a 
rival  emperor,  Alipuko,  or  Arikbuga.  A  grandson  of  Ogdai,  Kaidu  by  name, 
rebelled,  and  held  out  till  his  death  in  l.SOl.  Baian,  liowever,  to  whom  the  victory 
over  the  Sung  is  cliietiy  to  be  ascribed,  brought  ^longolia,  with  tiie  old  capital 
Karakorum,  once  more  into  the  possession  of  his  master.  Kublai  himself  resided 
from  the  first  in  Peking  (Khan  Baligh.  Cainl)aluc,  p.  98),  and  thus  announced 
that  he  was  more  Chinese  than  Mongol.  The  histories  of  China  have  recognised 
thLs  fact,  since,  after  1280,  they  treat  the  Mongol  reigning  house  of  Kublai  a» 
a  genuine  Chinese  dynasty.  The  further  destinies  of  this  dynasty  accordingly 
belong  to  the  history  of  Central  Asia  in  a  very  restricted  degree,  especially  after 
the  death  of  Kublai  (1294),  whose  name  had  testified  to  some  sort  of  imaginary 
cohesion  between  the  various  fragments  of  the  Mongol  Empire  still. 

Any  one  who  has  tried  to  i)ass  a  fair  judgment  on  the  crumbling  world-empire, 
and  asks  what  its  effect  on  the  civilization  of  mankind  was,  will,  as  he  turns  over 
the  records  of  that  blood-stained  period,  be  filled  first  with  a  feeling  of  abhorrence, 
and  of  despair  of  any  progress  or  of  any  results  of  higher  culture.  Is  it  always 
the  destiny  of  the  nations  which  are  laboriously  struggling  forward  to  succumb  to 
the  onslaught  of  rude  barbarians,  whose  dull  senses  are  intoxicated  with  battle  and 
booty  until  they  are  maddened  with  an  aimless  and  hideous  lust  for  murder? 
Have  flourishing  towns,  filled  with  the  i)roduc:ts  of  art  and  science,  been  raised  by 
the  energy  of  successive  generations  merely  that  rude  hordes  may  stamp  them  into 
the  blood-stained  earth,  as  a  wanton  child  breaks  his  toy  from  a  senseless  love  of 
destruction  ?  True  it  is  that  on  no  page  of  history  does  the  old  cruelty  of  nature 
and  destiny,  that  cruelty  whicli  sacrifices  a  thousand  lives  in  order  to  preserve  a 
few  favoured  individuals,  stare  us  so  derisively  in  the  face.  If  countless  multi- 
tudes of  sentient  men  bleed  to  death  under  the  sabres  of  the  nomads,  it  seems  to 
look  on  with  as  great  indifference  as  if  a  swarm  of  hovering  flies  was  consumed  by 
the  flames  of  a  desert  fire. 

But  it  has  been  already  stated  that  counter  influences  to  all  that  evil  and  mis- 
chief existed  which  were  able  to  mitigate  the  terrible  impression.  The  storm  did 
not  only  wreak  destruction,  but  it  purified  the  atmosphere.  It  was  the  ilongols 
who  first  put  an  end  to  tlie  sect  of  murderers,  the  Assassins,  —  a  conspicuous  but  not 
an  isolated  example  of  this  purifying  power.  Far  higher  value  must  be  attached 
to  the  fact  that  once  again,  although  for  a  brief  period  and  under  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  a  barbarous  jieople,  all  the  civilized  countries  of  the  Old  World  enjoyed 
free  intercourse  with  each  other ;  all  the  roads  were  temporarily  open,  and  repre- 


Centra!  A.Ha 
ami  Sib<rria 


] 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


179 


sentatives  of  every  nation  appeared  at  the  court  of  Karakorum.  Chinese  artisans 
were  settled  there ;  Persian  and  Armenian  merchants  met  the  envoys  of  the  pope 
and  other  Western  powers  ;  a  gt)ldsmith  from  Paris  (p.  99)  constructed  for  Mangu 
the  chief  ornament  of  his  court,  a  silver  tree;  there  were  numerous  Arabs  in  the 
service  of  the  khan,  and  Buddhist  priests  laid  the  ci%-iIization  of  India  at  his  feet. 
These  representatives  of  different  civilizations  must  have  reacted  on  each  other. 
For  the  isolated  kingdom  of  China  in  particular  the  Mongol  age  marked  tlie  influx 
of  new  and  stimulating  ideas  (see  the  plate,  p.  168).  Arabian  writings  were 
frequently  translated  into  Chinese;  Persian  astronomers  and  mathematicians  came 
into  the  country  ;  daring  European  travellers  also  found  many  opportunities  to 
communicate  their  knowledge.  The  keen  zest  for  learning  exhibited  by  the  better 
part  of  the  Mongols  seemed  to  communicate  itself  to  the  Chinese,  and  for  a  period 
to  overcome  the  stiff  conservatism  of  the  old  self-centred  civilized  nation. 


(b)  The  Western  Sections  of  the  Divided  Fnqiire}  —  AYliile  the  history  of  the 
Eastern  Mongol  Empire  was  gradually  becoming  a  chapter  of  Cliinese  history,  an 
Iranian  State  was  developing  in  the  west  with  a  jMongol  dynasty,  which  it  is  usual 
henceforth  to  designate  as  the  dynasty  of  the  Ilkhans.  Hulagu,  who  in  ]\langu's 
time  had  consolidated  the  conquest  in  Persia  and  had  added  other  parts  of  West- 
ern Asia  to  them,  must  be  reckoned  as  an  independent  sovereign  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Kublai,  although  a  semblance  of  dejjendence  was  preserved.  After  the 
capture  of  Bagdad,  Hulagu  had  cont^uered  some  of  the  petty  Mohammedan  princes, 
and  thus  put  himself  on  good  terms  with  the  Christians  in  Armenia  and  Palestine. 
But  when  an  Egyptian  army  inflicted  a  heavy  defeat  on  his  general,  Ketboga,  not 
far  from  Tiberias,  the  Mongol  advance  was  checked  in  that  direction  also  (1260). 
The  attempts  of  Hulagu  to  reconquer  Syria  led  to  frightful  massacres,  but  had  not 
been  crowned  with  any  real  success  when  Hulagu  died,  126,5. 

His  successor,  Abaka  (Abaga),  was  in  consequence  restricted  to  Persia  and  Irak, 
thus  realising  the  idea  of  an  Iranian  empire  under  a  Mongol  dynasty  (Vol.  Ill, 
p.  371).     The  u'ony  of  fate  willed  that  Abaka  was  forced  immediately,  according  to 


1  Temujin  (Genghis  Khan,  1206-1227) 


I 

Juji  (t  1220) 


Orda, 
Kh.m  of 

Eaat 
Kipchak 
1226-SO 

Slian?  of 
the   Whits 

Horde 
1280-1391 


I 


Batu, 
Khan  of 
Kipchak 
1226-56 

I 
Khans  of 
the  Golden 
Horde,  or 
more  accu- 
rately of 
the  Blue 
Horde 
1256  to  1359 


ghaiban. 

King  of 

Hungary 

1-241/42 

Khan  of  the 

Kirghiz   and 

Uzbega 

l'J42 


. , 

Teral,        Tuka  Timur, 
Chief  of  the      Khan  of 
Pecscheuegs         Great 

I  Bulgaria 

Nogai-Chiefa  i 

and  Khans  | 

of  Siberia 


— I 

Khans  of  the 

Golden  Horde  (II) 

in  Western  Kijj- 

chak  137,<-1502 

Khans  of  Astfa* 

chan  1460-1554 

I 

Janids   of  Trans, 
oxania  1590-1785 

I 

Mangites  of 

Bokhara  1785-1868 


1 

Khans   of    Bok-  ^ 

hara    1300-1868:  31- 

Shaibanids  1500-  a  - 

\r,'X> ;  in  the      v.  o 

female   line   the   ^  3 

Janids  I599-17S5    5" 

and  the  _S  S 

Mangites  5  S 

1785-18li8  (see         | 

under  Orda)  J 

O 


I— 1 1 

a      %      c3 

i   2    = 

Si  g  sac  >-Z 

« r^       CI  3^ 


Jagatai, 
Khan  of 
Trans- 
oxania 
1J27-I3 

I 
KhanR 

Of 

Trans- 

oxania 

1242  to 

1353 


Ogdai, 

Great  Khan 

1229-U 


Tuli 


r- 


I — ^-\ 

Kuynk    Koshi 
Great         I 
Khan    Kaidu 

1246-48   tlSOl 


Mangu  Kubhli  Arik- 
Great    Great    buga 
Khan     Khan     Rival- 
1251-59  1260-94  Khan 
at 
Yuan-  Kara- 
dj"n.TS-  koruni 
ty  in    1260- 
China    1264 
1271- 
1368 
I 
Great  Khans  in 
Mongolia 
1370  to  1470 

Provincial 

Princes 
1544-1634 


Hulagu 
Il-Khan 

of 

Persia 

1206-05 

I 

II 
E  liana 

of 
Persia 
1265- 
1349 


(Principally  from  Stanley  Lane-Poole,  "  The  Uohammedan  Dynasties ;  "  Weatminster,  1894.) 


ISO  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  [Chapter jr 

the  old  Iratunn  policy,  to  take  measures  for  protecting  his  realm  against  his  own 
coimtrviuen,  the  XLmguls  of  Kipohak.who  tlireatened  to  invade  tlieland  through  the 
Caucasian  Gate  from  Derbend,  aud  had  already  come  to  au  uudersiaudiug  with 
the  Egjptians,  the  arch  foes  of  Abaka.  Nothing  shows  more  clearly  how  complete 
the  fall  of  the  Mongol  Emjiire  then  was.  War  now  began  on  the  other  frontier  of 
Irau,  towanl  Turkestan,  which  had  long  been  threatened,  since  the  Mongols  of 
Jagatai  invaded  Kliorasau,  and  were  only  driven  out  of  Persia  by  Abaka's  \'ict«ry 
at  Hemt.  A  tiual  attempt  to  recover  Syria  ended,  however,  in  the  defeat  of  Abaka 
at  Emesa  (1281).  In  that  same  year  Abaka  died,  and  with  his  succes.sor  the  trans- 
formation of  the  dynasty  seemed  to  be  completed.  The  prince,  origuially  a  bap- 
tised Christian,  and  brother  of  the  deceased,  openly  adopted  the  Mohammedan 
religion  under  the  name  of  Ahmed,  and  thus  snapped  the  last  bond  of  union  with 
his  unruly  Central  Asiatic  brethren.  This  step  was,  however,  premature.  The 
Christians  of  Armenia  aud  Georgia,  the  mainstaj'  of  the  empire,  were  roused  to 
ominous  excitement,  and  the  Mongols  could  not  make  up  their  minds  so  quickly  U> 
abandon  their  hatred  of  Islam  and  its  followers.  Eebellions  ensued,  the  leaders  of 
wliich  called  in  the  help  of  the  far-otf  Great  Khan,  Kublai.  Ahmed  was  deposed, 
and  his  nephew  Argun  gained  the  sovereignt}.  Tlien  followed  a  period  of  dis- 
turbances and  renewed  fighting  in  Syria,  which  was  favourable  to  the  Mongols, 
especially  in  the  time  of  the  Ilkhan  Ghazan  (1295-K^04),  but  ended  later  in 
repeated  disasters.  Under  Ghazan,  wlio  henceforward  helj^d  Islam  to  victory,  the 
empire  of  the  Ilkhans  temporarily  acquired  new  power ;  but  a  reconciliation  with 
the  Mohammedan  world  was  not  etfected,  and  the  zeal  of  the  Christians  for  the 
Mongol  dynasty  .<oon  cooled. 

Under  the  successors  of  Ghazan  the  empire  became  disorganised,  but  the  sem- 
blance at  least  of  unity  was  kept  up  until  the  death  of  the  Ilkhan  Abu  Said  Balia- 
dur  (1335).  The  disruption  then  began  which  repeated  on  a  small  scale  the  fate 
of  the  Mongolian  world-empire.  The  provinces  became  independent,  aud  llie 
Ilkhan  retained  a  mere  shadow  of  dignity  without  any  real  power.  In  1336  round 
Bagdad,  under  sheikh  Hasan  Busurg  (d.  1356),  the  emir  of  the  Jelair,  was  formed 
the  empire  of  the  llkhani,  wiiich  awpiired  fresh  power,  but  finally  was  destroyed 
in  the  struggle  with  the  Mozaffarids  and  Timur  (1393-1405).  In  1410  died  tlie 
last  of  the  llkhani  but  one,  Ahmed  ben  Owais,  as  a  prisoner  of  the  Turcoman 
prince  Kara  Yusuf  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  376). 

The  dynasties  which  had  been  formed  in  the  steppe  regions  of  West  Siberia  and 
Turkestan  were  better  able  to  maintain  their  individuality  than  the  Mongi^il  princes 
of  China  aud  Iran ;  it  was  from  these  districts  that  the  second  great  advance  of 
the  Mongols  under  Tinmr  started.  In  Turkestan  arose  the  empire  of  Jagatai 
(Zagatai,  MawanVl-nalir=Transoxania),  which  took  its  name  from  one  of  the  sons 
of  Genghis  Khan,  and  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  prosperity  comprised  all  the  coun- 
tries on  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  as  well  as  the  greatest  part  of  the  Tarim  basin. 
The  prevailing  religion  in  these  regions  was  Islam ;  sectarians  of  that  faith  liad 
there  offered  the  Mongols  in  1232  a  more  obstinate  resistance  than  the  native 
princes  had  previously  done.  At  an  early  period  one  of  tlie  Mongol  sovereigns 
had  gone  over  to  the  teaching  of  Mahomet,  although  the  bulk  of  the  people 
had  not  followed  his  example.  Since  there  were  no  external  enemies  left,  the 
natural  effect  was  that  tlie  Mongols  S(Jon  fought  among  themselves.  Disputes  as 
to  the  succession,  and  rebellions  were  endless;  the  legitimate  reiguing  dynasty 


aSrrStrr]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  181 

of  the  line  of  Genghis  Khan  sank  into  tlie  background  after  1358,  and  a  govern- 
ment by  a  mayor  of  the  palace  took  its  plac-e,  wliich  obviously  could  not  remain 
uncontested  in  the  hands  of  any  one  family.  Some  provinces  became  absolutely 
independent ;  for  example,  Kasligar,  which  was  the  most  powerful  State  in  those 
parts  in  1369,  when  Timur  first  appeared  on  the  scene.  The  Mongolian  dynasty 
of  the  Shaibanids,  though  temporarily  overthrown,  did  not  disappear,  Init  after 
the  fall  of  Timur's  dynasty  (1494)  soon  raised  itself  again  to  Hie  throne  of 
Samarkand  and  Bokhara,  which  it  held  in  the  male  line  until  1599,  and  in  the 
female  mrtil  1868. 

The  kuigdnm  of  Kipohak  (tlie  Golden  Horde),  which,  roughly  speaking,  com- 
prised the  lowlands  of  Western  Silieria  and  Eastern  Europe,  showed  greater 
stability  tliai\  tlie  Jagatai.  A  more  vigorous  foreign  policy  was  both  possible 
and  necessary  there,  and  helped  to  bind  the  Mongols  closely  together.  Tlie  com- 
mand of  Uussia,  that  land  of  constant  ferment,  the  wars  with  I'oland  and  livzan- 
tium,  and  the  raids  over  the  Caucasus  into  Western  Asia,  kept  alive  the  old  warlike 
ardour  of  the  conquest-loving  nation.  Tlie  countries  which  later  formed  the  king- 
dom of  Kipcliak  were  first  partially  subdued  by  Juji  (Tuschi),  the  eldest  son  of 
Genghis  Khan,  and  then  were  com])letoly  brought  under  the  dominion  of  the  Mon- 
gols by  Batu  (see  preceding  genealogical  table).  The  expedition  of  Batu  to  Cen- 
tral Europe  ended  the  period  of  great  concjuests  in  the  west.  Tlie  Mongols  were 
unable  to  hold  their  position  in  Hungary  and  Poland,  which  were  both  attacked 
again  in  1254,  and  Russia  alone  remamed  completely  in  their  hands.  Batu,  who 
died  in  1256,  had  been  practically  an  independent  ruler.  He  was  succeeded,  with- 
out opposition  from  the  Great  Khan,  Kublai,  by  his  younger  brother  Berkai  (Bereke, 
Baraka,  Burka),  who  was  soon  involved  in  contests  with  the  Iranian  sovereign  of 
the  Mongols,  Abaka.  The  highest  civilization  in  the  kingdom  of  Kipchak  was 
then  found  in  the  Crimea.  The  towns  of  the  Crimea  liad  flourished  since  ancient 
times,  and  had  increased  in  prospeiitv  under  the  ^Mongols  ;  the  country  had  main- 
tained its  intercourse  with  Byzantium  and  Southern  Europe.  The  influence  of 
this  advanced  culture  was  noticeable  in  the  Mongolian  princes.  Many  of  them,  in 
spite  of  their  soldier-like  roughness,  appreciated  scientific  pursuits,  tried  to  draw 
learned  men  to  their  court,  and  showed  toward  the  rei)resentatives  of  the  different 
religions  that  tolerance  wliich  is  perhaps  the  most  pleasing  trait  in  the  Mongol 
character.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  hopes  which  were  so  often  entertained  of 
wmning  the  IMongolian  princes  completely  over  to  one  definite  religion  were  long 
unrealised. 

The  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Kipchak  is  full  of  constant  wars  against  all 
neighbours  on  the  west  and  the  south,  and  of  dj-nastic  disputes  and  insurrections 
at  home.  Part  of  it  belongs  to  the  course  of  Russian  history  (Vol.  V).  The  Mon- 
gol age  does  not  imply  for  Russia  a  brief  and  bloody  interlude,  as  it  does  for  most 
other  Western  countries ;  on  the  contrary,  the  nomads  of  the  steppes  seem  for  a 
time  to  have  associated  so  much  with  the  native  population  that  at  the  present 
day  indelible  traces  of  that  affinity  are  left  on  the  national  Russian  character. 
A  still  closer  amalgamation  was  partly  prevented  by  the  circumstance  that  finally 
the  dynasty  of  Kipchak  in  the  time  of  Uzbeg  (Usbek;  1312-1340)  went  over  to 
Islam,  and  thus  repelled  the  Christian  Russians  in  the  same  way  as  the  Persian 
Mongols  offended  the  Armenians  and  (Jeingians.  After  1360  the  kingdom  was 
filled  with  disturbances,  and  it  was  oulv  the  union  of  the  \\liite  and  the  Blue 


182  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  lci,aj>ter ii 

Hordes  by  Toktaniish  (1378)  and  tlie  invasion  of  Timur  (1391  and  1395)  that 
temporarily  restored  order,  but  witli  tlie  result  that,  after  the  death  of  Toktaniish 
in  140G,  the  disorders  increased  and  tlie  power  of  tlie  kingdom  continually  dimin- 
ished. In  the  fifteenth  century  the  Crimea,  with  the  adjoining  parts  of  Southern 
Russia,  was  all  that  remained  of  the  once  mighty  realm  of  Ki[ichak.  In  the  year 
1502  the  "  Golden  Korde"  died  out,  and  the  kingdom  completely  broke  up. 

The  Xogai,  a  branch  of  the  Mongol  Jujis,  formed  in  14G6  a  kingdom  round 
Astrakhan,  which  fell  before  the  attacks  of  the  grand  duke  of  Moscow.  Farther 
to  the  north  arose  in  1438  the  Khanate  of  Kasau,  and  in  the  Crimea  a  small  Mon- 
gol State,  founded  in  1420  with  the  help  of  Turkey,  to  which  it  agreed  to  pay 
tribute,  held  its  own  until  its  incorporation  with  Russia  in  the  year  1783. 

Z>.   Timur  (Tamerlane) 

With  the  fall  of  the  Mongol  Empire  in  the  time  of  Kublai  the  era  of  the  great 
conquests  was  virtually  closed,  although  raids  and  border  wars  still  lasted  for  a 
long  time.  The  subjugation  of  Southern  China  brought  the  eastern  Mongols  com- 
pletely under  the  influence  of  Chinese  civilization.  The  more  westerly  of  the 
Mongol  States  did  not  show  any  further  power  of  similar  expansion.  The  most 
striking  proof  of  this  stagnation  is  the  fact  that  no  attempt  was  made  to  conquer 
India,  although  the  gates  to  this  country,  so  alluring  to  every  great  Asiatic  con- 
queror, were  in  Mongol  hands,  and  although  the  Mongols  had  already  traversed  the 
Punjab  in  the  time  of  Genghis  Khan.  A  fresh  and  powerful  impulse,  which  luiited 
a  part  of  the  ancient  Mongol  power  once  more  under  one  rulei;,  was  needed  in  order 
to  reach  this  last  goal. 

(«)  The  Beginning  of  Timur's  Career.  —  It  seems  at  first  sight  strange  that  the 
new  tide  of  conquest  flowed  from  Turkestan,  from  the  kingdom  of  Jagatai  (Zagatai), 
that  is  to  say,  from  the  Mongol  State  which  was  most  rent  by  internal  wars  and 
showed  the  least  energetic  foreign  policy.  But  these  dissensions  were  actually  a 
proof  that  the  ancient  Mongol  love  of  fighting  was  all-powerful  there,  and  that 
the  forces  and  impulses  of  nomadism  had  remained  there  unimpaired.  The  nomad 
tribes  of  Turkestan,  who  were  only  superficially  Mongolian,  and  who,  long  before 
the  time  of  Genghis  Khan,  had  repeatedly  made  victorious  inroads  into  Iran  and 
India,  .supplied  the  most  splendid  material  to  a  leader  who  knew  how  to  mould 
them  into  a  loyal  and  devoted  army.  While  Mongolia  proper,  which  had  spread 
its  armies  over  half  the  globe,  was  now-poor  in  men  and  no  longer  a  theatre  for 
great  enterprises,  Turkestan  had  every  claim  to  become  the  foremost  power  of  the 
nomad  world.     All  that  was  required  was  a  master  will. 

Civilization  may  have  tried  her  arts  on  the  forefathers  of  Timur,  that  true  child 
of  the  desert,  who  was  born,  the  son  of  a  Mongol  general,  on  April  8,  1336.  They 
had  lived  for  some  hundred  years  or  so  as  the  feudal  lords  of  the  small  district  of 
Kash  (Shaar,  Shehrisebs),  in  the  very  heart  of  the  civilized  world  of  Turkestan, 
to  the  south  of  the  prosperous  town  of  Samarkand.  But  Timur's  character  shows 
barely  a  trace  of  these  influences.  In  his  relations  to  his  native  soil  he  is  true  to 
the  nomad  bent.  The  little  country  of  Kash  served  him  indeed  as  a  starting-point 
for  his  first  operations,  but  he  soon  shook  himself  free  from  it,  and  fought  like  a 
soldier  of  fortune  whose  true  home  is  among  the  moving  tents  of  his  camp,  —  who 


47entrnl  Asia 
and  Liberia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  183 


to-day  has  under  him  a  niifjhiv  army  recruited  or  impressed  from  every  nation, 
and  to-moiTow  with  a  few  faithful  followers  is  seeking  a  precarious  refuge  in  the 
mountain  gorges  or  the  desert.  The  vivid  contrasts,  so  usual  among  nomads,  be- 
tween harshness  and  magnanimity,  between  cniel  contempt  for  the  life  of  strangers 
anil  desperate  grief  for  his  kinsmen  and  his  friends,  are  repeated  in  Timur.  Like 
a  true  Mongol,  he  was  indifferent  in  religious  questions ;  but  —  and  this  one  evil 
trait  he  learnt  from  the  civilized  peoples  —  he  could  play  the  Mohammedan 
fanatic  when  it  served  his  purpose.  He  knew  how  to  disguise  his  warlike  expedi- 
tions, occasionally  under  a  specious  veil  of  piety. 

In  the  year  1358  the  realm  of  Jagatai  was  in  the  most  desperate  disorder.  The 
khan,  Buyan  Kuli,  had  become  a  mere  pup]>et  in  the  hands  of  his  mayors  of  the 
palace;  hut  even  the  family  which  ruled  iu  his  place  saw  itself  in  this  same  year 
deprived  of  all  influence  by  a  general  revolt  of  the  vassal  princes,  and  the  kingdom 
broke  up  into  its  separate  pro\dnces.  In  the  wars  which  these  new  principalities 
continually  waged  ou  one  another,  Qulb  ed-din  Amir  Timur,  as  a  nephew  of  the 
reigniug  prince  of  Kash,  found  opportunities  of  gaining  distinction,  and  used  them 
to  the  fulL  The  first  attempts  to  reconstitute  the  State  under  a  different  rule, 
started  in  Kashgar,  the  prince  of  which,  Toghluq  Timur  (descended  from  Jagatai 
in  the  sixth  degree),  appears  to  have  extended  his  influence  as  far  as  the  Altai  Moun- 
tains. In  the  years  1359  and  1360  the  armies  of  Kashgar  advanced  victoriously  to 
Western  Turkestan ;  Tinuir  found  it  politic  to  join  them,  and  he  contrived  that 
after  the  faU  of  his  uncle  the  principality  of  Kash  should  come  to  his  share.  But 
it  must  have  soon  been  obvious  that  there  was  not  much  to  gain  in  this  way.  He 
soon  reappeared  in  the  field,  but  this  time  as  an  ally  of  the  emir  Hosain,  who,  as 
a  descendant  of  the  family  of  the  Mayors  of  the  Palace,  had  held  out  in  Kabul 
and  now  reasserted  his  claims  to  the  supreme  power.  In  the  year  1360  the  two 
allies  experienced  tlie  most  strange  vicissitudes,  being  at  one  time  victore,  at  another 
fugitives  and  even  prisoners.  But  after  years  of  fighting,  fortune  inclined  to  their 
side;  a  change  of  sovereign  iu  Kashgar  gave  them  breatliing  time,  and  in  1363 
they  were  able  to  enthrone  as  khan  at  Samarkand  a  new  puppet  of  the  family  of 
Jagatai,  Kabul  Sultan.  It  is  not  sui-prising  that  Timur  now  tried  to  put  aside  his 
overlord  Hosain ;  but  he  met  with  an  overwhelming  defeat  in  1366.  He  con- 
trived, howe\'er,  to  obtain  the  forgiveness  of  Hosain  in  1367  and  to  regain  his 
influence.  After  better  preparations,  his  attempt  succeeded  in  1369.  Hosain  was 
captured  and  executed,  and  a  council  of  the  realm  nominated  Timur  to  be  supreme 
Great  Khan  (Cha  Khan).  The  nominal  sovereignty  of  the  descendants  of  Genghis 
Khan  was  not  terminated  for  some  time.  Suyurghatmish  was  succeeded  in  1388- 
1397  by  his  son  Mahmud  as  khau  of  Transoxauia. 

(h)  Timur's  Campaigns.  —  The  new  "  Lord  of  the  World  "  began  with  West 
Turkestan  for  his  sole  possession,  and  even  of  that  territory  parts  remained  to  be 
conquered.  Yusuf  Beg  of  Kharismia,  which  then  comprised  Khiva  and  Bokhara, 
defied  Timur  continually,  and  was  not  completely  defeated  until  1379.  Kamar 
ed-dm  of  Kashgar,  in  spite  of  repeated  campaigns  (1375-1376),  could  never  be 
completely  vanquished.  It  was  only  when  West  Turkestan  was  entirely  subju- 
gated that  the  great  wars  and  raids  of  Timur,  frauglit  with  such  consequences  for 
civilization,  began  with  an  attack  on  Persia,  which  then,  like  Jagatai  at  an  earlier 
time,  was  broken  up  into  several  independent  principalities.     The  separate  States 


184  HISTORY    OF    TIIK    WORLD  la,<.j,ter  Ji 

could  not  resist  the  united  jiower  of  Tuikesian.  Klunasaii  (with  ihe  last  Serbedarid 
Ali  Muaggad)  and  Herat  (with  the  last  Kurtid  (Jhagaih  ed-diu  I'ir  Ali),  the  ancient 
bulwarks  of  Iran  against  the  nomads,  were  the  first  to  succumb  before  the  attack 
of  Timur  (loSl).  In  the  years  ISSfi-lSS"  the  Jlongolian  army  fought  with 
Armenia,  the  Turkomans,  and  tiie  Ilkliani  (Jelair.s)  of  liagdad.  Tlie  year  1388 
saw  the  terrible  overthrow  of  the  Iranian  national  States  of  the  ilozaffarids,  which 
had  been  formed  in  Farsistan  (tlie  ancient  Persis),  Kirman,  and  Kurdistan,  and  the 
complete  destruction  of  Ispahan,  the  capital  of  Persia.  The  invasion  of  Turkestan 
by  the  ungrateful  Khan  Toktamish  of  Kipchak  called  Tiniur  away  from  Persia  in 
1388-1391.  He  was  then  completely  occupied  with  the  subjugation  of  the  Tarim 
basin.  In  1392  he  reappeared  in  Persia  and  laid  the  country  waste,  since  most 
of  the  dethroned  princes,  even  the  Mozaffarids,  had  partially  ii';j;aincd  their  domin- 
ions. The  race  of  the  Mozatl'arids  was  this  time  exterminated.  In  1393  Armenia 
and  Kurdistan  were  occupied  once  more. 

It  was  most  unfortunate  for  the  subjugated  countries  that  Timur  by  his  love  of 
conquest  was  always  allured  from  vanqui-shed  regions  to  other  parts  of  his  territories. 
The  native  princes  then  found  opportunities  to  recover  their  dominions  for  a  time  ; 
whereupon  Timur  would  retaliate.  Timur's  imagination  revelled  in  horrors ;  he 
aimed  at  striking  terror  far  and  wide.  He  delighted  in  raising  towers  of  skulls  or 
building  gigantic  monuments  of  corpses  and  livuig  prisoners. 

A  momentous  campaign  in  India  called  Timur  away  from  Persia  on  this  par- 
ticular occasion.  The  influence  of  the  Mongols  seems  to  have  been  asserted  here 
and  there  in  Northern  India  on  the  east  side  of  the  Indus.  Independent  border- 
tribes  impeded,  as  now,  the  communications  between  Afghanistan  and  the  valley 
of  the  Indus.  Beyond  the  Indus  lay  Mohammedan  States.  In  1398  part  of  the 
border-tribes  were  conquered  after  a  laborious  campaign  under  the  personal  com- 
mand of  Timur.  Meanwliile  a  grandson  of  Timur,  Pir  ]\Iohammed,  captured 
Multan  after  a  six  months'  siege,  and  the  combined  forces  then  advanced  before 
Delhi  The  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  Timur  after  a  bloody  battle.  The  con- 
queror then  marched  beyond  the  Ganges,  and  returned  to  Samarkand  in  1399 
laden  with  immense  booty. 

The  attacks  on  the  West  were  now  at  once  renewed.  In  1399  Timur  was  in 
Georgia,  which  he  cruelly  devastated;  but  his  looks  were  already  fixed  on  Asia 
Minor,  where  the  <  )smans'  had  founded  their  empire,  and  on  Syria,  which  was  under 
Egyptian  rule.  The  Osman  war  began  in  the  year  1400  with  the  siege  of  the  city 
of  Sivas,  which  resisted  so  long  that  Timur  after  taking  it  desisted  for  the  time  from 
further  operations  in  that  quarter.  He  advanced,  instead,  against  the  feebly  defended 
Syria,  the  northern  ])art  of  which,  including  Damascus,  fell  into  his  hands.  Bagtlad 
also,  where  Ahmed  ibn  Owais  had  established  himself,  was  captured.  The  storm 
then  broke  on  the  heads  of  the  Osnians.  In  the  middle  of  1402,  the  Turkish  army 
was  defeated  near  Angora  by  tlie  forces  of  Timur.  Sultan  Bajazet  1  himself  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  Asia  Minor  totally  laid  waste.  Faraj  of  Egypt,  who  feared  a 
similar  fate,  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  Timur. 

Thus  the  "lame"  Tinnir  (Tinun-i-leng,  Timur-lenk  =  Tamerlan)  had  again 
united  the  three  chief  western  ]iortions  of  the  Mongol  world-eini)ire,  Jagatai, 
Kipchak,  and  Persia,  and  widened  their  frontiers  still  more  (see  the  niaj),  "  Cen- 
tral Asia  in  the  Times  of  Genghis  Khan  and  Timur,"  p.  174).  When  he  once 
more  convened  a  great  council  of  the  realm  at  Samarkand  in  the  year  1404,  he 


The  Mosquk  of  Gru-AMiit  in  Samarkand,  with  thk  Tomi!  ok  Timik 


EXI'LAXATION    OF    TlIK    VIKWS    oX    THK    FKoXT    dF    THE    PACE 

Top:  The  mosque  of  Gur-Aiiiir  at  Saiiiarkaiul,  cuiitaiiiiii^'  the  tomb  of  Timur.  The  imposing; 
buiUliii^'  with  its  dome  of  tiles,  which  liave  preserved  their  splendid  glaze,  its  lofty  facades  and 
broad  gateways,  dates  from  the  periotl  of  the  Mongolian  contpieror,  who  made  Samarkand  his 
utpital  alx)Ut  140(1. 

Bnllnin :  The  tomb  of  Timur  and  his  relations,  under  the  dome  of  the  mosque  of  Gur  Amir  at 
Samarkand.  The  black  stone  with  a  crack  in  the  middle  is  the  tomb  of  the  conqueror.  It  is  a 
single  block,  hewn  out  of  dark  green  jade,  and  of  incalculable  value.  The  slab  has  been  broken 
across  by  some  unknown  hand.  Superstitious  Mobaiiiniedans  (who  consider  the  si>lintei>i  to  be 
infallible  remedies  against  all  internal  diseases)  and  Russian  collectors  have  knocked  otf  pieces 
of  it.  Accoixling  to  the  St.  Petersburg  correspondent  of  the  "  Daily  Chronicle,"  the  tomb  was 
lilundered  by  robbers  in  October,  1901.  They  not  only  deslroycil  the  priceless  stone  of  Timur, 
but  carried  otf  all  tlie  valuables  frniu  tlie  mosque,  which,  notwitlistanding  its  interesting  inscrip- 
tions,  was  left   luiguanled. 

(Mostly  from  Franz  v.  Schwarz's  "Turkestan."     Freiburg  iiit  Breisgau,  llerdei-,  1900.) 


2l^:L;'r]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  185 

explained  to  his  ma{,'nates  that  only  one  great  undertaking  was  left  him,  the  cou- 
([uest  of  China.  But  tliis  time  a  kindly  fate  sjmied  the  prosperous  Chmese 
Empire.  An  army  of  two  hundred  thousand  men  was  already  in  the  field,  when 
death  cut  short  his  plans  on  February  ]  8.  He  died  of  fever  at  the  age  of  si.xty- 
nine  years  (see  the  inserted  illustration,  "  The  Gur-Emir  Mosque  in  Samarkand, 
with  the  Tomb  of  Timur  ")}  The  spirit  of  boundless  ambition  and  conquest  was 
once  more  embodied  in  him;  luit  it  died  with  him,  and  tlie  down-trodden  seeds  of 
culture  were  free  to  spring  up  again  if  life  was  still  in  them.  The  age  of  the 
great  nomad  empire.s  definitely  closed  with  Timur,  but  not  before  it  had  pro- 
duced endless  misery  and  had  rent  the  ancient  civilization  of  Western  Asia  to 
a  few  shreds. 

Timur's  empire  had  been  only  held  together  by  the  personality  of  the  ruler,  and 
it  crumbled  away  even  in  his  hands  so  soon  as  his  attention  was  too  closely  riveted 
in  any  one  direction.  The  term  "  empire  "  is  almost  too  pretentious  for  this  polit- 
ical structure  which  merits  rather  the  name  of  mihtary  despotism.  The  national 
basis  was  almost  entirely  replaced  by  the  purely  military.  The  body  that  took  the 
field  was  not  a  levy  from  defined  districts,  but  the  recruited  or  impressed  followers 
of  the  individual  leaders.  Every  campaign  was  an  undertaking  at  the  common 
cost,  the  supreme  command  being  in  the  hands  of  Tinuir.  Tlie  troops  were  not 
paid  by  Timur,  but  by  the  generals,  who  looked  to  recoup  themselves  with  interest. 
If  by  so  doing  they  amassed  excessive  wealth,  Timur  simply  ordained  that  all  sec- 
tions of  the  army  should  be  strengthened.  Every  leader  then  was  forced  to  employ 
his  fortune  in  enlisting  more  soldiers.  Such  an  army  could  naturall}'  only  be  kept 
on  foot  so  long  as  it  was  fighting.  It  would  soon  have  eaten  itself  away  m  peace 
time.  Thus  behind  Timur's  unbridled  lust  for  war,  which  entu-ely  corresponded  to 
his  character,  there  was  a  compelling  force  from  which  he  cnuld  not,  with  safety 
to  himself,  withdraw.  He  possessed  an  army  ready  to  hand  only  so  long  as  he 
waged  war  and  obtained  booty,  and,  as  long  only  as  this  army  remained  lo}'al  to 
him,  he  was  lord  of  a  gigantic  empire.  He  was  confronted  by  the  national  rulers, 
whose  existence  was  more  firmly  rooted  in  the  soil,  but  who  were  seldom  able  to 
face  the  rushing  torrent  of  his  enormous  hosts. 

E.  The  Descendants  of  Timur 

With  the  death  of  Timur  these  opposing  forces  were  certain  soon  to  regain  the 
upper  hand.  No  course  was  left  to  the  descendants  of  the  mighty  conqueror  but 
to  submit  to  them  or  to  give  a  national  tinge  to  their  own  policy,  a  com'se  for 
which  the  earlier  Mtmgol  dynasties  furnished  a  precedent.  For  the  moment, 
indeed,  the  army,  the  invincible  wea])on  of  Timur,  was  still  available,  and  its 
leaders  were  ready  to  continue  the  previous  system,  althougli  there  was  no  longer 
a  master  mind  to  lead  them.  Above  all  it  was  intended  that  the  expedition  against 
China,  which  promised  such  ample  booty,  sliould  be  intrusted  to  a  ))oard  of  gen- 
erals and  the  question  as  to  Timur's  successor  left  temporarily  in  abeyance.     But 


1  The  tombstone  of  Timiir,  li  feet  6  inches  long,  15  inches  broad,  and  12  inches  high,  is  engraved 
with  liis  genealogy.  According  to  C.  C.  Dukmeyer,  it  is  made  of  two  dilfcrently  vc-ined  stones  so  accu- 
rately fitted  togetlier  that  it  has  been  supposed  to  be  a  shattered  monolith  (cf.  tlie  description  of  the 
illustration).  At  the  head  of  the  stones  the  flags  of  the  comiueror  and  tlie  horse  tails  are  suspended  from 
a  high  pole.  His  bones  repose  in  the  vault  beneath,  exactly  under  the  nephrite,  covered  by  heavy  black 
marble. 


186  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_Chaptev  U 

the  dispute  about  the  inheritance,  which  at  once  broke  out,  brouglit  these  plans  to 
an  abrupt  close. 

The  wars  about  the  succession  lasted  fmir  years.  At  first  it  seemed  as  if 
Tinuir's  grandson,  Kiialil,  would  iidierit  tlie  empire;  but  Shah  Kuch  (IJoch),  a  son 
of  the  conqueror,  born  in  loTS,  asserted  his  claim  in  Persia.  lu  1409  the  well- 
meaning  and  peaceful  Khalil  was  deposed,  and  Tinuu's  empire,  wliich  already 
seemed  likelv  to  break  up  into  the  two  States  of  Tiirkeslan  and  Persia,  was  again 
united  under  Shah  liuoh.  But  it  was  no  longer  the  old  empire.  The  larger  States, 
which  had  outwardly  submitted  to  the  scimitar  of  the  lord  of  the  world,  Kipchak, 
Egj-pt,  the  Osraan  empire,  the  Turkoman  States  of  Armenia,  and  the  majority  of 
the  Indian  possessions,  were  irreprievably  lost  now  that  Tim\ir  was  dead.  Only 
West  Turkestan,  the  Iranian  iiighlands,  and  a  part  of  the  Punjab  were  still 
retained  by  his  successors.  Siiah  Ruch  was  not  the  man  to  contemplate  a  con- 
tinuance of  the  old  policy  of  war  and  conquest.  The  only  recourse  left  to  him 
was  to  bring  the  national  forces  of  his  States  into  his  service ;  in  other  words,  to 
recognise  the  Iranian  people  with  their  culture  and  to  help  them.  It  was  chiefly 
due  to  the  prudence  with  which  he  pursued  this  object  that  he  was  able  to  main- 
tain the  remnant  of  the  empire  for  many  years  vmtil  his  deatli  (April,  1447). 

His  arch-foes  were  the  Turkomans  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  371)  in  Armenia  and  Azerbijan, 
wild  hordes  of  Central  Asiatic  nomads,  who  had  planted  themselves  there  ou  the 
old  military  route  of  the  Turkish  and  Mongol  invaders  and  had  formed  a  predatory 
State  in  the  old  Hun  style.  There  were  fragments  of  all  the  migratory  tribes, 
who  at  one  time  were  divided  by  interneciue  feuds,  at  another  were  united  into  a 
formidable  military  power  by  the  prospect  of  booty. 

The  headship  of  the  hordes  rested  at  first  with  the  Turkoman  tribe  of  the 
"  Black  Sheep  "  (Kara  Koiido)  under  its  chief  Kara  Yu.suf,  who  brought  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Bagdad  into  his  power,  and  gravely  menaced  Persia.  The  sudden  death 
of  Kara  Yusuf  (1420)  freed  Shah  Ruch  from  his  most  formidable  antagonist. 
Azerbijan  was  now  definitely  taken  from  the  Turkomans. 

But  any  hope  that  the  Iranised  House  of  Timur  would  retain  Persia  and  Tur- 
kestan at  least  was  ended  by  the  disorders  ensuing  on  the  death  of  Shah  Ruch. 
A  stormy  period,  in  which  parricide  and  fratricide  were  not  infrequent,  shook  the 
empire  for  years,  and  while  the  descendants  of  Timur  tried  to  exterminate  each 
other,  the  swarms  of  Turkomans,  at  whose  head  the  horde  of  the  "  White  Sheep  " 
(Ak  Koinlo)  now  stood,  poured  afresh  over  the  Persian  frontier.  Abul  Kasim 
Barbar  Bahadur,  a  grandson  of  Shah  Ruch,  held  his  own  in  Khorasan  until  1457  ; 
then,  while  West  Persia  was  already  lost  to  the  Turkomans,  Sultan  Abu  Said,  a 
grandnephew  of  Shah  Ruch,  usurped  the  power  (1459).  But  in  the  year  1467  he 
found  himself  forced  to  fight  with  Uzun  Hasan,  the  leader  of  the  Ak  Koinlo.  The 
heir  of  Timur  was  defeated  and  killed  (1468);  the  larger  part  of  his  Persian  pos- 
sessions fell  to  the  Turkoman.  Complete  disorder  then  reigned  in  Turkestan,  until 
in  1500  Mohammed  Shaibani  (of  the  family  of  Genghis  Khan;  cf.  ante),  and 
his  Uzbegs,  who  represented  the  nomad  spirit  as  modified  by  Iranian  civilization, 
became  masters  of  the  country.  The  Uzbeg  d}-nasties  of  the  Shaibanids,  Janids, 
and  Mangites  possessed  down  to  1868  the  various  kingdoms,  into  which  the  countiy 
again  broke  up  almost  precisely  as  before  the  'Mongol  age. 

A  Timurid  dynasty  had  held  its  own  in  Ferghana.  Driven  thence  by  the  Uzbeg 
leader  Shaibek  Khan,  the  ruling  prince  Zehir  ed-din  Babar,  grandson  of  Abu  Said 


Central  Asia' 
and  Siberia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  187 


(born  1483),  threw  himself  into  the  mountains  of  Afghanistan,  where  he  com- 
manded the  gates  to  India.  The  old  conquest-loving  spirit  of  his  ancestor  awoke 
in  Babar,  whom  the  splendid  triumphs  of  Timur  in  India  may  have  stimulated  to 
similar  enterprises.  He  first  secured  his  position  in  Kabul  (1505),  where  he  col- 
lected round  him  a  small  force  of  some  two  thousand  men.  He  took  the  held  five 
times,  until  eventually  in  1526  he  succeeded  in  defeating  Ibrahim  of  Delhi  (of  the 
dynasty  of  the  Bahlul  Lodhi),  and  thus  bringing  into  his  power  the  most  powerful 
of  the  five  Mohammedan  empires  which  then  existed  in  India.  When  he  died  in 
the  year  1530,  the  last  and,  intellectually  the  foremost,  conqueror  of  Mongolian 
stock,  he  had  founded  a  permanent  empire,  that  of  the  "  Great  Mogul,"  which  only 
fell  before  the  attack  of  the  English  in  1857.  (See  on  this  subject  Section  IV 
of  this  volume.) 

F.   Tibet  and  Eastern  Buddhism  after  the  Close  of  the  Thirteenth 

Century 

The  world  was  still  trembling  before  the  warlike  hosts  of  Central  Asia,  when 
those  forces  were  gathering  strength  which  eventually  succeeded  in  taming  and 
rendering  harmless  the  wild  spirits  of  the  nomads.  These  forces  were  Chinese 
civilization,  which  will  be  discussed  later  (p.  194),  and  eastern  Buddhism,  whose 
influences  can  only  be  imderstood  by  a  survey  of  the  more  recent  history  of  Tibet, 
the  theocratic  State  par  excellence  of  Eastern  Asia.  The  teaching  of  Buddha  had 
long  lost  its  power  in  the  Indian  mother  country,  when  it  acquired  Eastern  Central 
Asia,  beginning  with  Tibet.  Mongol  Buddhism  was  not  rooted  in  Indian  ci\iliza- 
tion,  but  in  the  fantastically  developed  monastic  and  ecclesiastical  system  of  the 
lonely  Tibetan  highlands,  which  had  cut  themselves  completely  off  from  the  plains 
of  India,  when  the  Buddhist  teaching  died  away  in  those  parts. 

For  this  reason  the  more  recent  eastern  Buddhism  of  Central  Asia  is  sharply 
differentiated  from  the  earlier  western  form,  which  once  was  so  important  for  the 
culture  of  a  wide  area.  The  older  form  had  stood  in  close  connection  with  the 
plains  of  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges  valleys ;  yet  the  missionaries  in  the  time  of 
Asoka,  when  the  Buddhism  of  India  was  at  its  zenith,  had  passed  through  Kashmir 
and  scaled  the  southern  mountain  walls  of  Central  Asia,  and  had  carried  their 
sacred  books,  their  script,  and  their  civilization  directly  to  the  Tarim  basin,  and 
thence  northward  to  the  Uigurians  and  eastward  to  China.  The  new  teaching  had 
hardly  met  with  any  response  then  among  the  Mongols  and  the  other  eastern 
nomads ;  in  Tibet  it  first  began  slowly  to  gain  a  footing.  But  in  the  com'se  of 
time  the  whole  western  mission  field  was  once  more  lost.  Christian  and  Zoroas- 
trian  emissaries  had  worked  in  opposition  to  the  Buddhist  priests,  until  the  doctrine 
of  Islam,  grand  in  its  simplicity,  which  has  always  exercised  a  marvellously  enthrall- 
ing influence  over  serai-civilized  peoples,  drove  out  all  other  forms  of  religion. 
Besides  this,  the  Buddhism  of  Central  Asia  had  lost  any  support  in  India,  owing 
to  the  \ictory  of  tlie  Brahminic  teaching,  and  was  entirely  dependent  on  its  own 
strength.  The  term  "  simplicity "  is  indeed  only  to  be  applied  with  reserve  to 
Islam,  which  reached  Central  Asia  through  Persia.  An  Islamite  mysticism 
developed  under  the  influence  of  Iranian  intellectual  life,  which  was  hardly  inferior 
to  the  Buddhist  in  profundity  and  love  of  the  marvellous,  but  was  for  that  precise 
reason  capable  of  ousting  and  replacing  the  former.     In  its  ultimate  meaning,  the 


188  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  {chapter ii 

victory  of  the  Mohammedan  teaching  signifies  the  supremacy  of  West  Asiatic  cul- 
ture over  the  Indian.  And  this  victory  was  natural,  for  Western  Asia  marches  with 
the  steppes  of  Central  Asia  for  some  distance  and  is  closely  connected  with  them 
by  old  trade-routes,  while  the  bonds  of  intercourse  between  India  and  the  heart  of 
Asia  have  never  been  strong. 

The  later  eastern  dissemination  of  the  Buddhist  faith  over  Central  Asia  would 
have  been  inconceivable  but  for  the  circumstance  that  even  in  China  Buddhism 
reckoned  numerous  followers,  and  that  the  Chinese  of  set  purpose  favoured  a  doc- 
trine so  gentle  and  so  much  opposed  to  military  brutality.  But  that  Tibet  of  all 
others  should  become  the  holy  land  of  Buddhism  had  been  the  object  of  the  efforts 
of  (ienghis  Khan,  who  indeed,  as  a  true  Mongol,  tried  to  emplny  to  his  own  pur- 
poses the  "  magic  powers "  of  all  religions,  without  adopting  any  one  of  them 
exclusively.  It  was  after  all  a  very  natural  result  that  Tibet  took,  so  far  as 
religion  was  concerned,  the  place  of  India  in  the  eyes  of  Central  Asia ;  men  were 
accustomed  to  look  for  the  home  of  Buddhism  in  the  South,  and,  since  India 
seceded,  Tibet,  which  was  always  full  of  mystery,  offered  a  welcome  substitute. 

At  first,  indeed,  the  growing  reputation  of  Tibet  for  sanctity  did  not  shield  it  from 
disastrous  attacks:  under  the  first  Mongol  princes  it  was  mercilessly  plundered 
and  laid  waste.  But  perhaps  these  lamentable  events,  by  which  the  temporal 
kingdom  of  Tibet  was  overthrown,  were  the  contributory  cause  that  henceforth  the 
spiritual  power  came  forward  and  imdertook  the  protection  of  the  country  with 
better  prospect  of  success  (cf.  p.  163). 

Kublai  Khan  took  account  of  the  altered  conditions  when  he  promoted  the 
Lama  (or  priest)  Pasdpa,  who  was  a  member  of  a  noble  Tibetan  family,  to  be  the 
supreme  head  of  all  Lamas  in  his  realm,  and  thus  shifted  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  Buddhist  hierarchy  to  Tibet.  In  reality  by  so  doing  he  conferred  on  him  the 
temporal  power  also  over  the  country.  On  the  complete  disruption  of  the  Mongol 
empire,  Tibet,  which  was  not  claimed  by  the  Chinese  Mongol  dynasty,  remained 
as  an  independent  ecclesiastical  State,  and  could  then  for  more  than  a  century  con- 
tinue its  unaided  development  under  the  successors  of  Pas^pa.  While  in  China 
the  Buddhist  papacy  of  the  Tibetan  chief-lama  was  no  longer  recognised  or  remained 
without  influence,  the  activity  of  Tibetan  missionaries  was,  on  the  contrary,  success- 
fully continued.  Tibet  could  not  fail  to  become  the  religious  centre  for  these 
efforts. 

The  Buddhist  doctrine  of  a  new  birth  made  men  regard  the  chief-lamas  as 
reincarnations  of  great  saints,  or,  indeed,  as  Buddhas  themselves.  Ultimately  a 
belief  gained  ground  that  the  Great  Lama  .remained  always  the  same,  and  imme- 
diately after  his  death  was  reincarnated  in  a  child,  who  without  demur  was  regarded 
and  reverenced  as  Great  Lama ;  the  first  regeneration  of  this  kind  is  said  to  have 
occurred  in  the  year  1399.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  there  was 
still  no  idea  of  strict  religious  government.  The  reincarnated  Great  Lama  had  by 
no  means  met  with  universal  recognition,  and  many  years  elapsed  before  he  attained 
any  great  authority.  Most  of  the  monasteries,  in  which  religious  life  and  learning 
were  centred,  probably  led  a  very  independent  existence.  China,  wliere  the  new 
reigning  house  of  the  Ming  was  threatened  from  the  side  of  Mongolia  by  the  Mon- 
golian dynasty  driven  out  in  1368,  then  turned  her  attention  again  to  Tibet.  The 
religious  influence  of  Tibet  on  the  nomads  of  Central  Asia  was  not  to  be  under- 
estimated.    Halima,  one  of  the  most  esteemed  Tibetan  Lamas,  was  brought  to  the 


^;r^L;!r]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  189 

Chinese  imperial  court,  overwhelmed  with  pompous  titles  and  intrusted  with  the 
spiritual  supremacy  in  Tibet,  on  the  condition  that  a  small  tribute  was  paid  yearly. 
Tibet  thus  was  more  closely  linked  to  China,  and  the  conversion  and  civilization 
of  the  Central  Asiatic  nomads  by  emissaries  from  the  holy  land  were  encouraged 
in  accordance  with  the  Chinese  policy. 

The  Buddhist  Reformation,  which  took  place  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  is  a  noteworthy  counterpart  of  the  Reformation  of  Luther,  which  began 
only  a  little  later.  In  Tibet  also  the  immediate  cause  of  the  movement  was  found 
in  the  depra\'ity  of  the  priesthood  and  the  adulteration  of  the  pure  faith  with  pop- 
ular superstitions  of  a  Shamanistic  origin,  whUe  the  national  questions,  which 
played  an  important  part  in  Europe,  were  hardly  noticeable  there.  Tsong  ko  pa 
(Dsung  khaba,  1419-1478)  founded  the  new  sect  of  the  "Yellow  Lamas,"  which 
the  followers  of  the  old  sect  opposed  imder  the  name  of  "  Red  Lamas."  The 
yellow  sect  remained  victorious  in  Tibet  proper,  while  the  red  sect  held  its  own  in 
Ladak  and  elsewhere.  Tsong  ko  pa  was  the  real  founder  of  the  Tibetan  hierarchy 
in  the  form  which  it  has  retained  up  to  the  present  day.  He  nominated  one  of  his 
pupils  to  be  Dalai- Lama,  a  second  to  be  Panchan-Lama ;  both  would  undergo  a 
perpetual  process  of  rebirth  and  hold  permanently  the  spiritual  headship.  Tibet 
was  partitioned  between  them,  but  the  Dalai-Lama  received  the  greater  half,  and 
gradually  drove  the  Panchan-Lama  into  the  backgiound.  It  was  long  before  the 
Chinese  paid  attention  to  the  new  order  of  things  in  Tibet,  although  under  certain 
circumstances  it  might  produce  serious  residts.  A  Chinese  embassy,  accompanied 
by  a  small  army,  appeared  at  the  court  of  the  Dalai-Lama  in  the  year  1522,  in 
order  to  invite  him  to  the  imperial  court.  When  the  prince  of  the  church  de- 
clined and  was  concealed  b}'  his  subjects,  attempts  were  made  to  carry  him  ott'  by 
force,  but  they  resulted  in  complete  failure.  The  Chinese  emperor  Wu  Tsuug 
died  at  this  crisis,  and  his  successor,  Shi  Tsuug,  who  favoured  Taoism,  did  not 
continue  the  plans  against  Tibet. 

The  third  reincarnated  Dalai-Lama,  So  nam,  gave  himself  out  for  a  "  living 
Buddha,"  and  as  such  won  wide  recognition.  He  travelled  into  Mongolia,  where, 
being  received  with  the  deepest  reverence,  he  came  forward  as  a  mediator  between 
a  ]\Iongol  prince  and  the  Chinese.  The  victory  then  of  the  yellow  sect  was  decisive 
in  the  north  also ;  countless  Mongol  j)ilgrims  went  yearlj-  to  Lliasa,  and  Buddhist 
monasteries  were  founded  in  great  numbers.  In  China  the  propitious  influence  of 
the  Tibetan  high  priest  was  noticeable  in  the  increasiuL;  peacefulness  of  the  nomads 
of  the  steppe.  Shi  Tsu,  the  first  emperor  of  the  Mauchu  dynasty,  whicli  hail  ousted 
the  house  of  the  ]\Iing  after  1644,  fidly  ajipreciated  that  fact,  and  acknowledged  tlie 
presents  of  Tibetan  envoys  with  a  flattering  invitation  to  the  Dalai-Lama  to  come 
to  Peking.  The  invitation  was  accepted  this  time ;  the  Great  Lama  appeared  in 
the  year  1653  at  the  court  of  the  Mauchu  dynasty,  where  he  was  the  centre  of 
universal  respect,  was  invested  with  magnificent  titles,  and  was  finally  escorted  to 
his  home  by  a  guard  under  an  imperial  prince. 

But  this  triumph  of  the  "  living  Buddha  "  was  soon  followed  by  a  humiliation. 
Since  at  the  death  of  each  Dalai-Lama  the  office  passed  to  a  child,  who  was  con- 
sidered to  be  his  reincarnation,  the  government  every  time  rested  for  many  years 
in  the  hands  of  regents,  wlio  were  naturally  tempted  to  keep  their  power  even 
when  the  Dalai-Lama  came  to  manhood,  or,  what  was  still  simpler,  never  to  allow 
the  boy  to  live  beyond  a  certain  age.     The  regency  was  held  by  temporal  princes. 


190  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chnj.te,- if 

in  whom  we  most  simply  see  ihe  successors  of  those  old  Tibetan  rulers,  who  for  a 
time  had  made  Tibet  a  ixjwerful  State,  but  theu  had  been  more  and  more  driven 
back  by  tlie  hierarchy.  As  temporal  protectors  of  the  priesthood,  and  supported 
doubtless  by  large  possessions  of  land,  they  had  learned  how  to  maintain  a  certain 
position. 

Then  finally,  when  the  reins  of  power  slipi)ed  from  the  hands  of  the  decrepit 
fifth  l>alai-Lama,  tiie  reigning  Tipa  (King)  Sang  Kiu  saw  that  the  moment  had 
arrived  to  rejdace  the  spiritual  supremacy,  which  miglu  be  nominally  retained,  by  a 
temporal.  Wien  the  Great  Lama  died  in  1682,  the  Tipa  concealed  his  death,  and 
was  then  in  fact  lord  of  Tibet.  The  alteration  was  soon  noticed  by  the  surroimd- 
ing  countries.  The  Tipa  placed  a  Calmuck  prince,  Kaldan,  educated  in  Tibet  as  a 
Lama,  at  the  head  of  this  tribe,  and  the  Calmucks  (KIcutes,  D/.ungarians)  helped 
him  in  return  to  repel  an  attack  of  the  Xepalese,  a  powerful  nation  of  mountain- 
eers, who  were  dangerous  neighbours  of  the  holy  land.  The  prince  of  the  Eleutes 
now  extended  his  jiower  on  a  secret  miderstanding  witii  the  Tipa,  and  ventured  to 
attack  China,  where  the  fact  had  been  realised  with  great  dissatisfaction  that  the 
influence  for  peace  exercised  by  Tibet  on  the  nomads  of  the  steppes  was  completely 
changed.  A  Chinese  Lama,  who  had  been  sent  to  the  Dalai-Lama,  had  not  been 
allowed  to  see  him.  "Wlien  then  the  Eleutian  prince,  after  a  defeat,  declared  to  his 
lord  that  he  had  begun  the  war  with  China  simply  and  solely  at  the  wish  of  the 
Dalai-Lama,  the  terrified  Tipa  acknowledged,  in  answer  to  a  peremptory  letter  of  the 
emperor  Sheng  Tsu  (Kang  hsi),  that  the  fifth  incarnation  of  the  Dalai-Lama  was 
long  since  dead,  and  that  the  deceased  had  been  reincarnated  in  a  boy ;  the  death 
had  been  hushed  up  and  the  sixth  incarnation  not  publicly  acknowledged,  in  order 
to  avoid  disturbances.  The  news  of  these  events  spread  raj)idly,  and,  althougli 
China  took  no  further  steps,  considerably  lessened  tlie  ]H)wer  of  the  Tipa.  He 
began  in  the  year  1705  a  fresh  war  against  a  Tibetan  chieftain,  but  was  defeated 
and  slain. 

The  victorious  prince.  La  t.sang,  had  ahead)-  instated  a  new  Dalai-Lama.  But 
he  was  not  recognised  by  China  and  was  replaced  by  another,  whom  La  tsang  under- 
took to  protect.  Another  Dalai- Lama,  who  appeared  in  Mongolia  and  claimed, to 
be  the  real  sixth  incarnation,  was  also  rejected  by  the  Chinese  government,  and 
was  only  recognised  as  a  saint  of  inferior  rank.  Tlie  bad  example  of  the  Tipa  Sang- 
kiii  had,  however,  produced  its  result :  the  Dzungarian  ])rince  Zagan  Araptan,  suc- 
cessor to  Kaldan  (p.  193),  who  had  seen  what  power  in  politics  and  religion  the 
protector  of  the  Dalai-Lama  could  exert,  invaded  Tibet  with  an  army,  in  order  to 
seize  the  Buddiiist  pope  (1717).  Potala,  near  Lhasa,  wliere  the  Dalai-Lama  resided 
with  the  Khan  La  tsang,  was  stormed,  the  Khan  killed,  but  the  Creat  Lama  was 
kept  in  a  place  of  safety.  China  no  longer  hesitated  to  check  by  force  this  danger- 
ous turn  of  events,  which  might  lead  to  a  new  invasion  of  the  Jliddle  Kingdom 
by  the  nomads.  A  Chinese  army  and  a  Mongolian  levy  pushed  into  Tibet,  but  the 
united  troops  were  outflanked  and  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Dzungarians  on  the  river 
Kola.  The  dejection  which  the  Chinese  and  Mongols  felt  at  tliis  reverse  led  to 
the  proposal  that  Tibet  should  be  left  to  itself,  and  that  a  new  Dalai-Lama  should 
be  apjMiiuted  in  another  district.  Emperor  Kang  hsi,  however,  insisted  on  renew- 
ing the  campaign  with  increased  forces.  The  attempt  was  successfid  this  time ; 
the  Dzungarians  evacuated  the  country  in  the  year  1720,  and  Kang  hsi  was  then 
able  to  effect  the  necessary  closer  union  of  Tibet  with  China.     For  the  future  two 


Central  Asia 
and  Siberia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  191 


Chinese  residents,  for  whom  the  necessary  respect  was  ensured  by  a  considerable 
armed  force,  undertook  the  protection  of  the  Dalai-Lama  in  place  of  the  native 
temporal  kings.  The  reverence  felt  for  this  living  ISuddha  diminished,  however, 
considerably  in  China,  when  the  Dalai-Lama,  who  was  staying  in  Peking  on  a 
xisit,  died  like  any  ordinary  man,  of  smallpox.  The  small  feudal  princes  of  Tibet 
at  first  still  retained  some  power ;  but  after  repeated  disturbances  they  were  com- 
pletely subordinated  to  the  Dalai-Lama,  that  is  to  say,  to  the  Cliinese  governors,  in 
the  year  1750.  The  internal  administration  of  the  country,  with  which  China  gen- 
erally interfered  very  little,  was  now  entirely  organised  on  an  ecclesiastical  system, 
since  every  local  governor  was  given  a  Lama  as  colleague,  who  jointly  witli  him 
managed  the  alfairs  of  the  inhabitants. 

Although  the  Dalai-Lama  was  again  recognised  as  supreme,  there  could  be  no 
idea  of  any  actually  permanent  rule  of  the  "  livuig  Buddha,"  since  a  new  Dalai-Lama 
was  always  raised  to  his  high  dignity  in  tender  infancy  and  imperatively  required 
an  adviser.  For  all  foreign  affairs  the  Chinese  regents  undeitook  this  post ;  for 
home  affairs  a  sort  of  new  temporal  monarchy  was  founded,  since  tlie  "  Eajah  " 
of  Lhasa  usually  conducted  the  government  until  the  Dalai-Lama  attamed  his 
majority.  A  strange  fatality  afterward  willed  that  the  Dalai-Lama  hardly  ever 
attained  the  required  age  of  twenty  years,  but  usually  died  ju.st  before,  and  then 
was  always  reincarnated  in  a  child.  In  this  way  the  Chinese  influence  also  lost 
ground.  Tibet  detached  itself  more  and  more  completely  on  every  side,  and 
has  remained  down  to  the  present  day,  when  Russia  is  apjiarently  eagerly  court- 
ing its  good-will,  one  of  the  most  mysterious  and  isolated  countries  in  the  world. 
"When  in  1792  a  new  invasion  of  the  Xepalese  was  repidsed  with  the  aid  of  Chinese 
troops,  the  frontier  toward  India  was  almost  entirely  barred.  A  safeguard  against 
the  influences  of  civilization  was  also  found  in  the  Himalayan  State  of  Bhutan, 
lying  south  of  Lhasa,  which  is  a  miniature  Tibet  with  a  dual  government,  temporal 
and  spiritual,  and  an  equally  intense  aversion  to  anj'  influences  from  the  outside 
world. 

Since  Tibet  supported  the  Buddhism,  which  was  losing  ground  in  India,  and 
became  the  centre  from  which  a  successful  propaganda  was  sent  among  the  nomads 
of  Central  Asia,  it  discharged  an  important  duty  in  the  histor}'  of  the  world.  The 
dissemination  of  the  Buddhist  teaching,  with  its  gentle  code  of  morality  and  its 
peaceful  monastic  life,  may  claim  to  have  performed  a  paramount  service  in  pre- 
serving China  and  the  Western  World  from  fresh  inroads  of  nomads,  or,  at  any 
rate,  in  enabling  them  to  repel  such  attacks  without  difficidty. 

Gr.    MoXGOLI.i   AXD    THE    TaRIM    BaSIN   FROM    1300    TO    THE   PRESENT   DaY 

(a)  The  last  Descendants  of  Genghis.  —  "Wlien  the  flood-tide  of  Mongolian 
conquest  ebbed,  the  home  of  the  new  world-conquerors  sank  rapidly  from  its 
dazzling  height.  The  sparsely  peopled  country  had  given  up  its  best  resources, 
and  needed  a  long  time  to  regain  its  strength.  It  was  always  a  point  of  honour 
witli  the  eldest  branch  of  the  Mongolian  dynasty,  the  Chinese,  to  preserve  the 
cradle  of  their  race,  with  its  old  capital,  Karakorum.  This  endeavour  also  har- 
monised with  the  traditional  Chinese  policy,  which  always  aimed  at  exerting  some 
influence  over  the  restless  nations  of  the  steppe,  and  must  have  been  adopted  by 
the  Mongol  sovereigns  when  they  had  transformed  themselves  more  and  more  into 


102  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [(-/...j.t.r u 

genuine  Chinese.  Kul)lai  Khan  had  repeatedly  suppressed  rebellious  in  Mongolia 
and  become  master  of  the  country ;  his  successor,  Timur  (Cheng  Tsung,  p.  96), 
brought  the  whole  country  for  a  time  under  his  iniluence.  At  tlie  period  of 
the  Mongol  supremacy  in  China  the  Buddhist  propaganda,  of  which  Tibet  was 
the  centre,  seems  to  have  shown  great  activity,  being  favoured  by  the  Chinese 
emperors,  who  were  mostly  attracted  by  Buddhism.  The  circumstance  that  the 
ilongols,  who  had  immigrated  into  China  and  were  again  driven  out  by  the  Ming, 
were  streaming  back  to  their  old  home,  could  not  fail  to  help  this  cliange. 

When  the  Mimgolian  dynasty  was  fighting  for  its  existence  against  the  Ming, 
the  Mongols  of  Central  Asia  rendered  feeble  and  ambiguous  aid.  After  liis  com- 
plete defeat  in  1368,  Shun  Ti  (Toluian,  or  Tughan  Timur),  the  Mongolian  emperor, 
fled  to  Shang  tu  in  the  north,  and  soon  afterward  died.  His  son  and  successor, 
Biliktu  (l.">70-1378),  removed  his  court  once  more  to  Karakorum.  Since  all  the 
Mongol  foreign  territories  had  long  since  been  lost,  the  sole  renniant  of  the  empire 
left  him  was  the  pasture  country  on  the  north  of  the  Gobi,  which  had  been  the 
starting-point  of  the  power  of  his  house.  There  was  still  the  possibility  that  a 
new  storm  might  be  slowly  gathering  there,  whose  bursting  would  bring  disaster 
on  more  civilized  countries.  But  the  loss  of  China,  which  to  a  large  extent  was 
due  to  the  lack  of  luiion  between  the  generals  and  ihe  princes,  had  not  taught  the 
Alongols  wisdom.  The  smaller  the  remnants  of  their  empire  became,  the  more 
furiously  they  fought  for  eacli  shred,  imtil  finally  complete  disintegration  set  in. 
The  emperor  of  the  Ming  seized  this  opportunity  to  subjugate  Eastern  Mongolia. 
The  kingdom  of  Altyu  Khan,  to  the  northwest  of  the  Gobi,  remained  as  the  last 
relic  of  the  Mongolian  power. 

(6)  Tlie  Umpire  of  the  Calmucks  {1630-1757).  —  The  more  modern  attempts 
to  found  a  great  power  in  Central  Asia,  and  tlien  in  the  true  Hun  fashion  to  attack 
the  civilized  nations,  were  no  longer  initiated  by  the  Mongols,  whose  character  had 
been  altered  by  the  tribal  disintegration  and  the  awakening  zeal  for  the  exercise  of 
the  Buddhist  religion,  but  by  the  tribes  to  the  south  and  southwest  of  the  desert 
of  Gobi,  whose  coimtry  was  now  partly  known  as  Dzungaria.  The  contemplative 
doctrines  of  Buddhism  had  not  gained  ground  here  so  (juickly,  since  many  of  the 
nomads  had  been  won  over  to  Islam,  which  is  less  dangerous  to  the  warlike  sjnrit. 
From  the  chaos  of  peoples  in  Central  Asia  a  new  branch  of  the  IMongoliau  race  had 
detaclied  itself  to  the  south  of  the  Gobi,  the  Eleutes,  or  Calmucks,  who  after  1630 
had  shaken  off  the  Mtmgol  yoke,  and  had  already  extended  their  influence  as  far 
as  China. 

Under  its  Khan  Kaldan  this  people  seized  Kasligar,  where  religious  contro- 
versies favoured  the  admission  of  this  powerful  ]\Ioliannnedan  priesthood,  destroyed 
the  Mongol  Empire  of  tiie  ^Utyn  Khan  (p.  191),  and  threatened  Cliina  toward  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  At  the  same  time  Kaldan  tried  to  emi>loy  the 
religious  power  of  Tibet  in  his  own  interest,  by  declaring  that  the  Dalai-Lama 
had  raised  him  to  his  high  position;  the  temporal  jn-ince  of  Tibet,  Sangkiii,  suj>- 
ported  him  secretly  {\>.  190).  The  Mongols  sullered  severely  under  llie  attacks 
of  the  Eleutes,  and  China's  influence  in  Central  Asia  dwindled  considerably,  until 
eventually  the  Mancliu  emperor,  Kang  hsi,  determined  in  the  year  1696  on  a 
great  campaign  against  Kaldan.  Kaldan  was  forced  to  retreat  farther  and 
farther.    Since  his  scheme  for  the  support  of  his  claims  by  the  Dalai-Lama  seemed 


r^/11l!r]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  103 

not  to  work  satisfactorily,  he  now  went  over  to  Islam,  which  had  many  followers 
in  the  west  of  his  dominions;  but  his  death,  which  occurred  soon  afterward, 
cut  these  plans  short. 

The  military  power  of  the  nomad  world,  which  had  been  again  concentrated  in 
Dzungaria  as  a  focus,  was  not  extuiguished  by  this  event.  Zagau-Araptan,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Kaldau,  subjugated  most  of  the  towns  of  the  Tarim  basin  ami  extended 
his  dominions  in  other  directions.  He  then  formed  the  plan  of  sending  an  army 
to  Tibet,  to  assume  by  force  the  protection  of  the  Dalai-Lama,  and  in  this  way  to 
make  full  use  of  the  influence  of  this  religious  puppet  to  his  own  purjMses.  The 
attempt  met  with  unexpected  success,  but  drove  the  Chinese  to  adopt  more  decided 
measures.  The  expulsion  of  the  Eleutes  from  Tibet  (1720)  was  the  result.  The 
Dzungarian  empire  remained  nevertheless  for  some  time  a  dangerous  neighbour 
of  the  other  Ceutral  Asiatic  tribes  and  of  the  Chinese.  Finally,  however,  CbJna 
employed  dynastic  quarrels  and  iuternal  wars  as  an  excuse  to  destroy  the  last 
great  nomad  empire  of  Central  Asia,  and  tlius,  as  it  seems,  to  terminate  forever 
the  age  of  the  great  wars  between  the  nomad  races  of  Central  Africa  aud  the 
civilized  peoples.  Eastern  Turkestan,  which  had  been  in  the  hands  of  the  Cal- 
mucks,  now  (1757)  fell  to  the  Chinese. 

(c)  Tlie  Advance  of  Russia  and  the  Restraining  Influence  of  the  Buddhist 
Teaching. —  It  was  not  the  first  time  tliat  the  Chinese  had  taken  possession  of  the 
Tarim  basin,  commanded  the  trade  roads  of  Central  Asia,  aud  divided  the  nomad 
tribes  in  the  north  from  those  in  the  south  (p.  523) ;  but  this  time  the  effect  was 
different  and  more  permanent.  The  perpetually  tin-bulent  nomad  tribes  could  not 
be  really  subdued  imtil  they  were  shut  in  and  surrounded  on  both  sides,  —  until 
the  strong  fortresses  of  civilization  bounded  the  illimitable  horizon  of  the  steppe. 
The  first  steps  toward  this  condition  had  meanwhUe  beeu  taken  by  the  advance  of 
Eussia ;  the  frontier  toward  Siberia  had  beeu  already  determined,  and  any  move- 
ment of  the  Mongols  toward  the  north  and  the  northwest  was  made  impossible. 
In  the  southwest  Eussia  only  gradually  succeeded  in  acquiring  Turkestan.  Here, 
too,  tlie  Chinese  position  was  so  weak  that  the  Tarim  basin  was  temporaril}*  lost. 
When,  however,  the  khanates  of  Turkestan  were  occupied  by  the  Eussians,  China 
also  soon  recovered  what  she  had  lost. 

The  expansion  of  the  power  of  Eussia,  which  in  the  long  run  presents  dangers 
to  China  itself,  has  therefore  admirably  suppi)rted  the  Chinese  policy,  which  has 
always  been  directed  toward  the  subjugation  of  the  uomad  nations  of  Ceutral  Asia. 
But  this  very  policy  employed  not  only  the  old  method  of  colonisation  and  of  pit- 
ting one  nomad  prince  against  another,  but  also  the  newer  method  of  encouraging 
Buddhism.  The  ^lanchurian  dynasty  in  tliis  respect  has  entirely  followed  the 
example  of  the  IMing,  and  the  result  is  simply  astonishing.  "  Buddhist  doctrines," 
says  Nikolai  von  Prschevalskij,  "  are  more  deeply  rooted  in  Mongolia  than  in 
almost  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Buddhism,  whose  highest  ideal  is  indolent 
contemplation,  entirely  suits  the  natural  disposition  of  the  Mongol,  and  has 
created  a  terrible  asceticism,  which  deters  the  nomad  from  any  progress,  and 
tempts  him  to  seek  the  goal  of  human  existence  in  misty  and  abstract  ideas  as 
to  the  Deity  and  the  life  beyond  the  grave."  The  ordinary'  good-tempered  indo- 
lence of  the  nomads  is  left,  but  in  the  place  of  outbursts  of  martial  fury,  which 
affected  individuals  as  well  as  nations,  a  continual  slow  dissipation  of  energy  in 

VOL.    II  — 13 


194  HISTORY    OF    THP:    WORLD  [Chapter  ii 

religious  obsen'ances,  prayers,  and  pilgrimages  has  appeared.  In  this  light  tlie 
pilgrimages  to  Tibet  or  famous  Mongolian  sanctuaries  are  substitutes  for  the  ohl 
predatory  and  warlike  exjieditions.  All  the  less  important  for  the  spiritual  life  of 
the  Central  Asiatics  is  the  Buddhist  teaching,  whose  primitive  form  is  so  instinct 
\\'ith  spirituality  and  thought.  The  Tibetan  form  of  religion  is  itself  quite  de- 
based, and  has  been  merely  outwardly  introduced  into  Mongolia,  where  even  the 
priests  as  a  whole  do  not  undei-stand  the  Tibetan  sacred  ^^Titings  and  furmuhe,  but 
use  them  in  ignorance  as  an  obscure  system  of  magic.  This  branch  of  Buddhism 
only  shows  a  certain  indei)endence  in  so  far  as  centres  of  the  faith  are  found  in 
Mongolia,  especially  the  town  of  Urga,  whose  Kutuchta,  or  high  priest,  ranks 
directly  after  the  two  highest  Tibetan  Lamas,  and,  like  these,  is  always  reincar- 
nated. As  a  rule,  almost  every  Buddhist  monastery  possesses  a  "  Gegan,"  or  rein- 
carnated saint.  But  the  priests  have  in  their  influence  taken  the  place  of  the  old 
tribal  chieftains.  They  are  treated  ^^^th  unbounded  respect,  and  the  wealth  of  the 
countrj-  is  collected  in  their  sanctuaries.  In  the  border  districts  toward  Islam 
stand  fortified  Buddhist  monasteries,  where  the  inhabitants  seek  refuge  from 
maraudmg  or  insurrectionary  Jlohammedaus. 

While  the  Buddhist  religion  thus  showed  its  marvellous  ability  to  restrain  the 
wUd  Central  Asiatics,  and  wlule  the  region  of  nomadism  was  more  and  more 
encroached  upon  by  Chinese  colonies,  another  and  ancient  aid  to  the  progress  of 
civilization,  the  commerce  and  international  communication  on  the  highroads  of 
the  heart  of  Asia,  leading  from  ea.st  to  west,  had  gradually  lost  most  of  its  signifi- 
cance. Even  in  the  Mongol  age  wars  broke  out  for  the  possession  of  these  roads. 
The  attack  of  Genghis  Khan  on  the  Kharismiaus  (p.  171)  was  due  partly  to  reasons 
of  commercial  policy.  But  the  discovery  of  the  sea  route  to  the  East  Indies,  which 
soon  led  to  the  appearance  of  European  ships  in  Chinese  harbours,  could  not  fail  to 
reduce  the  tdready  much  diminished  overland  trade  to  insignificant  proportions. 
It  was  no  longer  a  profitable  undertaking  to  make  the  immense  journey  through 
insecure  districts  with  valuable  wares.  The  great  caravan  tratfic  was  suspended, 
and  in  its  place  was  left  merely  a  transit  trade  from  station  to  station,  which  had 
no  bearing  upon  civilization.  The  overland  trade,  especially  the  export  of  tea, 
revived  only  in  one  previously  neglected  place,  namely,  in  the  north  of  Mongolia, 
where  the  frontiers  of  the  two  civilized  empires,  Russia  and  China,  touch  each 
other.  This  route  contributed  distinctly  to  the  pacification  of  the  Mongol  tribes, 
who  now  obtained  good  pay  for  transporting  tea  through  the  steppes,  and  acquired 
an  interest  in  the  prosjverity  of  the  trade. 

((Z)  The  Age  of  the  Insurrections  of  the  Dunrjiins  (^1825-1894^.  —  The  Chinese 
policy,  notwithstanding  all  the  improvement  in  the  outlook,  still  met  with  many 
obstacles  in  Central  Asia,  the  chief  causes  of  which  were  the  adherents  to  Islam  in 
Dzungaria,  the  Tarim  basin,  and  the  western  provinces  of  China.  Where  Islam 
had  once  gained  a  footing  it  could  not  be  ousted  by  the  more  accommodating  Bud- 
dhism. But  tlie  influence  which  the  doctrines  of  Mohammed  exercised  on  the 
warlike  spirit,  the  industry  and  energy  of  its  foUower.s,  had  to  be  considered,  and  it 
required  care  and  tact  on  the  part  of  Chinese  ofiicials  to  avoid  dangerous  outbreaks 
of  the  masses  whom  the  new  faith  had  brought  into  a  closer  unity.  In  spite  of  all 
this,  there  were  often  sanguinary  and  temporarily  successful  insurrections  of  the 
Dungans,  in  which  the  last  embers  of  the  old  warlike  spirit  of  Central  Asia  glowed 


S'^lnf]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  195 

afresh.  In  the  Tarim  basin  an  Islamite  revolt  had  already  raged  from  1825  to  1828 
(p.  108).  About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  descendants  of  the 
dynasty  which  had  been  driven  out  of  the  Western  Tarim  basin  by  the  Chuiese  at 
the  close  of  the  Eleutian  war  in  1757  tried  to  win  back  their  territory,  after  they 
had  already  made  small  expeditious  over  the  Chinese  frontier.  The  first  cam- 
paign failed  thiough  the  resistance  of  the  towns  of  Kashgar  and  Yarkand.  An 
Islamite  revolt  under  the  leadership  of  Easch  ed-diu  Kliodja  prejiared  the 
grouud  in  1862  for  further  operations.  An  au.\iliary  force  from  Klmkaud,  under 
Mohammed  Yakub  Bey,  took  part  in  a  new  uivasion,  which  was  led  by  Buzurg 
(Busuruk)  Khan,  then  a  pretender.  This  time  the  Dungan  soldiers  of  the  Chinese 
mutinied  and  seized  Yarkaud  and  Khulan,  while  sinudtaueously  bands  of  Kirghiz 
robbers  swept  by  and  besieged  Kashgar  (1864);  when  they  had  taken  the  town, 
Buzurg  Khan  deprived  them  of  their  booty.  During  the  subsequent  wars  with 
the  Chinese  and  the  Dungan  insurgents,  who  refused  to  submit  to  the  ^lohamme- 
dans  from  Klii)kand,  Yakub  Bey  distinguished  himself  more  and  more  as  a  general, 
until  he  entirely  deprived  the  incapable  Buzurg  Khan  of  his  command  and  sent 
him  back  to  Ferghana.  In  the  year  1868  the  greater  part  of  the  Tarim  basin  was 
in  the  possession  of  the  new  ruler,  who  styled  liimself,  after  1870,  "  Atalik  Ghazi" 
(defender  of  the  faith). 

These  successes  would  have  been  impossible  had  not  at  the  same  time  a  revolt 
of  the  Mohammedans  in  Western  China  and  Dzungaria  reduced  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment to  dire  straits.  It  was  fortunate  for  China,  which  was  in  addition  weak- 
ened by  the  Taipiug  insurrection,  that  the  insurgents  attained  no  gi-eat  results  and 
did  not  combine  in  a  general  attack  on  the  totteiing  celestial  kingdom ;  still  less 
did  they  think  of  making  common  cause  with  Yakub  Bey,  to  whom  they  were  on 
the  contrary  hostile,  or  even  with  the  Taipings  and  the  disall'ected  Biuldhist  Mon- 
gols. The  great  Dungan  insurrection  was  thus  after  all  oidy  a  chain  of  local 
risings,  involving  terrible  bloodshed  and  widespread  devastation.  The  Chinese 
took  refuge  in  the  towns,  some  of  which  gave  way  before  the  attacks  of  the  stir- 
rouuding  Dungans,  while  others  held  out  and  thus  became  important  bases  for  the 
reconquest  of  the  country ;  this  was  especially  the  case  in  Kansu,  the  highroad 
from  China  to  the  Tarim  basin,  where  the  insurrection  broke  out  in  1862.  In 
ISti'J  a  Dungau  army  once  more  advanced  and  pillaged  as  far  as  Ordos;  and 
again,  in  187o,  towns  in  Southern  Mongolia  were  attacked  and  destroyed.  The 
conduct  of  the  war  on  both  sides  was  pitiable. 

After  1872  the  Chinese  began  once  more  to  take  the  offensive  and  to  reconquer 
Kansu.  ^V[\en  this  object  was  attained,  after  scmie  years  of  fighting,  the  fate  of 
Yakub  Bey  was  practically  sealed.  In  the  meantime  he  had  been  deprived  (jf  the 
support  of  his  fellow  tribesmen  and  co-religionists  in  Western  Turkestan  by  the 
advance  of  the  Bussians.  In  the  year  1878,  after  the  sudden  death  of  Yakul)  (May 
31,  1877)  had  put  an  end  to  all  organised  resistance,  the  Tarim  bashi  fell  again 
into  the  hands  of  tlie  Chinese,  and  together  with  the  districts  on  the  Tianshan  was 
constituted  a  sejiarate  province  in  1884.  Here,  too,  China  touches  almost  every- 
where on  the  territory  of  the  civilized  nations,  Russia  and  P^nglaud,  since  the  last 
ill-defiued  border  country,  the  highlands  of  the  Pamirs,  has  been  distributed  among 
the  three  powers  (1895,  Anglo-Russian  agreement).  The  trade  in  the  Tarim  basin 
has  improved  since  England  has  devoted  her  attention  to  the  communications  with 
India,  and  has  stimulated  a  considerable  caravan  traffic.     Russia,  on  the  other  side, 


106  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  \_cha,.trr  u 

is  anxious  to  re\-ive  the  old  routes  to  Western  Turkestan.  The  fact  that  the  popu- 
lation of  the  Tariui  basin  aiul  that  of  many  parts  of  Western  China  profess  the 
Mohaniniotlau  faith  is  a  pfrnianL-nt  danj,'er  to  the  Chinese  (1894,  rebellion  of  the 
Duiijiaus),  which  can  only  be  obviated  in  course  of  time  by  an  extensive  settlement 
of  ciiiuese  colonists. 

//.   Western  Turkestan  from  the  Fall  of  the  House  of  Timur  to  the 

AdVAXCK   of    the    KlSSIANS 

After  the  Mongol  onslaught  the  population  had  gradually  divided  into  three 
groups.  Tlie  first  of  these  consisted  of  tlie  settled  agricultural  section  of  the  peo- 
ple, the  inhabitants  of  the  towns,  oases,  and  riparian  lUstricts,  the  Sarts.  These 
rejnesent  to  us  the  relics  of  the  oldest  elements  of  culture,  which  had  been  Iran- 
ised  in  course  of  time,  and,  owing  to  large  I'ersian  immigrations,  had  acquired  also  a 
phvsical  likeness  to  the  Persians.  This  peculiarity  was  intensified  by  the  impor- 
tation of  Pereiau  slaves,  and  the  otherwise  inevitable  admixture  of  brachycephalic 
nomads  was  counterbalanced.  The  Sarts  had  long  abandoned  their  old  faith,  and 
that  of  Islam  was  universally  adopted.  The  Saris  showed  no  capacity  for  political 
organisation.  By  the  second  group,  the  Uzbegs,  on  the  contrary,  we  are  to  under- 
stand half-settled  Turco-Tartars,  in  whom,  notwithstanding  an  admixture  of  Ira- 
nian blood  and  a  smattering  of  higher  culture,  the  military  temper  of  the  nomad  is 
predominant.  This  large  section  of  the  people,  which  sj)ruug  up  during  the  nomad 
conquests,  first  ventured  to  lay  claim  to  the  supremacy,  and  finally  usurped  the 
power  of  the  Mongol  dynasties.  The  movement  was  really  started  in  the  Tarim 
basin,  where  even  in  the  time  of  Timur  the  Kashgarians,  who  were  never  com- 
pletely subjugated,  had  I'epeatedly  tried  to  subjugate  Western  Turkestan  (p.  182). 
A  third  group  of  inhabitants  of  Turkestan  is  composed  of  genuine  nomads,  whose 
chief  pasture  lauds  lie  partly  in  the  north  and  partly  to  the  west  of  the  Amu 
Daria,  toward  the  Caspian  Sea  and  Khorasan  (see  map,  p.  122).  In  the  north 
the  i)eople  of  the  Kirghiz  (Cossacks)  had  lived  since  early  times,  and  had  been 
only  driven  out  for  a  short  time  and  from  a  few  regions  by  roving  bands  of  other 
nomads  ;  in  the  west  the  Turkomans,  predatory  hordes  who  controlled  the  comnni- 
nicatious  between  Persia  and  the  States  of  Turkestan,  had  risen  from  the  fragments 
of  nomad  tribes. 

(«)  The  Kirghiz  from  the  Commencement  of  the  Sixteenth  to  the  Close  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century.  —  The  rule  of  the  House  of  Timur  in  Tiukestan  ended  in 
1494.  This  revolution  originated  in  an  attack  of  several  Tinnn'id  princes  on 
Mohammed  Shaibek  Khan  (Shaibani),  the  leader  of  the  Uzbegs,  who  seem  then 
to  have  had  their  homes  on  the  upper  Ja.xartes  and  in  the  borderlands  of 
Eastern  Turkestan.  The  attack  led  to  a  complete  defeat  of  the  Tinuirids,  and 
in  consequence  they  lost  their  possessions  in  Masenderan  and  Khorasan.  It 
.seemed  as  if  tlic  whole  of  Persia  woidd  be  conquered  by  Sliaibek  ;  but  at  that 
very  lime  the  Iranian  peojile  liad  been  roused  to  fresh  vitality  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Ismail  el-Safi,  and  Shaibek  with  his  army  fell  before  this  new  power 
(1510).  Under  his  successors,  the  Shaibanids,  Turkestan  still  remained  for  a 
time  a  united  empire,  but  then  broke  uj>,  as  liad  been  the  case  in  the  later 
period  of  the  Tiraurids,  and  yet  earlier  under  the  princes  of  the  Yue  chi,  into  a 


f^"sl-r]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  197 

number  of  independent  States,  whose  position  and  size  were  prescribed  by  geo- 
graphical conditions.  The  purely  nomad  countries  in  this  way  became,  for  tlie 
most  part,  independent.  The  people  of  the  Kirghiz,  who  mhabited  the  steppe  tu 
the  north  of  the  Aral  Sea  and  Lake  Balkash,  had  only  partially  submitted  to  the 
House  of  Timur  and  the  Uzbegs.  The  decline  of  the  empire  of  Kipchak  gave  these 
nomads  an  increasing  degree  of  liberty,  until  in  the  sixteenth  century  two  empires 
were  formed  in  tlie  southwestern  Siberian  steppes,  —  that  of  the  Ulu  Mongol  and 
that  of  the  Kirghiz  proper,  or  Cossacks,  under  the  Khan  Arslan,  who  brought 
numerous  other  nomad  tribes  of  Central  Asia  under  his  rule.  The  Kirghiz  Empire 
prevented  the  Uzbegs  fi-om  encroaching  furtlier  to  the  north,  but  subsequently  it 
broke  up,  that  is  to  say,  the  nation  of  the  Kiighiz  divided  itself  into  several  hordes. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  we  find  the  Southern  Kirghiz,  who  were  comparatively 
the  most  highly  ci\ilized  and  were  partly  settled,  forming  a  State  in  the  region 
of  Tashkent.  They  subsequently  commanded  the  middle  course  of  the  Syr  Daria. 
The  purely  nomadic  elements  of  the  people  formed  the  Great,  the  Middle,  and  the 
Small  Horde.  Among  the  Kirghiz  there  lingered  a  trace  of  the  old  warlike  and 
predatory  spirit  of  the  Central  Asiatics,  which  the  surrounding  nations  must  liave 
often  felt  to  their  prejudice.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  there 
was  formed  a  league  of  the  Dzungarians,  the  Bashkirs,  the  Calmucks  of  the  Volga, 
and  those  Cossacks  who  were  already  settled  in  Siberia  as  Russian  advance  guards, 
which  reduced  the  Kirghiz  to  such  straits  that  in  1719  they  vainly  ajijiealed  to 
liussia  to  interfere.  Turkestan,  the  capital  of  the  Middle  Horde,  lying  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Syr  Daria,  was  taken  by  the  Dzungarians.  Part  of  the  Kirghiz 
submitted,  the  others  retreated  toward  the  south.  Soon,  however,  they  advanced 
again  and  won  back  their  country,  though  only  to  fall  more  and  more  under 
the  influeuce  of  Russia. 

The  two  towns  of  Turkestan  and  Tashkent  were  in  the  Middle  Ages  commonly 
regarded  as  forming  a  part  of  the  province  which  went  by  the  name  of  Maurenna- 
har  (Ma  wara'l-nahr,  p.  1<S0),  and  included  the  civilized  parts  of  the  province  of 
Western  Turkestan.  Their  relations  with  the  nomads  were  of  a  fluctuating  char- 
acter. If  the  power  of  the  Kirgliiz  diminished,  then  they  or  their  Uzbeg  princes 
were  practically  independent,  but  if  it  again  increased,  then  they  were  more  or  less 
subject  to  nomad  rule.  For  the  time  being  they  were  attached  to  the  I'zbeg 
empires.  The  Dzungarians  possessed  Turkestan  in  1723,  but  after  1741  the  Kir- 
ghiz were  again  masters  of  the  town.  In  the  year  1780,  Yunus  Khoja  of 
Tashkent  inflicted  so  crushing  a  defeat  on  the  Kirgliiz  of  the  Great  Horde,  and 
inspired  such  terror  by  the  massacre  of  several  .thousand  prisoners,  that  tliey 
acknowledged  him  as  their  supreme  lord. 

(/>)  The  Uzbeg  States  of  Khiva,  Bokhara,  and  Khokand,  after  InOO.  —  Mauren- 
nahar,  owing  to  the  nature  of  its  soil,  is  divided  into  different  regions,  from  which 
in  the  course  of  history  corresponding  States  have  been  developed :  the  district  on 
the  lower  course  of  the  Amu  Daria  (Khiva),  that  on  the  middle  course  of  the  same 
stream  with  the  valley  of  the  Zarafshan  (Bokhara),  and  the  upper  valley  of  the  Syr 
Daria  (Ferghana.  Khokand).  In  addition  to  these  the  country  on  the  upper  Amu 
Daria  (Balkh)  often  formed  a  separate  State ;  but  this  latter  region  soon  fell  under 
the  influence  of  Afghanistan,  when  a  stronger  empire  was  formed  in  the  south. 
The  middle  and  lower  course  of  the  Syr  Daria  were  so  much  under  the  influence  of 


198  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  la,„j,hr if 

puwlv  nomad  tribes  that  no  powerful  States  could  have  been  foruieil  there.  Not 
infrei[ueully  the  upper  valley  of  the  Zurafshan,  witli  its  capital  Samarkand,  de- 
tached itself  from  the  region  of  IJokhara  and  constituted  a  separate  Slate  (Mau- 
rennahar  in  the  more  restricted  sense). 

Of  these  States  Khiva  (Kharismia)  had  been  at  Krst  seized  by  the  Persians  after 
the  defeat  and  death  of  Shaibek  Khan.  But  since  the  Persians  soon  made  them- 
selves unpopular  with  the  strictly  Sunnite  inhabitants  of  the  country  by  favouring 
the  Shiite  propaganda,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  1515,  headed  by  the  Uzbeg 
prince  Ilbars ;  with  the  help  of  his  brothers  he  gi-adually  drove  out  the  Persians 
from  all  the  towns  in  the  country  and  made  successful  attacks  on  Khorasan. 
Further  developments  in  that  direction  were  checked  by  the  Turkoman  tribes,  who 
even  then  regarded  the  steppe  on  the  borders  of  Persia  and  Khiva  as  their  ex- 
clusive property.  Since  the  brothers  of  Ilbars  had  firmly  established  themselves 
in  different  towns  as  feudal  lords,  there  could  be  no  idea  of  any  close  union  after 
the  death  of  the  first  monarch.  It  was  not  until  the  feuds  between  the  various 
vassal  princes  had  somewhat  calmed  down  and  the  Turkomans  were  pacified,  that 
the  Uzbegs  of  Khiva  with  those  uf  Bokhara  could  renew  tlieir  attacks  on  the  ter- 
ritory of  Persia.  The  Sefewide  Tamasp  I  of  Persia  finally  had  no  other  recouree 
than  to  ally  himself  by  marriage  with  the  royal  family  of  Khiva,  and  to  purchase 
with  a  large  sura  a  treaty  whicli  ensured  peace  for  his  frontiers.  Fresh  disorders 
in  China  ended  with  the  almost  entire  extermination  of  the  descendants  of  Ilbars 
by  Din  Mohammed  Sultan,  who  divided  the  comitry  among  the  members  of  his 
family  and  was  proclaimed  Khan  (1540).  He  took  from  the  Khan  of  Bokhara 
the  town  of  Merv,  that  ancient  outpost  of  Persian  cidture,  and  made  it  his  aipital. 
After  his  death,  however,  in  1-553,  Merv  soon  lapsed  to  the  Persians.  The  Kliau 
of  Bokhara,  Abd  Allah,  repeatedly  interfered  in  the  ensuing  disorders,  until  he 
succeeded  in  making  him.self  master  of  the  whole  realm  (1578).  It  was  not  until 
1598  that  one  of  the  expelled  princes  was  able  to  seize  the  greater  part  of  the 
country. 

Nor  was  this  the  last  time  that  Khiva  was  harassed  by  civil  wars.  Princes  of 
the  reigning  hovise  were  allotted  towns  which  the}-  governed  almost  indepen- 
dently, relying  sometimes  on  the  Uzbegs,  sometimes  on  the  Turkomans,  the  Nai- 
man,  the  Kirghiz,  or  the  Uigurians,  the  remnants  of  wliom  were  living  in  Khivan 
territory.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  Abu'l  GhSzi  I 
Behadur  (1605-1664)  distinguished  himself  as  prince  (1644—1663)  and  as  his- 
torian of  tlie  descendants  of  Genghis,  the  Calmucks  (p.  192)  extended  their  rule 
over  the  Kirghiz  steppe  as  far  as  Khiva.  •  The  struggles  with  these  new  antago- 
nists, and  renewed  wars  with  Bokhara,  filled  up  the  succeeding  decades.  Then  a 
more  peaceful  period  set  in;  the  Khan,  who  resided  in  Urgenj  or  Kiiiva,  was 
really  only  the  most  powerful  of  the  numerous  vassal  princes,  who  lived  in  the 
various  towns  and  sometimes  fought  out  their  petty  feuds  among  themselves. 
The  characteristic  feature  of  the  history  of  Turkestan  in  modern  times  is  this 
pettiness.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  Kirghiz  of  the  Small  Horde  got  the 
upper  hand  in  Khiva,  until  in  1792  an  Uzbeg  chieftain  founded  a  new  dynasty, 
which  lasted  until  1873  (cf.  below,  p.  223).  Bokhara,  the  central  province  of 
Western  Turkestan,  also  played  no  further  important  ]iart  in  the  world's  history. 
At  first  the  descendants  of  Shaibek  Khan  establislied  themselves  there;  one  of 
these,  Obaid  Allah  (1533-1539),  waged  war  with  Persia,  if  we  may  apply  such  a 


ami  Siberia 


] 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


199 


term  to  his  marauding  expeditions.  The  most  important  of  the  Shaibanids,  Abd 
Allah  II  (1556-1598),  attempted  with  better  success  to  reach  a  higher  stage  of 
civilization.  In  the  year  1599  a  dynasty  from  Astrakhan  (the  Jauids')  came  to 
the  throne,  having  migrated  back  again  from  the  Khanate  of  Astrakhan  to  Trans- 
oxiana  in  1554.  The  Khanates  of  Balkh  and  of  Samarkand  soon  completely 
severed  themselves  from  Ijokhara;  the  political  downfall  of  which  became  still 
more  complete  when  Nadir  Shah  of  Persia,  in  the  year  1737,  took  vengeance  for 
the  constant  raids  on  his  frontiers  by  a  victorious  campaign.  A  new  ITzbeg 
dynasty,  that  of  the  Maugites,^  which  also  bcjasted  of  Mongol  descent,  drove  out 
the  House  of  Astrakhan  and  occupied  the  throne  of  Bokhara  until  1868  (cf.  below, 
p.  222).  Ferghana,  or  the  Khanate  of  Khokand,  was  the  country  where  the  Timu- 
rids  had  held  their  own  for  the  longest  period.  It  then  fell  into  the  jiower  of 
the  Shaibanids  and  House  of  Astrakhan,  but  won  in  1700  complete  independence, 
which  it  preserved  until  1876.  Owing  to  the  geographical  position  of  Ferghana, 
the  Persian  power,  whicli  Khiva  and  Bokliara  were  always  forced  to  respect,  was 
unimportant  in  those  parts,  but  in  return  the  affairs  of  Eastern  Turkestan  and  the 
Kirghiz  steppe  demanded  continual  attention;  for  example,  the  campaign  of 
Yakoub  Khan,  who  temporarily  drove  the  Chinese  out  of  the  Tarim  basin,  was  com- 
menced from  Ferghana  (p.  195).  In  the  year  1814  Khokand,  wiiich  was  then 
gaining  strength,  conquered  the  scjuthern  Kiighiz  steppe  with  the  towns  of  Tash- 
kent and  Turkestan,  and  thus  exasperated  the  jealousy  which  Bokhara  had  always 
felt  toward  Khokand  since  the  rise  of  the  Mangite  dynasty.  Khokand  was 
finally  conquered  in  1841  by  Nasr  Allah  of  Bokhara  (1827-1860),  and  notwith- 
standing frequent  rebellions  it  continued  in  this  subjection  until  the  appearance 
of  the  Eussians  in  Central  Asia  —  an  event  of  which  we  shall  have  more  to  say 
hereafter. 

On  the  whole  the  Uzbeg  period  was  for  Turkestan  an  age  of  petty  struggles, 
which  shows  little  genuine  progress  in  civilization.  A  nomadic  spirit  was  pre- 
dominant in  the  population,  which  showed  itself  in  ceaseless  raids  upon  Persia. 
The  international  traffic,  which  once  had  brought  prosperity  to  Turkestan,  was 
diverted  into  other  channels,  and  the  formerly  wealthy  cities  showed  but  the 
shadow  of  their  earlier  magnificence. 

4.   SIBERIA   AND   ASIATIC   RUSSIA 


Siberia  lies,  like  the  body  of  some  giant  half-numbed  with  frost,  between  the 
Mongol  steppe  and  the  icy  waters  of  the  northern  Arctic  Ocean.  This  enormous 
territory,  with  its  magnificent  rivers,  would  offer  a  boundless  store  of  wealth  to  the 
inhabitants,  were  it  not  that  a  terrible  climate  blocks  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  with 
ice,  changes  the  soil  of  the  vast  plains  into  swamps  and  barren  tundras,  and  even 


Shaiban  (cf.  p.  179,  note). 


Shah  Buda^h 

I 

Alohainiiied 

Bhaibet  Kiian 

(Shaibfiui) 


Khoja  Mohammed 

I 

Iskander 


Tar  Mohammed  of  Astrakhan 


r 


Abd  Allah  It    Zabra  Cbanum 

I — r 


Jan 


Janids  (Ashtarchanids) 


2  Jan 

I 

Abu'l-Ghazi  (1758-1785) 

I 
A  daughter 


Nogai-Chief 
Daniyal  (Mangit) 
Mir  Blasum  Shah  Murad 


Maugit«8 


200  HISTORY    C)I-    Till-:    WORLD  [t7,«/>/.r// 

ill  suinmer  keeps  the  ground  hard  frozen  beneath  its  surface.  It  is  true  that  the 
comilrv  which  we  call  Siberia  falls  into  various  divisions  according  to  tlie  climate. 
The  northern  tracts,  which  can  hardly  support  a  thin  and  widely  scattered  popula- 
tion, abut  farther  to  the  south  on  a  region  of  forests,  which  are  especially  dense  in 
tlie  mountainous  cast,  while  in  the  level  west  the  steppe  begins  which  stretches 
without  a  break  to  Turkestan  and  Eastern  Europe.  Various  economic  zones  are 
thus  produced :  a  North  Siberian,  embracing  the  tundras,  whicli  is  broader  in  the 
west  tlian  in  tlie  east,  a  West  Siberian  prairie  zone,  and  an  East  Siberian  foiest  zone. 
Hesides  these  the  east  coast  must  be  reckoned  a  separate  economic  region ;  wliile 
the  northern  sea  is  of  little  value  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  tundras,  tiie  east  coast 
with  the  lower  Amur  and  Kamchatka  may  be  called  a  strip,  where  fishing  is  the 
staple  means  of  existence. 

A.   The  Hyperborean  Zone 

The  various  forms  of  social  economy  which  exist  in  Siberia  are  not,  of  course, 
restricted  to  this  region.  The  climatic  zones,  however  much  the  dill'ereuces  of 
height  in  the  countries  and  the  iutlueuces  of  the  temperatures  of  the  sea  compli- 
cate the  simple  conditions,  taken  as  a  whole  encircle  the  earth  in  belts.  Inside 
these  belts  we  lind  everywhere  peoples  who  are  subject  to  almost  the  same  natural 
conditions,  and  have  adapted  themselves  in  their  way  of  life  to  these  circumstances. 
Thus  tribes  which  are  of  completely  different  origin  show  in  this  way  an  aliiuity  of 
habits  and  customs  which  is  often  closer  and  more  marked  than  that  of  blood ;  for 
example,  the  Arab  nomad  of  the  steppe  resembles  the  Mongol,  and  tlie  roving 
Bushmen  of  South  Africa  have  more  resemblance  to  the  Australian  black  than  to 
the  Nigritian  agriculturist.  It  is  not,  however,  the  climatic  conditions  only  which 
affect  the  economic  life  of  a  people ;  the  possibilities  of  intercourse  form  an  addi- 
tional factor.  If,  for  instance,  the  nomadic  methods  of  life,  for  which  large  portions 
of  their  country  are  adapted,  had  been  known  to  the  isolated  Australians,  the  Euro- 
peans on  their  landing  would  have  found  a  quite  different  people,  cajiable,  probably, 
of  oH'ering  a  stronger  resistance.  On  the  other  hand,  a  good  example  may  be 
despised :  the  Bushman  has  learnt  nothing  from  his  cattle-breeding  neighbours. 
Peculiarities  of  character  which  have  been  acquired  by  a  long  process  of  heredity 
and  natural  selection,  but  are  difficult  to  express  and  define  accurately,  play 
an  important  ]iart  in  this.  In  spite  of  these  limitations,  the  climatic-economic 
zones  gain  importance  in  proportion  as  the  other  sources  of  historical  knowledge 
grow  scanty.  From  this  aspect  we  cannot  treat  the  northern  Siberians  merely  as 
a  distinct  group  of  the  human  race,  but  must  investigate  the  economic  zone  to 
which  they,  in  common  with  American  and  European  stocks,  belong,  —  that  is  to 
say,  the  northern  polar  zone,  whose  inhabitants  have  been  called  by  the  collective 
name  of  Hyperboreans  (see  the  map,  "  North  Polar  Eegions  "  ). 

The  main  features  of  this  universal  Hyperborean  civilization  are  determined 
by  the  direct  and  indirect  influences  of  the  climate ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  sepa- 
rate branches  into  which  it  is  divided  are  differentiated  by  the  specific  character 
of  each  several  region,  by  its  position  as  regards  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  by  the 
type  of  its  inhabitants.  The  direct  influence  of  climate  appears  very  distinctly  in 
modes  of  dress  and  domestic  architecture,  since  among  the  Hyperboreans  some 
special  protection  for  the  body  is  absolutely  necessary,  owing  to  the  inclemency  of 
the  weather.     The  indirect  influences  of  climate  show  themselves  in  the  fact  that 


Lmdon    W^  H^ainriii 


PrinLed  liy  the  Bibliodnipliuiclius  biiitiliit  I.Piysi^. 


Sfw  rai*.I)odtLJb,td  £  r* 


^Ts"L1t]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  201 

the  number  of  edible  plants  is  verj'  small  in  the  north.  For  food  and  for  tlie 
paraphernalia  of  civilized  existence  the  peoples  of  the  north  rely  chiefly  on  the 
abundant  fauna  of  those  regions.  The  extensive  and  almost  exclusive  employment 
of  animal  and  mineral  in  the  place  of  vegetable  products  is  the  most  striking  char- 
acteristic of  the  Hyperborean  cultiu^e. 

This  culture  appears  in  its  purest  form  among  the  Eskimos  of  America,  since 
hardly  any  southern  influence  is  perceptible  among  them.  Utensils  and  weapons 
of  bone,  horn,  and  stone,  fur  clothing,  houses  and  tents  constructed  from  stone, 
blocks  of  snow,  or  skins,  are  the  characteristic  features ;  to  which  we  may  add,  as 
peculiarities  equally  produced  by  the  climate,  snow-shoes,  snow  spectacles,  and 
sledges  drawn  by  dogs  (cf.  Vol.  I,  p.  131).  The  Eskimos  show  at  tlie  same  time 
that  the  Arctic  tribes,  like  all  other  primitive  races  of  the  globe,  at  first  practised 
a  pureh'  acquisitive  economy.  They  obtained  the  greater  part  of  their  subsistence 
by  hunting  or  fowling,  or,  to  a  less  extent,  by  fishing.  Wild  plants,  in  so  far 
as  they  were  suitable  for  food,  were  by  no  means  despised.  Indeed,  among  the 
southern  Ostiaks  roots  and  bulbs  constituted  a  considerable  part  of  their  diet,  but 
there  is  nowhere  any  idea  of  agriculture.  Still  less  was  there  any  notion  of 
breeding  domestic  animals,  with  the  solitary  exception  of  the  dog,  which  almost 
everywhere  on  the  earth  is  the  companion  of  man,  even  among  the  roving  nations, 
and  has  acquired  a  peculiar  importance  among  the  Hyperboreans.  In  these  regions 
the  dog,  as  a  beast  of  draught,  improves  the  mobility  of  the  inhabitants,  and  thus 
widens  the  area  from  which  they  satisfy  their  needs.  In  winter  also,  when  provi- 
sions are  scarce,  he  serves  his  master  as  food ;  usually  only  a  few  dogs  are  left 
alive  in  order  to  keep  up  the  breed. 

Like  these  tribes,  the  European  inhabitants  of  the  southern  ice-belt  lived, 
during  the  diluvial  period,  in  the  most  simple  Hyperborean  fashion,  as  we  learn 
from  prehistoric  finds.  Like  the  Eskimos,  they  delighted  in  a  rude  form  of  art, 
which  aimed  at  a  realistic  representation  of  animal  and  human  forms  (see  Figs. 
20-22  of  the  plate  p.  120  in  Vol.  I),  and  may  in  essentials  correspond  directly 
to  the  character  and  inclinations  of  these  purely  hunter  peoples.  In  order  to 
explain  this  affinity,  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  the  former  junction  of 
Greenland  with  Western  Europe,  though  this  may  have  facilitated  migrations 
among  the  Arctic  nations  (see  the  soundings  marked  in  the  accompanying  map, 
"  North  Polar  Regions ").  But,  strangely  enough,  the  Asiatic  and  the  modern 
European  Hyperboreans  do  not  possess  this  fondness  for  naturalistic  art,  but  prefer 
a  conventional  ornamentation.  This  small  trait  illustrates  the  great  difference 
which  has  grown  up  between  the  American  and  Asiatic  polar  nations.  The  former 
have  remained  hunters  and  gatherers  of  plants ;  the  latter  liave  mostly  changed 
into  Arctic  nomads,  and  thus  revolutionised  their  economic  principles,  their  inter- 
ests, and  inclinations.  This  is  the  result  of  a  development  within  historic  times, 
the  course  of  which  can  to  some  extent  be  still  followed. 

(a)  Hie  Dolichocephalic  Iluntcrs  and  Reindeer-hreeders.  —  We  saw  (p.  130) 
that  after  the  glacial  period  the  north  of  Asia  and  Europe  was  inhabited  by  a 
dolichocephalic  race  which  was  adapted  to  a  somewhat  inclement  climate,  and 
was  therefore  able  to  colonise  the  regions  now  accessible  owing  to  the  shrinkage 
of  the  great  crust  of  ice.  Thus  long-headed  Arctic  hunter  nations  were  found 
throughout  the  entire  breadth  of  Siberia,  who  by  their  Hyperborean  culture  were 


202  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapterii 

little  bv  little  sharply  differentiated  from  their  kinsmen  living  more  to  the  south. 
"NMiile  tlu'se,  then,  were  iniluenced  by  the  hij;her  development  of  agriculture  and 
metal-working  among  the  short-headed  nations  of  Western  and  ICiistern  Asia,  and 
while  a  northern  offset  of  the  copper  and  bronze  culture,  whose  representatives 
were  mainly  dolichocephalic,  was  traceable  on  the  Altai,  the  nortlieru  Siberians 
remained  almost  untouched  by  these  agencies.  Tillage  was  for  them  a  ph}'sical 
impossibility,  and  the  smelting  of  ore  implies  an  immense  supply  of  suitable  fuel, 
which  is  almost  entirely  wanting  iu  the  tundras.  Some  new  arts  and  contrivances 
may  have  found  their  way  to  the  north.  Potters  and  smiths  had  practised  their 
crafts  at  an  early  period  in  the  territory  of  the  Ostiaks ;  but  on  the  wliole  the 
Asiatic  Hyperboreans  remained  a  small  and  poverty-stricken  nation  of  hunters, 
with  whom  neither  friends  nor  foes  had  intercourse.  The  chase,  an  occasional 
6shing  expedition,  and  the  berries  and  cedar-nuts  which  they  gathered,  furnished 
the  bulk  <if  their  food. 

The  rise  of  nomadic  pastoral  nations,  iirst  of  Aryan  and  then  of  Mongol  stock, 
could  not  alter  these  conditions  much  at  first.  The  device  of  breeding  cattle, 
horses,  or  sheep  could  not  be  directly  introduced  into  the  Arctic  regions,  even 
though  the  Yakuts  showed  later  that  cattle-breeding  could  be  .successfully  at- 
tempted in  quite  northern  latitudes.  The  example,  therefore,  which  was  afforded 
by  the  nomad  tribes  of  Central  Asia,  could  only  produce  an  indirect  effect.  It  is 
indisputable  that  cattle-breeding  tribes  had  been  driven  to  the  nortbern  tundras, 
where  their  cattle  could  no  longer  thrive,  so  that  they  were  forced  to  look  for  some 
substitute.  A  long  time  seems  to  have  passed  before  the  discovery  was  made  that 
the  reindeer  could  be  domesticated  like  cattle,  and  could  supply  milk,  draw  bur- 
dens, or  be  slaughtered  for  food.  Many  tribes  have  only  adopted  this  new  method 
of  economy  in  modern  times, —  for  example,  the  Oroks  on  Saghalien,  according  to 
J.  A.  Jacobsen's  views.  The  Eskimos,  although  there  was  always  a  certain  traffic 
across  the  Bering  Straits,  have  not  yet  acquired  a  knowledge  of  reindeer-breeding. 
Even  the  Kamchatkans  at  the  time  of  their  discovery  bred  only  dogs. 

The  reindeer  has  in  many  ways  taken  the  place  of  the  dog,  and,  by  adding  to 
the  mobility  of  man  even  more  than  the  latter,  it  has  enlarged  the  possibilities  of 
existence.  It  can  be  used  not  merely  to  draw  the  sledge,  but  for  riding  or  as  a 
beast  of  burden,  and  it  finds  its  own  food.  It  certainly  yields  far  less  milk  than 
the  cow ;  but  it  produces  milk  on  a  diet  of  moss  and  bents.  Thanks  to  the  rein- 
deer, man  extracts  a  living  from  the  vegetation  of  the  tundras.  The  extent  to 
which  the  existence  of  most  Asiatic  Hyperboreans  depends  upon  the  reindeer,  is 
shown  by  the  remarks  of  Otto  Fiusch  on  the  dangers  of  pestilence  among  the  rein- 
deer in  Western  Siberia.  "If  the  supply  of  reindeer  fail,  the  indigenous  population 
must  sink  deeper  and  deeper  into  povertv,  and  be  reduced  to  the  status  of  fi.shermen 
li%Hng  from  hand  to  mouth.  Williout  reindeer  the  tundi-a,  and  the  skins,  etc., 
which  it  supplies,  will  be  inaccessible  and  useless ;  without  reindeer  the  natives 
lose  their  greatest  resource  for  barter,  food,  clothing,  and  shelter."  The  welfare  of 
the  people  is  not,  however,  everywhere  so  closely  bound  up  with  the  possession  of 
reindeer,  since  hunting  or,  after  tbe  disappearance  of  the  beasts  of  the  chase,  fish- 
ing must  supply  the  majority  with  food.  In  many  places,  also,  the  use  of  rein- 
deer milk  is  not  yet  known  or  has  only  recently  been  learnt.  These  observations 
indicate  that  the  breeding  of  reindeer,  to  which  the  Greeks  and  Romans  make  no 
allusion,  is  not  yet  of  any  antiquity.     The  small  number  of  varieties  among  tbe 


f;nirr]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  203 

reindeer,  and  their  general  uniformity  of  colour,  are  facts  which  support  the  same 
conclusion.  When,  finally,  observation  shows  that  among  the  most  westerly  Hy- 
perboreans of  tlie  Old  World,  that  is  to  say  the  Lapps,  the  fullest  use  is  made  of 
the  reindeer,  while  the  most  easterly  tribes  on  the  Bering  Strait,  for  example,  are 
not  yet  acquainted  with  it,  we  have  some  intimation  of  the  source  from  which 
the  practice  of  reindeer-breeding  has  been  borrowed,  and  of  the  direction  in 
which  it  has  spread.  Reindeer-breeding,  after  all,  belongs  exclusively  to  the  Hy- 
perboreans. No  other  nation  seems  to  have  served  them  directly  as  a  model,  and 
none  of  the  civilized  nations  which  have  penetrated  into  the  northern  regions  have 
imitated  them  to  any  appreciable  extent. 

(?')  Composite  Nature  of  Hijperhorean  Civilization.  —  The  inquiry  into  the 
characteristics  of  the  Hyperboreans  assumes  a  quite  different  aspect  when  we  ex- 
amine the  racial  affinity  of  the  different  tribes.  It  will  then  appear  that  not  even 
the  Asiatic  Hyperboreans  are  genuine  descendants  of  that  dolichocephalic  primi- 
tive population  which  tilled  Northern  Asia  and  Northern  Europe  at  the  close  of 
the  dUuvial  epoch,  but  that  a  strong  contingent  of  short-headed  peoples  was  mixed 
with  most  of  them.  This  fact  is  established  by  an  investigation  of  their  languages. 
The  "  Yenisseian  "  languages,  which  originally  were  spoken  by  the  dolichocephalic 
Hyperboreans,  were  for  the  most  part  supplanted  by  Mongolian  or  Finno-Ugrian 
languages,  belonging  certainly  to  short-lieaded  peoples.  A  nation  that  even  in  its 
language  has  not  undergone  any  change,  is  that  of  the  Yenissei-Ostiaks,  who  have 
been  erroneously  confounded  with  the  Finno-Ugrian  race  of  Western  or  Obi- 
Ostiaks.  It  is  likely  that  some  stray  tribes  of  fair-complexioned  dolichocephalic 
Aryans  mixed  with  the  Hyperboreans,  as  the  prevalence  of  a  blond  complexion 
among  the  Ostiaks  seems  to  prove ;  it  is,  however,  also  possible  that  among  the 
Hyperboreans  themselves,  a  fair-complexioned  variety  may  have  been  locally  de- 
veloped. In  any  case  these  blonds  increase  the  racial  confusion  whicli  reigns 
there.  But,  on  the  whole,  it  can  be  said  that  the  Finno-Ugrian  group,  to  which 
most  Hj-perboreans  are  usually  now  assigned,  is  the  ])roduct  of  a  mixture  of  doli- 
chocephalic Hyperboreans  on  the  one  side,  with  brachycephalic  Mongols,  speaking 
one  of  the  languages  deri\-ed  from  the  same  stem  as  the  Mongolian,  on  the  other, 
but  that  the  extent  of  the  admixture  may  vary  greatly  in  each  separate  tribe. 
Community  of  culture  has  naturally  tended  to  obliterate  the  differences  which 
were  due  to  race.  But  tliis  culture  deserves  a  more  minute  investigation,  since, 
notwithstanding  its  genuinely  Hyperborean  character,  it  has  been  compounded  of 
two  elements,  one  of  which  was  peculiar  to  the  old  dolichocephalic  people  or 
Yenisseiaus,  while  the  other  may  be  ascribed  to  the  Mongol  immigrants.  The 
remnants  of  the  former,  which  suggest  to  us  the  most  ancient  ways  of  life  and 
thouglit  in  the  north,  must  be  followed  with  especial  attention. 

One  of  the  most  obvious  survivals  is  the  Bear-worship,  which  was  originally 
connected  with  the  idea  that  the  spirits  of  the  deceased  were  incarnated  in  bears. 
As  a  further  development,  therefore,  the  bear  appears  as  a  sort  of  divinity,  the  lord 
of  the  forests,  whom  men  must  treat  with  the  most  marked  consideration,  even 
when  they  fight  or  slay  him.  This  cult,  still  vigorous  in  the  east  among  the 
Ainos  and  the  Giliaks.  lost  hold  on  the  west,  though  it  did  not  entirely  di-sappear. 
In  Finnish  tradition  the  ancient  significance  of  the  bear  is  still  most  prominent. 
The  Ostiaks  and  Vogules  celebrate  the  slaughter   of    a  bear  with  feasting,  and 


204  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [(■/>opt,r /r 

swear  by  the  paws  and  the  skin  of  the  beast.  According  to  AVillielm  Kadloff, 
the  Yenissei-Ostiaks  in  particular,  the  purest  remnant  of  the  ohl  poi)ulation, 
observe  these  customs. 

A  second  peculiarity  of  the  ancient  Hyperboreans  is  the  great  importance 
•wliich  they  attach  to  mystic  implements,  the  original  meaning  of  wiiich  is  hard  to 
arrive  at.  We  may  especially  notice  sticks  hung  with  rags  or  similar  things. 
Georg  Willielm  Steller  (1709-1740),  relates  of  the  Kamchatkans  tliat  they  wor- 
sliip  "  Hy-whisks,"  that  is,  sticks  hung  with  glasses,  as  gods,  under  the  name 
of  Inoul ;  the  grasses  being  intended  to  represent  the  curlmg  hair  of  the  deity. 
The  Ainos  make  similar  sacred  emblems  for  themselves ;  they  leave  half-cut 
sliavings  fluttering  at  the  end  of  a  stick,  so  that  a  sort  of  whisk  is  produced. 
Similar  things  can  be  traced  to  Soutliern  Japan ;  even  the  ancient  Shinto  religion 
(cf.  p.  3)  includes  among  its  sacred  implements  sticks  wrapped  with  strips  of 
paper  (Gohei).  As  usually  hajjpens,  the  traces  of  this  primitive  implement  of 
magic  grow  less  frequent  as  one  goes  westward,  but  an  attentive  searcli  will  show 
a  fair  number  of  instances.  Among  tlie  Tartars  of  Minusinsk,  who  certainly 
possess  a  strong  element  of  Hyperborean  blood,  staves  hung  with  rags  are  much 
used  in  tlie  Shamanist  ritual,  and  the  Tartars  of  tlie  Eureya  mountains  worship 
festoons  of  leathern  strips  and  scraps  of  clotii  as  divine  objects.  Even  among  the 
Magyars,  the  custom  of  constructing  "rag-trees"  can  be  shown  to  have  existed 
even  in  modern  times. 

Genuinely  Hyperborean  is  also  the  belief  in  a  subterranean  world  precisely 
similar  to  the  upper  world ;  the  severity  of  the  climate  does  not  encourage  the 
thouglit  that  the  future  world  lies  in  the  cold  clouds,  but  it  guides  men's  looks 
to  the  warm  and  sheltering  earth.  This  trail  is  harder  to  follow,  since  the  belief 
in  subterranean  realms  can  be  found  elsewhere;  only  among  the  more  soutliern 
nations  do  we  find  that  the  lower  world  assumes  a  gloomy  cliaracter  and  is 
contrasted  with  tlie  bright  celestial  abodes.  Finally,  the  art  of  ornamentation 
shows  a  surprising  affinity  throughout  the  whole  of  Northern  Siberia.  Once 
more  the  most  recognisable  remains  of  this  old  art  are  to  be  found  in  the  east, 
although  the  patterns  used  in  ornament  can  be  traced  far  in  the  west  among 
Samoyeds  and  Ostiaks. 

In  all  these  matters  a  long  period  of  development  is  implied,  which  is  pro- 
duced less  from  great  wanderings  and  shiftiugs  than  from  slow  transpositions 
which  can  only  be  followed  in  their  results.  Aggressive  wars  on  a  large  scale, 
resulting  in  ethnical  displacements  of  a  sudden  antl  important  nature,  can  hardly 
have  occurred  in  the  Hyperborean  regioij  in  anti([uity.  The  warlike  nomads  of 
the  south,  to  whom  the  rich  civilized  countries  lay  open,  ventured  occasionally  on 
marauduig  expeditions  into  the  "  land  of  darkness ; "  but  the  nature  of  the  country 
prohibited  wide  conquests,  for  it  could  not  feed  large  armies,  and  was  only 
accessible  to  the  native  who  had  sledges  and  reindeer  and  dogs  at  his  disposal. 

(c)  TIte  Northern  Migration  of  the  Yakuts.  —  If,  nevertheless,  Mongol  elements 
have  gradually  mixed  with  the  Hyperboreans,  it  is  only  a  question  of  detached 
fragments  which  have  been  forced  into  the  inhospitable  northern  realms.  A 
comparatively  recent  example  of  this  is  shown  by  the  Yakuts,  who  are  at  present 
settled  in  the  district  of  the  Lena,  as  far  as  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  Yakuts  are  genu- 
ine Turks  who  still  cherish  the  memory  of  their  southern  origin.     It  is  conjee- 


SS'^lfr]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  205 

tured  that  the  Bureyats,  who  at  the  time  of  the  first  Mongol  invasion  in  the 
thirteenth  century  pushed  on  from  the  Amur  into  tlie  region  round  Lake  Baikal, 
drove  them  to  retreat  to  the  north,  when  they  thrust  themselves  between  the 
Tungusian  tribes  (cf.  below,  j).  214).  They  adapted  themselves  admirably  to 
their  new  country,  without,  however,  abandoning  their  original  industry  of  cattle- 
breeding.  The  kine  of  the  tribe  acclimatised  themselves  to  their  new  home,  and 
gave  the  energetic  Yakuts  a  better  means  of  subsistence  than  the  Tuiigusiaus 
and  Ostiaks  possessed  in  the  reindeer.  The  Yakuts,  who  retain  a  trace  of  nomad 
love  of  enterprise,  are  certainly  superior  to  their  neighbours  in  industry  and  vigour. 

B.    The  "West  Siberians 

The  nomadic  West  Siberians  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  East  Siberian  hunter 
peoples  on  the  other,  are  groups  distinct  from  the  genuine  Hyperboreans  in  their 
modes  of  life,  althougli  both  are  ethnically  more  or  less  akin  to  the  old  dolicho- 
cephalic races  of  the  Arctic  regions. 

While  the  Hyperborean  tribes  as  a  whole  lived  undisturbed  in  their  inhospitable 
regions,  and  for  their  own  part  can  hardly  have  felt  any  inclination  to  seek  new 
homes  in  more  southern  lands,  the  inhabitants  of  the  West  Siberian  steppes 
(see  the  map,  p.  208)  had  been,  drawn  into  many  of  the  great  movements  of  the 
nations  of  Central  Asia,  and  their  territory  had  often  formed  a  part  of  nomadic 
world  empires.  The  West  Siberians,  in  tlie  more  restricted  sense,  from  whom  the 
northern  Arctic  peoples  are  to  be  distinguished,  inhabit  a  steppe  country  which  is 
turned  to  the  best  advantage  by  such  a  combination  of  cattle-bn'eding  and  hunting 
as  forms  the  staple  means  of  subsistence  among  the  Huns  and  Mongols.  It 
naturally  follows  that  restlessness  is  innate  in  the  West  Siberians.  In  fact,  the 
era  of  the  Huns  roused  up  a  people  there  which  exercised  a  lasting  influence  on 
the  development  of  European  civilization,  —  the  people,  that  is,  of  the  Magyars. 

(«)  The  Magyars,  Alani,  and  Avars.  —  The  Magj'ars,  differing  from  the 
Osmans,  whose  zone  of  expansion  touched  their  own  in  their  power  of  adapta- 
tion to  European  ways  and  thought,  attached  themselves  more  and  more  firmly 
to  their  new  home,  whUe  the  Turk  was  slowly  driven  back  from  tlie  soil  of  Europe. 
That  they  succeeded  in  thus  adapting  themselves  is  partly  the  result  of  their 
ethnical  affinities.  At  the  dawn  of  history,  we  find  Southwestern  Siberia  fiUed 
with  Scythian  peoples  who  were  mainly  of  Iranian  stock,  and  therefore  belonged 
to  the  fak-complexioned  and  dolichocephalic  group  of  European  nations  (cf.  Yol. 
IV,  p.  73).  It  was  probably  through  these  Scythians  that  the  hunter  nations  living 
farther  to  the  north,  who  were  akin  to  the  dolichocephalic  Hyperboreans,  became 
acquainted  with  nomadic  ways  of  life ;  and  this  result  was  harcUy  effected  without 
a  mixture  of  races.  At  a  later  time  the  Mongol  nomads  drove  out  or  absorbed 
the  Scythians,  and,  by  intermingling  freely  vrith  the  West  Siberians,  imparted  to 
the  latter  a  Mongol  language  and  j)hysique  without,  however,  destroying  the  central 
nucleus  of  this  people ;  the  Volga-Finns  remained  distinctly  dolichocephalic.  In 
this  way  is  explained  the  surprising  phenomenon  that  the  modern  Magj-ars  by 
their  appearance  bear  little  resemblance  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  steppes  of  Central 
Asia.  Later  admixtmes  with  European  peoples  have  naturally  tended  to  produce 
the  same  result. 


206  HISTORY    OF    TlUi    WORLD  [chaj^tcr  it 

The  l^ral  formed  no  impeuetrable  barrier  for  tlie  Finno-l'grian  peoples,  or,  to 
speak  more  correctl)-,  the  mLxture  of  races,  from  which  ihey  sprung,  took  jdace 
in  the  steppes  of  Eastern  Europe ;  the  Ural-Altai  stock  spread  as  far  as  the  Volga 
in  the  south,  and  Finland  and  Norway  in  the  north.  The  similarly  compounded 
nation  of  the  Alani,  in  which  Iranian  and  Mongol  elements  were  more  strongly 
represented  than  the  Hyperborean,  kept  the  Finnish  tribes  in  "Western  Siberia  and 
Eastern  Europe  for  a  long  time  aloof  from  contact  with  the  world  of  civilization. 
It  was  only  when  swept  forward  by  the  great  Hun  onrush  that  it  left  an  open  road 
for  the  Siberian  nomads,  dwelling  further  to  the  north. 

History  tells  us  little  about  the  earlier  condition  of  the  Finno-Ugrian  nomads, 
who  then  for  the  tirst  time  attracted  tlie  attention  of  the  civilized  world.  It  seems 
that  a  line  passing  through  Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  and  Krasnoiarskoi  represents  the 
northern  frontier  of  the  true  nomad  peoples  and  the  Hyperborean  huuliug-tribes ; 
for  the  stupendous  sepulchral  mounds  (Kurgans,  Vol.  IV,  p.  76),  so  characteristic 
of  West  Siberia,  are  only  found  to  the  south  of  this  line.  The  contents  of  these 
tombs  make  it  at  once  clear  that  the  culture  of  the  nomads  was  closely  connected 
with  that  of  the  Altaian  region,  which,  from  its  use  of  bronze  and  copper,  may  be 
regarded  as  an  offshoot  of  the  ancient  civilization  of  the  south.  The  frontier 
towards  the  Hyperboreans  may  gradually  have  been  shifted  further  northward. 
The  introduction  of  reindeer-breeding  possibly  modified  the  difl'erences  between 
the  nomads  and  the  northern  hunters.  No  accurate  information  is  forthcoming 
as  to  the  original  homes  of  the  Mag)'ars;  but  the  great  number  of  Turkish  words 
in  their  vocabulary  shows  that  they  lived  comparatively  far  to  the  south  of  West 
Siberia  and  found  opportunities  of  mixing  there  with  Turkish  tribes.  They  were 
there  drawn  into  the  great  westward  movement  of  Central  Asiatic  peoples,  which 
lasted  for  centuries  after  the  descent  of  the  Huns  upon  Europe.  They  were  pre- 
ceded by  a  people  with  whom  they  had  much  in  common,  the  Avais,  a  branch 
of  the  Yen  Yen,  who,  after  the  destruction  of  their  Central  Asiatic  empire,  pushed 
toward  the  west,  and  in  this  movement  carried  Uigurian  tribes  with  them.  They 
invaded  the  modern  Hungary  about  565  and  held  their  position  there  until  their 
overthrow  by  Pepin,  son  of  Charles  the  Great,  in  the  year  796.  In  the  mean- 
while the  Magyars,  who  had  already  reached  the  Volga  in  550,  had  followed 
on  their  tracks  until  they  appeared  in  the  year  886  on  the  Danube  and  founded 
a  new  and  more  lasting  empire  in  the  former  territory  of  the  Avars.  In  contrast 
to  their  distant  kinsmen  the  Bulgarians  south  of  the  Danube,  who  exchanged  their 
language  for  a  Slavonic  dialect,  they  preserved  their  own  peculiar  tongue,  and 
in  doing  so  insured  the  permanence  of  their  nationality. 

(6)  Ugrians.  —  After  the  disappearance  of  the  Huns  and  Alani,  and  after  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Magj-ars,  the  nomad  nation  of  the  Kirghiz,  or  Cossacks,  came 
more  prominently  into  notice  in  Southwest  Siberia.  Tlie  tribes  of  the  northwest, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  included  under  the  generic  name  of  Ugrians,  and  their 
country  is  called  Ugria.  This,  notwithstanding  its  remoteness,  attracted  some 
notice  from  an  early  time,  since  it  became  an  important  district  for  the  fur  trade, 
and  also  communicated  with  Europe  through  the  passes  of  the  l^ral  range.  Ugria 
shared  on  the  whole  the  political  destinies  of  the  districts  lying  immediatelj"  to 
the  south ;  both  the  one  and  the  other  were  usually  attached  to  the  great  nomad 
empires  of  Central  Asia,  first  to  that  of  the  Turks,  then  to  that  of  the  Uigurians. 


Cenfrnl  Asia 
and  Liberia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  20'i 


The  Kirghiz  themselves,  the  chief  nation  in  Southwest  Siberia,  formed  at  a  later 
time  a  powerful  empire  of  their  own.  The  new  wave  of  conquest,  which  surged 
outwards  from  Central  Asia  in  the  Mongol  era,  naturally  poured  over  Western 
Siberia.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  mighty  Mongol  Empire  the  country  formed  part 
of  Kipchak,  which,  in  addition,  included  the  steppes  as  far  as  the  sea  of  Aral  and 
the  Caspian  and  the  lowlands  of  Eastern  Europe.  An  attempt  of  the  Mongol 
general  Nogai,  the  grandson  of  Teval  (p.  179,  note),  to  found  in  the  north  an 
independent  State,  finally  failed  (1291);  but  his  followers,  who  from  their  leader's 
name  are  known  as  the  Nogais,  held  their  own  in  West  Siberia  and  South  llussia. 
After  that,  we  hear  little  of  Ugria  as  a  part  of  the  Mongol  Empire,  not  even  at  the 
time  of  Timur,  who  temporarily  annexed  Kipchak  to  his  ephemeral  world  empire. 
Timur  on  one  occasion  only  (1391)  penetrated  by  a  laborious  march  through  the 
steppes  of  Southwest  Siberia,  as  far  as  the  Irtish  and  Tobol,  but  he  then  turned 
westward  to  the  lower  Volga. 

But  although  Ugria  had  jiolitically  little  importance,  steps  were  taken  at  an 
early  time  to  develop  its  industries.  As  early  as  the  eleventh  century  merchants 
from  Novgorod  readied  the  country  and  opened  up  a  trade  in  furs.  These  com- 
mercial relations  became  more  fre<[uent  as  time  went  on ;  Novgorod  established 
fortified  factories,  and  finally  the  natives  were  regarded  as  subjects  of  the  powerful 
commercial  city,  and  were  required  to  pay  a  fixed  tribute  in  skins.  At  that  period 
the  country  appears  to  have  also  supplied  valuable  metals.  In  the  year  1187  the 
tribes  of  Ugi'ia,  who  were  governed  by  different  princes,  revolted.  In  1193  an 
expedition  from  Novgorod  against  Northwest  Siberia  proved  disastrous,  and  before 
fresh  operations  could  be  undertaken,  the  period  of  the  Mongol  conquests  dawned. 
Novgorod,  however,  contrived  to  come  to  terms  with  the  new  rulers  and  to  resume 
her  trading  expeditions,  so  that  even  then  the  connection  of  West  Kussia  with 
Ugria  was  not  enthely  interrupted. 

(c)  The  Empire  of  Siberia,  —  On  the  fall  of  the  empire  of  Kipchak  the  leaders 
of  Nogaian  hordes  began  to  found  small  principalities  in  Ugria.  When  Timur 
died.  On  was  the  most  powerful  of  these  princes  of  Siberia,  as  tlie  country  was  now 
called  for  the  first  time  ;  but,  besides  his  Tartar  rivals,  he  had  to  reckon  with  the 
men  of  Novgorod  who  had  once  more  acquired  a  footing  in  Ugria.  On,  having  been 
dragged  into  the  succession-wars  of  Kipchak,  was  defeated  and  slain,  whereupon 
his  son  Taibuga  turned  his  attention  toward  the  lower  Tobol,  drove  the  Novgo- 
rodians  thence,  and  founded  a  small  kingdom,  the  capital  of  which  corresponded 
roughly  to  the  modern  Tinmen  (see  map,  p.  20S).  Theie  were  incessant  struggles 
with  the  Ostiaks  and  Vogules,  with  the  Kirghiz  and  with  the  Mongi)l  rulers  of 
Kasan.  It  was  connected  with  these  events  that  Ugi-ia  in  1465  became  tributary  to 
the  Russians,  who  now  appeared  on  tlie  scene  as  a  new  great  power.  The  destruction 
of  Novgorod  by  Ivan  the  TerriVile  transferred  to  Russia  aU  claims  of  that  ancient 
commercial  city  to  the  supremacy.  In  the  year  1499  the  districts  on  the  lower 
Obi  were  incorporated  in  Ivan's  dominions.  The  Tartar  prince  of  Tiumcn  removed 
his  royal  residence  to  the  coimtry  of  the  modern  Tobolsk,  where  he  built  the  forti- 
fied town  of  Isker  or  Sibir.  The  Siberian  princes,  who  in  1557  wisely  agreed  upon 
an  annual  tribute  to  Russia,  remained  there  undisturbed  for  some  considerable  time. 

Besides  the  "  Siberian  "  Empire  other  Tartar  principalities  must  have  existed  in 
Western  Siberia.    These  examples  of  organised  constitutions  were  not  left  unnoticed 


20S  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_Chnpt,'r  ii 

by  the  Ostiaks,  the  most  southerly  of  the  Hyperborean  nations;  probably  attacks 
of  the  Tartars  forced  them  into  closer  combination.  Every  small  Osliak  horde  was 
soon  in  possession  of  a  vosh,  or  little  town,  where  the  chief  developed  his  power 
on  the  model  of  tlie  Tartar  princes.  Every  fortified  spot  tiius  became  the  centre  of 
a  petty  principality  ;  several  of  these  small  States  were,  later,  occasionally  united 
into  one  large  State.  The  strongholds  lay  on  heights  above  the  rivers  and  were 
fortified,  on  the  Tartar  model,  with  ramparts,  ditches,  and  jtalisades.  According  to 
legend,  there  were  some  of  the  smallest  size  which  were  armoured  with  plates  of 
copper.  Numerous  remains  of  these  are  to  be  found  even  to-day  in  Western 
Siberia ;  the  southern  fortresses,  built  by  Tartars,  are  much  superior  to  the  northern, 
whicii  are  to  be  ascribed  to  tiie  Ostiaks.  The  Osliak  ]iriiicipalities  had  only  a  very 
thin  population ;  the  largest  of  them,  Tiaparvosh,  in  the  modern  province  of  To- 
bolsk, hardly  put  three  lumdred  armed  men  into  the  field,  which  implies  twelve 
hundred  inhabitants  at  most,  while  the  smaller  could  only  reckon  some  hundred 
souls  or  less.  In  face  of  this  political  disunion  tlie  merchants  of  Novgorod  might 
well  have  ruled  as  kings  for  a  while.  The  principalities  of  the  Tartars  were  some- 
what more  important ;  Siberia,  the  most  powerful  of  them,  might  have  boasted  a 
population  of  thirty  thousand  or  so. 

In  this  empue  of  Siberia  a  revolution  was  consummated  in  the  second  half  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  reigning  prince  Yedigar  (Yadgar)  was  overthrown  and 
Siberia  was  conquered  in  1563  by  the  Uzbeg  chief  Kozum  (Kuchum)  who  adopted 
an  aggressive  policy  toward  his  neighbours  and  assumed  the  ])roud  title  of  Em- 
peror of  Siberia.  But  at  the  same  time  with  crafty  calculation  he  began  to  enforce 
the  creed  of  Islam  amongst  his  mostly  heathen  subjects,  for  which  end  he  applied 
to  the  prince  Abd- Allah  at  Bokhara  for  tiv.'  necessary  missionaries.  If  this  meas- 
ure had  not  been  adopted  too  precipitately,  and  had  not  the  encroachment  of  a  new 
power  materially  altered  the  state  of  affairs,  the  prestige  of  the  Siberian  Empire 
would  have  been  extraordinarily  enhanced.  In  a  countiy  so  vast  and  so  sparsely 
populated  a  closer  union  could  not  be  looked  for  unless  some  spiritual  bond,  such 
as  Islam  offered,  brought  the  separate  national  groups  nearer  together.  At  the 
same  time  Mohammedan  fanaticism  was  a  splendid  weapon  against  the  Christian 
Russia.'  Since,  however,  the  Mohammedan  propaganda  met  at  first  with  vigorous 
opposition,  especially  among  the  Ostiaks,  it  conduced  rather  to  the  weakness  of  the 
empire,  precisely  at  the  moment  when  the  great  merchants  of  Eastern  Russia,  who 
had  suffered  hea\-ily  by  the  attacks  of  the  Siberians,  sent  the  Cossack  chief  Yarmak 
to  Ugria.  The  accounts  of  this  expedition  (cf.  below,  p.  218)  show  that  a  number 
of  petty  Tartar  principalities  existed  in  Uigria,  more  or  less  dependent,  according  to 
circumstances,  on  the  Siberian  empire.  The  national  strength,  as  well  as  the 
majority  of  the  inhabitants,  lay  along  the  rivers  and  streams ;  and  along  the  rivers 
also  the  Russians  pressed  forward,  as  they  took  possession  of  the  limitless  plains 
of  Siberia.  The  southwestern  steppe,  the  home  of  the  Nogai  and  Kirghiz  nomads, 
preserved  its  independence  far  longer  than  the  Ugrian  north. 

C.  TuE  East  Siuekians 

The  east  of  Siberia  is  principally  mountainous,  and  tlie  tundras  here  lie  farther 
to  the  north  than  is  the  case  in  the  west  (see  the  map  "  Siberia").  The  indu.stries 
which  this  hill  country  may  profitably  support  are  very  various.     In  parts  it  is  so 


?^ 


.Wii-  Jti/A  Dodd.  Miviil 


r>^ 


Central  Asia 
and  Siberia 


?r]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  209 


ricli  iu  forests  and  game  that  tlie  chase,  and  as  a  consequence  of  that  the  fur  trade, 
could  iu  themselves  support  a  really  considerable  population,  wliile  on  the  numer- 
ous rivers  another  branch  of  merely  accpiisitive  industry,  tishin<,',  may  be  prolitably 
pursued.  In  the  more  southern  parts  there  are  numerous  hills  and  plains,  suitable 
for  agriculture,  as  well  as  stretches  of  pasture  land,  well  adapted  for  cattle-breeding. 
The  increase  of  the  population  is  not,  therefore,  restricted  by  any  hard  and  fast 
limitations.  On  the  other  hand  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country  checks 
those  vast  migrations  of  peoples  which  are  so  conspicuous  in  Central  Asia.  Only 
the  southern  border  of  East  Siberia  was  involved  in  them,  or,  to  speak  more  cor- 
rectly, it  was  a  nursery  for  those  nations  which  inundated  Central  Asia  or  Cliina 
from  that  quarter.  The  country  round  Lake  Baikal  was  the  cradle  of  the  Mongo- 
lian and  Turkish  tribes  ;  but  many,  though  in  their  influence  less  important,  nations 
of  conquerors  poured  forth  out  of  Manchuria. 

(flt)  The  Northern  Migration  of  the  Timgusians.  —  From  this  southern  Viorder 
migrations  were  made  toward  tlie  north  also,  which  gradually  changed  the  ethnic 
character  of  the  regions  adjoining  the  North  Pole ;  but  it  was  naturally  a  long 
series  of  slow  movements  which  brought  about  this  result.  It  is  more  than  jirob- 
able  that  in  early  times  there  was  in  East  Siberia  no  break  in  the  chain  of  Hyper- 
borean tribes  which  stretched  from  Northern  Europe  along  the  shore  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  to  America  and  Greenland;  this  view  is  supported  hj  the  connection  be- 
tween the  ancient  civilizations  of  the  Western  Hyperboreans  and  the  small  nations 
on  the  shores  of  the  Bering  Sea  (p.  21-1).  This  chain  was,  however,  snapped  by  the 
northern  migration  of  the  Tungusiau  nation,  which  had  been  formed  in  the  south- 
east highlands  of  East  Siberia  mainly  of  Mongoloids,  but  with  a  strong  infusion  of 
Hyperborean  blood ;  we  must  regard  the  Nu  chi  (p.  212)  and  the  Manchus  (p.  213) 
as  the  people  most  nearly  akin  to  it. 

The  Tungusians  are  remarkable  as  an  instance  of  a  primitive  people  whose  lan- 
guage and  national  customs  are  not  closely  connected  with  their  manner  of  life. 
The  explanation  is  found  in  the  natural  configuration  of  the  country,  which  offers 
several  possible  means  of  livelihood,  and  in  its  position,  lying  as  it  does  close  to 
the  nomad  territories  of  Central  Asia,  the  agricultural  districts  of  China,  and  the 
Arctic  hunting-grounds.  It  follows  that  no  nation  perhaps  has  so  easily  changed 
its  method  of  living  and  adapted  itself  to  different  conditions  of  existence  as  the 
Tungusian.  WTien  at  first  there  was  only  a  superficial  knowledge  of  the  Tungu- 
sians a  distinction  was  made  between  the  different  groups  according  to  their  way 
of  life ;  there  were  thus  Tungusians  of  the  steppe,  or  of  the  forest,  and  Tungusians 
employing  the  reindeer,  the  horse,  or  the  dog.  In  this  sense  one  could  also  si)eak 
of  agricultural  Tungusians  in  the  south.  There  are  accordingly  genuine  hunters, 
nomads  of  the  steppe,  Polar  nomads,  and  settled  agriculturists  among  this  many- 
sided  nation,  the  individual  tribes  of  which  have  even  in  modern  times,  at  great 
crises,  placed  their  mode  of  life  on  a  new  economic  basis ;  for  example,  Tungusians 
who  have  lost  their  herds  of  reindeer  from  pestilence  have  taken  up  dog-breeding, 
and  agriculturists,  who  had  pushed  on  to  more  northern  regions,  have  learnt  to 
become  once  more  simply  himters  and  fishermen.  In  earlier  times,  as  to  some 
extent  even  now,  the  cha.'se  was  the  most  important  industry  of  the  Tungusian.s, 
whose  life  clearly  shows  the  traits  of  a  nation  of  mountaineers  and  hunters.  Ob- 
servers have  unanimously  described  the  true  Tungusians  as  brave  and  yet  good- 

VOL.  II— 14 


210  HISTORY    OP^    THE    WORLD  [chaj^ter ii 

natured,  tmstworthy  and  honourable,  industrious  and  intelligent.  It  is  owing  to 
these  qualities,  coupled  with  their  great  capacity  for  adapting  themselves  to  all 
economic  conditions,  that  the  Tungusiaus  were  able  to  expand  farther  to  the  north 
and  practically  drive  out  the  Hyperboreans.  We  still  tind,  as  relics  of  tlie  old 
Arctic  nations,  Samoyedes  on  the  Taimir  peninsula,  Vukahires  on  the  coast  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Lena,  and  L'hukchis  on  the  great  northeastern 
peninsula  which  terminates  in  the  East  Cape. 

The  Tuugusians  did  not  remain  undisturbed  in  their  new  possessions.  .lust  as 
Manchuria,  that  cradle  of  nations,  had  sent  them  northward,  so  in  the  Mongol 
period  the  Yakuts,  came  to  the  Arctic  regions  from  that  other  cradle  on  Lake  Bai- 
kal, and  made  a  broad  road  for  tliemselves  through  the  Tungusian  territory  down  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Lena.  The  Hyperboreans  seem,  so  we  may  C(->nclude  from  the 
traditions  of  the  Samoyedes,  to  have  given  way  at  an  earlier  time  before  the  Tun- 
gusians  with  more  or  less  of  a  good  grace.  The  warlike  Tungusians,  on  the  other 
hand,  only  allowed  their  country  to  be  taken  from  them  after  desperate  battles,  the 
most  fierce  of  which  is  said  to  have  been  fought  not  far  from  the  confluence  of  the 
I'atoma  and  the  Lena.  The  victorious  Yakuts  introduced  cattle-breeding  into 
the  Arctic  regions  (cf.  above,  p.  204).  In  the  northeast  also,  the  Tungusians  were 
again  driven  back,  this  time  by  the  Chukchis,  whose  strength  and  mobility  may 
have  been  greatly  increased  by  the  introduction  of  reindeer-breeding. 

(b)  The  Southeastern  and  Southern  Branches  of  the  Tungusians.  —  Although 
their  northern  migration  spread  the  Tungusians  over  enormous  tracts,  yet,  since  the 
polar  regions  can  only  support  a  small  pojmlation,  it  was  on  the  whole  the  least 
important  of  the  ramitieatious  of  Tungusian  tribes,  which  spread  from  Manchuria 
in  every  direction,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  the  purel}'  western  one.  Far 
more  important  was  the  advance  of  the  Tungusians  to  Korea  and  Japan,  which, 
like  the  later  wanderings  toward  the  south,  seems  to  have  been  effected  under  the 
indirect,  but  early  felt,  influence  of  Cliinese  civilization.  The  Tungusian  tribe  of 
the  Suchin,  settled  in  Manchuria,  paid  as  early  as  1100  B.C.  a  tribute  of  stone 
arrow-heads  to  China.  The  Chinese  political  system,  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
nomad  empire  of  the  Hiung  nu,  on  the  other,  soon  served  as  models  to  the  Tun- 
gusian peoples,  only  that  the  latter,  in  accordance  with  their  national  character, 
showed  a  tendency  to  republican,  or,  at  any  rate,  federal  forms  of  government. 

(a)  21ie  Wti,  hwan  and  the  Sien  pe. —  The  first  instance  of  this  kind  was  ap- 
parently the  tribal  league  of  the  Wu  hwan  (p.  140)  in  Western  Manchuria,  which 
flourished  shortly  before  200  B.  c,  but  then  succumbed  to  the  superior  power  of  the 
Huns,  and  only  preserved  a  remnant  of  independence  by  jilacing  itself  under  the 
protection  of  China.  In  the  east  of  Manchuria,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Sien  pe 
(Hsien  pi)  organised  themselves ;  some  of  them  advanced  to  Korea  and  thence  to 
Japan,  where  they  exercised  great  influence  on  the  ethnic  characteristics  of  the 
population.  This  "advance"  was  more  probably  a  retreat  before  the  Huns,  who  in 
209  B.  c.  had  broken  up  the  western  Tungusians  and  were  now  pressing  hard  on 
the  eastern  section.  It  is  open  to  question  whether  the  migration  was  really  led 
by  Chinese,  as  the  historians  of  the  middle  kingdom  tell  us ;  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  Tungusians  brought  with  them  to  Korea  and  Japan  a  ci\'ilization 
which  was  deeply  tinged  with  that  of  China:  the  germs  of  the  Japanese  State 
(p.  8)  point  to  a  Chinese  model. 


Cmtrnl  Asia 
and  Siberia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  211 


The  main  bod}-  of  the  Sien  pe  remained  behind  in  Manchuria,  where  it  grad- 
ually acquired  strength,  while  the  Wu  hwan  in  the  year  77  b.  c.  were  again  de- 
feated by  the  Huns  and  then  completely  humiliated  by  the  Chinese.  When  the 
northern  empire  of  the  Huns  broke  up  in  84  A.  D.  (p.  142),  the  Sien  pe  seized  the 
greater  part  of  Mongolia  and,  varied  though  their  fortunes  were,  long  remained 
the  first  power  in  eastern  Central  Asia.  Their  empire  attained  its  greatest  size 
about  the  middle  of  tlie  second  century,  when  Tunshih  huai  extended  its  frontiers 
beyond  the  Tianshan  and  the  Altai  (p.  156)  ;  according  to  Hun  fashion  it  was  di- 
vided into  a  central  province  with  an  eastern  and  a  western  wing.  The  wide  diffu- 
sion of  the  Sien  pe  over  the  steppe  country  of  Central  Asia  proves  that  they  were 
predominantly  nomadic  in  their  way  of  life.  The  uncultured  Tungusian  inhabi- 
tants of  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  mere  triUes  of  fishermen,  took  no  part  in  political 
organisation,  while  the  southern  and  settled  Tungusians  in  Liautung,  which  iiad 
even  then  a  strong  admixture  of  Chinese  blood,  had  founded  a  State  on  the 
Chinese  model,  which  was  now  required  to  recognise  the  suzerainty  of  the  Sien  pe. 

The  empire  of  tlie  Sien  pe  lost  ground  at  times  after  the  death  of  Tunshih  huai 
But  the  nation  still  held  the  inheritance  of  the  Hun  power  for  centuries,  monopo- 
lised the  western  trade,  and  attempted  to  gain  influence  over  China.  There  soon 
arose  in  the  middle  kingdom,  which  was  torn  by  civil  wars.  States  with  Tungusian 
dynasties,  whose  founders  had  forced  their  way  into  China  as  chiefs  of  separate 
tribes  of  the  Sien  pe,  or  as  leaders  of  mercenaries.  In  Liautung  the  Yumen  in  the 
year  317  A.  D.  founded  an  empire,  which  embraced  later  a  large  part  of  North  China 
and  Korea ;  other  powerful  tribes  were  the  Twan,  the  Mu  sung,  and  especially  the 
To  ba.  The  greater  part  of  China  stood  for  centuries  under  the  sceptre  of  Timgu- 
sian  princes.  These,  however,  quickly  became  Chinese  in  sympathies,  and  were 
absolutely  no  support  to  the  empire  of  the  Sien  pe ;  indeed  they  knew  how  to  pro- 
tect their  new  homes  against  the  attacks  of  their  kinsmen  better  than  the  Chinese 
themselves.  Notwithstanding  a  temporary'  rally  in  the  fourth  century,  the  power 
of  the  Sien  pe  sank ;  their  western  possessions  fell  to  the  Yen  Yen  and  later  to 
the  Uigurians  and  the  Turks,  so  that  nothing  was  left  them  but  Mancliuria  and 
the  eastern  border  of  the  Central  Asiatic  steppe.  They  then  constituted  only  a 
loosely  compacted  body  of  separate  tribes,  which  was  sometimes  welded  more 
firmly  together  by  an  energetic  leader.  Isolated  groups  had  pushed  southward  as 
far  as  Kuku  Nor,  where  a  not  imimportant  State  of  the  Sien  pe  arose  in  the  fourth 
centurj'.  "VMien  great  powers,  such  as  the  empire  of  the  Turks  (p.  159),  were 
formed  in  Central  Asia,  the  various  Tungusian  tribes  fell  under  their  sway ;  if 
China  gained  in  strength,  she  extended  her  influence  over  them.  The  tribe  of  the 
Sien  pe  gradually  entirely  disappeared  and  others  assumed  the  headship.  In  the 
seventh  centurj'  the  empire  of  Pu  hai  (Bo  khai)  was  formed  in  Manchuria,  which 
soon  attained  a  great  prosperity. 

(/3)  TJie  Klii  tan,  Nu  chl,  find  Manchus.  —  The  Tungusian  peoples  of  Manchuria 
became  once  more  important  for  the  outside  world  at  the  beginning  of  the  tenth 
century,  when  the  tribe  of  the  Khi  tan  (Kidani,  Kathai ;  see  map,  p.  174,  and 
cf.  p.  57)  extended  its  power.  The  Khi  tan  were  a  people  deeply  tinged  with 
Chinese  culture  and  also  mixed  with  Chinese  blood,  such  as  might  be  expected  to 
arise  on  the  borders  of  Liautung ;  in  their  national  character  the  rude  vigour  of  the 
savage  was  harmoniously  blended  with  the  usages  of  a  higher  stage  of  civilization. 


212  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [Chapter n 

Under  the  leadership  of  Yilu  A  pao  chi,  who  deliberately  encouraged  this  mixture 
of  races  by  transporting  Chinese  prisoners  to  Manchuria,  they  hurled  themselves 
in  907  against  Ta  lung  fu  in  Slianshi,  wliere  the  overthrow  of  the  Tang  dynasty 
had  lately  led  to  civil  war.  In  ibe  year  947  the  power  of  the  Klii  lan,  who  in  924 
had  subjugated  the  empire  of  Pu  hai  and  later  also  a  great  part  of  Mongolia,  and 
whose  leader  (d.  926)  styled  himself  after  916  Tai  Tsu,  "emperor,"  reached  the 
zenitli  of  its  power,  only  to  sink  rapidly.  Nevertlieless  their  emjiire,  which  iii  937 
had  assumed  the  official  title  (Ta)  Liau  =  (great)  Liau  dynasty,  held  its  own  until 
1125,  when  another  Tungusian  race,  the  Kin  or  Nu  clii,  won  the  sujjremacy  iu 
North  Cliina.  These  in  turn  succumbed  before  the  Mongols  in  the  year  1234  and 
even  Manchuria  became  tributary  to  the  new  ruling  people.  When  the  Mongol 
dynasty  was  forced  to  retire  from  China  (1368),  the  southern  cultivated  districts 
remained  more  or  less  dependent  on  China,  while  the  northern  tribes,  so  far  as 
they  were  not  harassed  by  the  advance  of  the  Yakuts,  were  of  little  importance  in 
their  disunited  condition.  The  Chinese  long  succeeded  in  hindering  the  recon- 
struction of  a  Tungusian  State,  which,  as  experience  taught  them,  would  have  soon 
encroached  on  the  south  by  carefully  fomenting  all  petty  jealousies.  Manchuria 
was  then  divided  into  four  Aimaks,  which  were  almost  incessantly  at  war  one 
with  the  other.  It  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  that 
the  combined  strength  of  the  country  found  a  vent  for  itself  in  one  irresistible 
outbreak.  In  the  year  1608  an  insurrection,  produced  by  the  extortions  of  the 
excise,  ought  to  have  warned  the  Chinese  to  act  carefully,  but,  before  that,  a  small 
spark  had  caused  a  fire,  which,  neglected  for  a  time,  continued  to  smoulder  until  it 
finally  overwhelmed  the  whole  of  China. 

A  petty  prince  of  tlie  Manchu  race  had  been  defeated  and  killed  by  his  oppo- 
nents with  the  help  of  the  Chinese.  An  avenger  of  his  death  arose  in  his  son 
Nurchazi  (Tai  Tsu,  Kao  huang  ti,  or  Aisin  Gioro ;  p.  101),  who  took  the  field  in  the 
year  1583  with  thirteen  mail-clad  horsemen  and,  after  long  years  of  fighting, 
'jnited  the  Manchus  imder  his  rule  (1616).  The  Chinese  then  for  the  first  time 
began  to  notice  the  danger,  but  could  not  decide  upon  any  thorough-going  meas- 
ures. Threats  from  the  Chinese  gave  Nurcliazi  the  welcome  pretext  for  invading 
in  1623  the  Chinese  frontier-province  of  Liautung  and  thus  initiating  a  series  of 
battles,  which  sapped  the  strength  of  China  and  shattered  the  power  of  the  Ming 
dynasty.  In  the  year  1625  the  Manchu  sovereign  removed  his  court  from  Hsing 
ching  to  Mukden.  Nurchazi's  successor,  Tai  Tsung  Wen  Huang  ti  (1627-1643), 
assumed  the  imperial  title  in  1636 ;  yet,  properly  speaking,  it  was  not  by  the 
Manchus  that  the  Ming  dynasty  was  overthrown,  but  by  Chinese  bands  against 
whom  the  help  of  the  Mancluis  was  invoked  as  the  last  desperate  resource 
(p.  102).  When  once  the  Manchus  had  seized  Peking  in  1644,  they  never  left 
the  country  again ;  they  became  masters  of  South  China  also  after  forty  years  of 
fighting. 

The  new  dynasty  of  the  Manchus,  with  Peking  for  their  capital,  kept  po.s- 
session  of  their  old  home  up  to  the  Amur.  In  the  meantime,  the  Eussian  power 
had  begun  to  spread  farther  in  the  north,  and  the  Chinese  government  was  now 
forced  to  reckon  with  this  factor.  The  destinies  of  the  northeastern  Siberians 
were  now  soon  decided  by  the  influence  of  the  Kussians  (of.  p.  221). 


f„T5l^°]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  213 


D.   The  Nations  ox  the  Coast  and  on  the  Islands  of  the  Northwestern 

Pacific  Ocean 

The  Hyperboreans,  who,  with  their  scattered  and  poverty-stricken  settlements 
fringe  the  northern  limit  of  the  inhabited  earth,  are  a  true  border  nation,  in  com- 
munication with  the  rest  of  mankind  on  one  side  only.  The  races  on  the  north- 
east boundary  of  Asia  deserve  this  title  less,  because  there  a  sea  studded  with 
islands  and  accessible  to  navigation  washes  the  coasts,  and  the  mainland  of 
America  approaches  closely  to  the  East  Cape.  Like  all  border-districts,  this  part 
of  Asia  shelters  fragments  of  nations,  scattered  or  repulsed  remnants  of  earlier  and 
lower  civilizations,  whose  representatives  have  taken  refuge  from  the  great  floods 
of  the  continental  peoples  in  the  peninsulas  and  islands  or  have  offered  a  last  and 
successful  resistance  on  the  narrow  strips  of  coast. 

Two  circumstances  favoured  this  resistance.  Any  one  who  studies  the  map  on 
p.  208  will  notice  on  the  northeast  the  Stanovoi  chain,  which  borders  the  greatest 
part  of  the  coast  and  cuts  it  off  from  the  hinterland ;  the  narrow  space  between 
these  mountains  and  the  sea  offered  the  conquering  nations  no  room  for  expansion. 
Regions  such  as  the  peninsula  of  Kamchatka,  which  is  only  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  narrow  pass  far  to  the  north,  or  the  islands  of  Saghalien  and  Yezo, 
were  naturally  still  more  secure  from  their  attack.  But  even  if  the  nomads  of 
Central  Asia,  or  even  the  hunter  nations  of  Manchuria  had  attempted  to  hold  the 
coast,  they  would  have  been  forced  to  betake  themselves  to  an  unaccustomed  in- 
dustry, that  of  fishing.  Some  few  Tungusian  tribes,  which  reached  the  coast  at  an 
early  date,  have  indeed  conformed  to  the  customs  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  and 
have  become  typical  fishermen  with  a  surprisingly  low  civilization.  Such  a  tran- 
sition was  hardly  possible  for  the  pastoral  nations  of  the  steppe,  who,  on  the 
rare  occasions  when  they  entered  the  coast  country,  did  so  as  conquerors,  not  as 
fugitives. 

(a)  The  Common  Features  of  the  History  of  Northern  Asia.  —  Defective 
culture  and  complete  political  disintegration  characterise  the  nations  of  the  North 
Asiatic  coast  and  the  adjacent  islands.  It  will  probably  never  be  possible  to  write 
a  connected  "  history  "  of  these  races ;  some  general  features  may  be  noticed ;  for 
the  rest,  we  can  do  no  more  than  attempt  to  adduce  some  historical  facts  as  to  the 
various  countries  and  races.  The  chief  countries  to  be  distinguished  are  the 
Chukchi  peninsula  in  the  north,  Kamchatka,  the  islands  of  Saghalien  and  Yezo, 
the  coasts  of  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  and  lastly  the  valley  of  the  lower  Amur,  the 
only  part  where  the  coast  seems  more  closely  coimected  with  the  hinterland  and 
where  it  is  possible  for  a  nation  of  fishermen  to  live  farther  in  the  interior.  The 
peoples  of  North  Asia  here  came  most  frequently  in  contact  with  more  advanced 
civilizations.  The  broad  outlines  of  the  history  of  the  northeast  Asiatic  races  are 
somewhat  as  follows.  In  the  period  immediately  succeeding  the  Ice  Age  a 
dolichocephalic  population  of  Arctic  hunters  and  fishermen  spread  over  a  part  of 
the  northeastern  mainland  and  had  already  crossed  the  Bering  Straits,  as  certain 
resemblances  to  the  civilizations  of  Arctic  and  Northwest  America  seem  to  show. 
The  advance  of  nations  like  the  Mongols  toward  the  north  forced  a  part  of  the 
inhabitants  to  retreat  to  the  peninsulas  and  islands,  where  they  long  remained 


214  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chaj'ter  n 

unmolested.  Tungusian  tribes,  later,  on  their  northern  migrations,  caused  new 
displacements  and  partially  broke  through  the  chain  of  coast  nations,  while  other 
Tun^usians,  by  crossing  over  to  Japan,  lu'l[ted  to  drive  hack  the  old  north  Asiatics 
even  on  the  islands.  The  Chinese  for  their  part  several  times  extended  their  rule 
as  far  as  the  Amur,  and  influenced  the  tribes  whom  they  found  there  by  inter- 
marriage and  introiluction  of  civilization. 

(h)  The  Separate  History  of  the  Palceo-Asiatics.  —  The  Chukchis  are  the  most 
northeasterly  branch  of  the  PaliBo-Asiatic  nations,  as  Leopold  von  Schrenck  pro- 
poses to  call  the  whole  group.  Not  so  very  many  years  have  elapsed  since  a  part 
of  the  nation  passed  from  the  primitive  condition  of  mere  hunters  to  reimleer- 
breeding;  according  to  Stephan  Krascheniunikov  ('•  Kamchatka,"  1754),  the  use  of 
reindeer  milk  was  not  yet  known  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Similarly  the  Koriaks,  who  lived  farther  to  the  south,  were  divided  into  settled 
fishermen  and  nomad  reindeer  owners.  Tlie  nomads  despised  the  ti.^hermeu,  and, 
as  a  matter  of  fact  gained  in  strength  antl  warlike  spirit  by  the  change  in  their 
mode  of  life.  In  recent  times  the  Tungusians  have  been  actually  driven  back 
again  by  the  Chukchis.  The  knowledge  of  reindeer-breeding  did  not  cross  the 
Bering  Straits  to  America.  But  the  presence  of  true  Eskimos,  the  NamoUo,  or 
Yu-Ite,  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bering  Sea  shows  that  nevertheless  international 
relations  were  established  there. 

The  inhabitants  of  Kamchatka,  the  Kamchadales,  or  Itelmes  are  physically,  if 
not  linguistically,  akin  to  the  Chukchis.  The  multiplicity  of  languages  amcmg  the 
Palteo-Asiatics,  and  the  physical  differences  between  them  (for  example,  between 
the  Chukchis  and  the  Ainos),  shows  that  this  group  of  nations,  formerly  scattered 
over  a  wide  region,  is  extremely  heterogeneous. 

The  Kamchadales  considered  themselves  the  original  inhabitants;  they  cer- 
tainly must  have  reached  their  peninsula  as  fugitives  at  a  comparatively  early  date. 
That  their  immigration  dates  back  to  a  remote  period  is  proved  by  the  extraor- 
dinary way  in  which  the  nation  has  adapted  itself  to  the  nature  of  its  new  home. 
The  Kamchadales  were  politically  disunited ;  but,  at  the  time  when  first,  owing  to 
the  Eussians,  more  accurate  knowledge  of  them  was  forthcoming,  the  lesson  of 
tribal  consolidation  had  been  learnt  to  some  extent.  The  need  of  it  was  impressed 
on  them  not  only  by  domestic  wars  but  also  by  attacks  from  abroad.  The  Koriaks, 
probably  the  more  mobile  reindeer  nomads,  invaded  Kamchatka  from  the  north, 
and  the  seafaring  inliabitants  of  the  Kuriles  plundered  the  southern  districts  and 
carried  away  numerous  Kamchadales  into  slavery.  Some  sort  of  intercourse  with 
the  civilized  countries  of  the  South  must" have  existed  then ;  the  Eussians  found 
Japanese  writings  and  coins  among  the  Kamchadales,  and  even  captive  Japanese 
sailors,  who  had  been  shipwrecked  on  the  coast.  The  beginnings  of  a  State  under 
an  able  chief  led  to  the  rise  of  two  federations  on  the  peninsula,  which  were  able 
to  assert  their  independence,  until  later  the  encroachment  of  the  Eussians  put  an 
end  to  this  slow  process  of  internal  evolution.  The  Ainos  (Ainus,  cf.  Vol.  1, 
p.  574)  hold  a  peculiar  position  among  tlie  Paheo-Asiatics  in  iiliysi(iue,  language, 
and  culture.  A  type  of  the  old  northern  race  has  been  developed  in  them,  whid;, 
in  externals,  particularlj'  in  the  luxuriant  growth  of  hair  and  beard,  strikingly 
recalls  the  northern  Europeans,  while  other  cliaracteristics,  such  as  the  colour  of 
the  skin,  the  salient  cheek-bones,  etc.,  resemble  those  of  the  Mongolian  race.     This 


f^Sl^,?]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  215 

people  also,  as  their  isolated  language  proves,  must  have  been  long  settled  in  their 
home,  the  northern  islands  of  Japan  and  Saghalien.  When  a  State  began  to  be 
organised  in  the  south  of  Japan  by  the  combmeil  action  of  Malays  and  Tungu- 
sians,  a  struggle  at  once  broke  out  with  the  aborigines,  the  "field-spiders,"  by 
which  we  must  understand  a  race  of  pigmies  dwelling  in  caves,  and  the  Ainos. 
The  former,  the  "  Koko  pok  guru,"  were  exterminated,  and  the  Ainos  ousted 
or  absorbed.  An  examination  of  place  names  shows  that  the  Ainos  once  were 
settled  in  the  South  as  far  as  Kyushu ;  in  historical  times,  tliey  were  still  to  be 
found  in  large  numbers  in  Northern  Hondo  (Honshiu).  They  are  at  present 
limited  to  Yezo,  Saghalien,  and  some  of  the  Kuriles.  The  withdrawal  of  the 
Ainos  was  not  consummated  without  the  Palreo-Asiatic  civilization  having  left  dis- 
tinct traces  on  the  customs,  religion,  and  art  of  the  .Japanese.  Many  perplexing 
phenomena  of  Jajianese  civilization  can  only  be  explained  by  the  discovery  of  their 
prototypes  am(3ng  the  Ainos. 

At  the  present  day,  the  Ainos  give  the  impression  of  a  people  who  are  decadent 
in  every  respect.  Many  of  the  arts  of  civilization,  which  they  formerly  possessed 
(the  knowledge  of  making  earthenware  ?  cf.  page  2),  appear  to  have  been  lost, 
partly,  no  doubt,  under  the  overpowering  influence  of  Japanese  culture.  The  fact 
also  that  the  Ainos  now  exhibit  a  predominantly  gentle  and  friendly  nature,  instead 
of  their  old  strength  and  savagery,  seems  a  sign  of  exhaustion  in  the  struggle  for 
existence  rather  than  proof  of  advancing  ci\nlization.  Their  political  retrogression 
is  undeniable.  So  long  as  the  nation  was  still  at  war  with  the  Japanese,  a  certain 
degree  of  combination  clearly  existed.  The  Ainos  on  Yezo  even  now  relate  that  in 
former  times  a  mighty  chief  lived  in  Piratori,  who  exacted  tribute  from  the  whole 
island.  Every  Wllage  now  has  its  petty  chief,  uuder  whose  government  it  leads  an 
independent  existence. 

Many  changes  seem  to  have  occurred  on  Saghalien.  Even  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Russians,  the  Giliaks,  a  race  closely  akin  in  its  civilization  to  the  Ainos, 
had  migrated  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  possibly  in  consequence  of  wars 
with  the  Ainos,  whose  territory  was  more  and  more  curtailed  by  the  advance  of  the 
Japanese  from  the  south.  The  short-headed  race  of  the  Giliaks,  with  its  strong 
Tungusian  admixture,  was  probably  led  by  these  events  to  return  to  its  earlier 
home.  Tungusian  reindeer  nomads,  the  Orokes  (Oroko,  Olta)  crossed  over  later  to 
Northern  Saghalien,  apparently  with  peaceful  intentions.  Like  the  Giliaks,  in 
whom  an  infusion  of  Paheo-Asiatic  blood  was  unmistakable,  the  peoples  on  the 
lower  Amur  and  the  neighbouring  coast  may  be  mixed  races,  but  the  Tungusian 
element  is  predominant  in  them.  Under  this  head  come  the  Lamuts  on  the  shore 
of  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  the  Goldes  on  the  Amur,  and  many  smaller  tribes.  The 
Tungusians  themselves  are  a  mixture  of  Mongolian  tribes  and  the  dolichocephalic 
permanently  settled  population. 

Trifling  as  may  be  the  historical  results  obtained  by  a  survey  of  the  regions  of 
Northeast  A'iia,  yet  it  is  interesting  to  see  how,  before  the  destructive  encroach- 
ment of  a  European  power  began,  the  slowly  surging  waves  of  civilization  had 
spread  to  the  remotest  border-countries.  In  the  interior  we  see  how  with  the 
advance  of  the  Yakuts  the  last  wave,  which  finally  brought  to  the  north  the 
cattle-breeding  industry  known  since  the  earliest  times  in  the  more  southern  coun- 
tries, filled  the  district  watered  by  the  Lena.     An  earlier  wave,  which  brought 


210  HISTORY    OV    TIIK    WORLD  [('/,.,j.t,r  Ji 

with  it  the  reindeer  noiuailisin,  lias  i-eached  iu  jihices  the  coasts  of  the  Bering 
Sea,  ami  begins  gradual!)-  to  advance  to  Northern  Kamchatka  and,  through  the 
migration  of  the  Oroks,  to  the  island  of  Saghalien.  But  outside,  on  the  more 
remote  peninsulas  and  islands,  there  still  live  the  mere  iisliernien  and  hunters, 
who  are  acquainted  with  no  domesticated  animal  but  the  dog,  and  eke  out  their 
existence,  as  their  ancestors  have  done  for  thousands  of  yeara  past,  by  a  system 
of  mere  acquisition. 

E.  The  Eussians  in  Siberia  and  Central  Asia 

The  appearance  of  Russia  in  Siberia  and  on  the  frontiers  of  Central  Asia  marks 
a  new  and  important  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  Old  World.  The  struggle  of 
the  unruly  nomad  nations  with  the  civilized  countries  which  surround  the  steppe 
districts  of  Asia  had  lasted  more  than  two  thousand  years.  Western  Asia  had 
succumbed  muler  the  repeated  shocks,  or  had  become  a  nomad  country;  India  had 
frequently  sunk  defenceless  before  the  attacks  of  the  sons  of  the  steppes;  Eastern 
Europe  had  met  with  the  same  fate  and  lay,  since  the  time  of  Genghis  Khan, 
under  the  yoke  of  barbarism;  only  China,  that  ancient  country,  although  con- 
tinually overrun  and  apparently  crushed,  had  with  indomitable  pertinacity  won 
back  yard  by  yard  the  soil  from  the  powers  of  destruction,  and  pushed  the  limits 
of  her  influence  up  to  the  western  extremity  of  Central  Asia.  Now  a  second  civil- 
ized power  from  the  west  came  on  the  scene,  and  if  it  used  its  weapons  iu  order 
permanently  to  possess  the  lands  up  to  the  frontiers  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  the 
evil  spirit  of  destruction  at  any  rate  was  fettered  until  it  was,  to  all  appearance, 
stifled  beneath  the  grip  of  civilization.  The  Chinese  had  indeed  already  slio\\'n 
by  their  support  of  Buddhism  and  by  their  agricultural  colonies  how  even  the 
barbarism  of  Central  Asia  could  be  tamed. 

That  from  Europe  a  crusliing  counter-blow  would  be  eventually  struck  at  the 
source  of  such  unspeakable  calamities,  and  would  bring  a  part  of  Inner  Asia  into 
the  power  of  the  western  civilized  nations,  was  in  itself  to  be  anticipated,  since 
the  liighest  existing  power  of  civilization  and  culture  had  been  developed  there. 
To  this  power,  for  which  soon  the  earth  itself  seemed  too  small,  the  wUd  warlike 
spirit  of  the  nomads  of  the  steppe  was  doomed  to  yield  so  soon  as  the  path  which 
led  to  the  desired  goal  was  trodden.  It  is  far  more  astonishing  that  this  counter- 
blow was  struck  so  late ;  the  reasons  for  this,  however,  are  to  be  found  to  some 
extent  in  geographical  conditions. 

If  the  European  civilization  wished  to  advance  towards  Central  Asia,  only  the 
east  of  Europe  could  serve  as  a  basis.  Now  the  east  of  Europe  is  nothing  more 
than  an  ofTshoot  of  the  great  plains  of  Northwest  Asia,  and  is  a  piece  of  Asia  that 
required  to  be  conquered  and  colonised  before  any  further  action  could  be  contem- 
plated. The  south  of  liussia  had  always  been  the  favourite  battle-ground  of  the 
nomads.  It  was  there  the  swarms  of  Scythian  horsemen  had  forced  the  Persian 
army  of  Darius  to  retreat;  there  the  Alaui  had  been  overwhelmed  by  the  storm  of 
victorious  Huns;  there  the  hordes  of  Bulgarians,  Khazars,  Avars,  and  Hungarians 
had  rested  at  various  periods,  and  there,  finally,  I^Iongol  hordes  had  ruled  as  lords 
for  centuries.  But  farther  to  the  north,  where  the  forests  prevented  the  nomads 
of  the  steppe  from  any  long  sojourn,  lived  Finnish  and  Hyperborean  tribes  of 
hunters,  who  resembled  those   of   Siberia  in  poverty  and  defective  civilization. 


aTstitt^  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  217 

Against  all  these  forces  so  adverse  to  ci\Tlization,  Europe  could  never  once  place 
her  most  capable  and  advanced  nations  in  the  field.  The  Russians,  who  as  the 
eastern  vanguard  of  the  Aryan  race  had  to  bear  .the  brunt  of  the  attack,  were 
hardly  less  barbarous  than  the  wildest  Central  Asiatics,  but,  as  a  nation  of 
peaceful  agriculturists,  were  no  match  for  them  in  warlike  ability.  This  is  the 
only  explanation  why  the  Russians  soon  fell  before  the  attack  of  the  Mongols,  and 
then  for  centuries  bore  the  yoke  of  the  nomads  in  shameful  dependence,  and 
indeed  after  the  liberation  still  trembled  before  the  Tartar  Empires  in  the  Ci-imea 
and  on  the  Volga.  Tlie  long  servitude,  to  which  the  bloodthirsty  tyranny  of  Ivan 
the  Terrible  was  a  seiiuel,  naturally  did  not  help  to  raise  the  character  of  the 
people ;  one  would  hardly  have  foretold  a  brilliant  future  for  the  Russian  even  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  It  was  therefore  one  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  Western 
civilized  world  to  introduce  European  civilization  among  the  Russians  themselves. 
Attempts  were  made  to  reach  this  goal  by  means  of  western  Eurojiean  immigrants, 
who  first  worked  upon  the  princes,  and  through  them  oii  the  people,  until  Peter  the 
Great  openly  broke  with  Asiatic  barbarism,  and  applied  all  the  resources  of 
European  civilization  to  the  protection  and  extension  of  his  realm  (cf.  Vol.  V). 
It  was  only  after  that  date  that  Russia  was  really  qualified  to  undertake,  and  to 
bring  to  a  \-ictorious  close,  the  war  against  the  destructive  forces  of  the  nomad 
world. 

(a)  TJie  Cossacls  doivn  to  the  Year  1600.  —  Even  if  the  Russian  had  retained, 
from  a  period  when  he  was  more  Asiatic  than  European,  qualities  whieli  made 
him  seem  akin  to  the  nations  of  the  steppes,  that  was  perhaps  no  hindrance  to  his 
new  task.  He  who  woidd  track  the  nomad  to  his  last  lurking-place  needs  some- 
thing of  the  nomad  in  him.  A  ruler  of  Asiatics  would  understand  his  subjects 
better  if  he  felt  a  trace  of  the  Asiatic  spirit  in  his  own.chaiacler  and  impulse;;. 
In  addition  to  this  the  Russian  nation,  sorely  against  the  will  of  its  rulers,  had  to 
some  extent  forged  for  itself  an  instrument  which  was  admirably  adapted  for  the 
conquest  of  the  stepjje  and  could  soon  be  used  with  the  greatest  success  against 
nomadism:  namely,  the  Cossacks.  In  the  insecure  border  lauds  between  Russian 
territory  and  the  Tartar  steppe,  a  new  nationality  had  been  gradually  formed. 
All  who  had  made  Russia  too  hot  to  hold  them,  criminals  as  well  as  the  persecuted 
innocent,  fugitive  serfs,  sectaries,  fiauduleut  taxjjayers,  thieves,  and  vagabonds, 
sought  an  asylum  in  those  lawless  regions,  where  they  organised  themselves  and 
daUy  fought  for  freedom  and  life  with  the  Russians  and  Tartars.  Every  revolution 
in  Russia  brought  fresh  masses  of  discontented  f)eople  to  the  Cossack  settlements, 
and  doubtless  fugitives  from  the  Tailar  countries  swelled  their  numbers.  Thus  semi- 
nomad  nations  of  horsemen  were  formed,  at  first  the  Ukraine  Cossacks,  from  Little 
Russia  chiefly,  on  the  Dnieper,  and  the  Don  Cossacks  of  Great  Russia  on  the  lower 
Don.  It  was  by  slow  steps  only  that  they  were  incorporated  in  the  Russian 
Empire.  The  fact  was  then  recognised  that  these  border  folk  and  robbers  were 
men  admirably  adapted  for  use  in  the  struggle  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  Asiatic 
steppes.  A  laige  number  of  Cossacks,  organised  on  a  military  system,  were 
gradually  deported  and  planted  under  various  names  in  Siberia,  as  far  as  the  Amur, 
and  in  Turkestan. 

The  merchants  of  the  republic  of  Novgorod  had  first  discovered  the  way  to 
Siberia,  and  had  even  founded  a  sort  of  sovereignty  among  the  tribes  of  that  region 


21S  HISTORY'    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapter ii 

(p.  206).  Such  a  policy,  which  was  not  entirely  checked  even  by  the  disorders 
of  the  Jlongol  age  and  was  soon  resumed  by  tlic  Itussian  sovereigns  after  the  over- 
throw of  Novgorod  (1477-1479;  cf.  \'ol.  MI,  p.  45),  was  possible  because  in  the 
north  it  was  not  necessary  to  traverse  the  homes  of  the  nomad  inliabitants  of  the 
sti'ppes,  but  merely  the  hunting-grounds  of  small  Finnish  and  Arctic  tribes. 
The  northern  road  of  the  fur  trade  was  little  afTected  by  the  revolutions  in  the 
south;  indeed  it  was  not  even  under  the  control  oi  the  Iliissians,  whose  power  was 
centred  round  Moscow  and  did  not  extend  far  to  the  nonii.  Even  after  the  fall  of 
Novgorod  (1570)  the  merchants  in  the  northeast  of  Russia  led  an  almost  indepen- 
dent existence,  and  it  was  only  through  them  that  the  Itussian  princes  exercised  a 
certain  dominion  over  some  of  the  northwi'sii'iii  tracts  of  Siberia.  Almost  by 
chance  these  conditions  led  to  a  campaign  against  the  still  independent  Siberian 
princes,  which  was  destined  to  alter  the  situation  comjdetely. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Russian  family  of  Strogani>fl' 
in  the  district  of  Perm  had  got  the  trade  with  Siberia  in  their  hands,  but  saw  their 
profits  and  their  influence  menaced  from  two  sides.  The  Great  Khan  of  Siberia 
was  beginning  to  form  schemes  of  compiest  and  had  sent  his  Tartar  armies  on 
expeditions  over  the  Ural  rigiit  into  the  country  of  Peiin,  while  from  the  southwest 
the  Volga  Cossacks,  kinsmen  of  the  Don  hordes,  were  harassing  and  plundering  the 
trailing  haunts  of  the  great  merchants.  According  to  the  time-honoured  com- 
mercial policy  of  Russia,  tlie  StroganoPFs  tried  to  pit  the  two  invaders  one  against 
the  other,  and  with  this  oliject  applied  to  the  Cossacks,  wliose  raids  in  the  north 
were  only  made  because  this  people,  disturbed  in  tlieir  old  settlements  by  the 
Russians,  wei'e  seeking  new  homes.  It  was  not  difficult  to  jiersuade  an  army  of 
seven  thousand  Cossacks  under  the  command  of  Yarmak  Timofeyev  (itch)  to  make 
an  attack  on  Siberia  in  the  pay  of  the  Stroganofls.  Yarmak  started  in  1579,  but 
lost  the  gi-eater  part  of  his  armj-  in  the  very  first  winter,  which  he  had  to  spend  on 
the  west  of  the  Ural.  He  jiushed  on  with  the  survivor.«,  and  vdi\\  his  fast  dwin- 
dling army  eventually  readied  in  15S1  the  Tobol,  on  whose  banks  he  more  than 
once  defeated  the  forces  of  the  Siberian  Khan  Kozum.  On  October  23,  1582, 
Isker,  the  capital  of  the  Khan,  was  taken  ;  but  after  that  there  was  no  prospect  of 
any  further  action  by  the  weak  handful  of  men,  against  whom  the  petty  Tartar 
princes  soon  advanced  from  every  side,  since  no  lielp  could  be  expected  either  from 
the  Stroganoffs  or  from  the  Cossack  bands  which  had  remained  behind. 

In  this  dilemma  Yarmak  applied  to  the  Russian  Tsar  Ivan  IV,  the  Terrible, 
who  already  claimed  the  sovereignty  over  the  countries  on  the  Obi.  The  first 
tidings  of  the  expedition  against  the  Klia;iate  of  Siberia  had  not  been  favourably 
received  at  Moscow,  suice  men  were  tired  of  wars  against  the  Crim  Tartars,  and 
did  not  wish  to  bring  Russia  into  conflict  with  the  Siberian  Tartar  Empire,  the 
power  of  wliicli  they  clearly  overestimated.  The  victory  of  the  Cossacks  was  now 
welcomed  with  the  greater  enthusiasm.  The  supjwrt,  which  i'armak  received,  was 
at  first  indeed  insignificant ;  Isker  was  lost  again,  and  when  Yarmak  fell  in  1 584, 
Xjractically  nothing  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Russians  hut  the  territory  which 
had  long  been  claimed  by  them,  even  if  never  really  subject  to  their  rule.  But  the 
way  had  been  paved,  the  dread  of  the  Tartars  had  been  overcome,  and  the  effective- 
ness of  the  Cossacks  for  such  undertakings  had  been  clearly  shown.  The  welcome 
possibility  of  giving  these  miruly  auxiliaries  a  new  sjjhere  for  their  energies  was 
an  inr-entive  to  further  o])erations.     Isker  was  reoccupied  in  the  year  1588,  while 


^Tst^l  HISTORY   OF    THE    WORLD  219 

Tobolsk  (Bitsik-Tura)  had  already  been  founded  as  a  centre  of  the  Russian  power. 
In  1598  Kozum  Khan,  who  had  held  his  own  in  the  south,  suffered  a  decisive 
defeat  and  fled  to  Central  Asia,  where  he  disappeared.  His  sons  and  grandsons ' 
continued  to  make  inroads  with  nomad  hordes  into  liussiau  territorj-,  but  achieved 
no  lasting  successes. 

(6)  Russian  Aggression  in  the  Uast  and  WeKt  (after  1600).  —  The  Asiatic  pos- 
sessions of  Russia  now  had  two  fronts  from  wliich  to  repel  attacks  or  to  make  an 
advance :  a  southern  one,  namely,  toward  the  steppes  of  South  Siberia  and  Turkestan, 
where  warlike  nomad  nations  lived  as  insecure  and  dangerous  neighbours,  and  an 
eastern  one  toward  the  tundras  and  hill  country  of  East  Siberia,  where  only  semi- 
ci\alized  hunters  and  reindeer  herdsmen  offered  a  feeble  resistance.  An  advance 
was  naturally  made  first  on  the  east  frontier,  and  comparatively  soon  extended  to 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  The  necessity  of  acquiring  a  secure  frontier  also  forced 
the  Russians  inevitably  onward  to  the  south,  notwithstanding  tlie  great  sacrifices 
and  efiorts  which  were  here  required  of  them  as  time  went  on.  The  flanking  posi- 
tion, which  the  command  of  the  Caspian  Sea  offered  them,  was  not  used  successfully 
imtil  late  in  the  wars  between  Khiva  and  the  Turkomans,  after  a  disastrous  attempt 
of  Peter  the  Great  (1717).  In  the  north,  on  the  other  hand,  communications  by  sea 
through  the  Arctic  Ocean  were  soon  resumed.  The  English  explorer,  Hugh  Chan- 
cellor, penetrated  in  1554  to  the  White  Sea,  and  a  short  while  after  foimded  the 
Muscovy  Company  of  English  merchants  for  trade  with  the  far  north  of  Russia.  His 
venture  was  patronised  both  by  Ivan  the  Terrible  and  by  the  English  court;  and 
though  he  perished  in  1556,  while  attempting  to  repeat  his  first  great  voyage,  the 
heirs  of  his  enterprise  did  not  lose  heart,  the  Muscovj-  Company  flourished,  and 
English  ships  from  Archangel  appeared  at  the  mouth  of  the  Obi  in  1614. 

(a)  The  Peaceful  Acquisition  of  Eastern  and  Northern  Siberia  {until  1800). — 
Eastern  Siberia  had  been  mainly  occupied  by  Cossacks,  who  pushed  on  along  the 
rivers,  protected  the  new  territory,  as  they  acquired  it,  by  fortified  settlements,  and 
thus  in  course  of  half  a  century  reached  remote  Kamchatka.  The  Russian  govern- 
ment was  careful  to  cover  this  advance  by  the  establishment  of  friendly  relations 
with  the  Mongol  Altyn  Khan  (p.  192).  The  trade  ^vith  China  had  then  been 
already  started ;  the  first  tea  reached  Russia  in  1638  through  the  agency  of  Altyn 
Khan.  Meantime  rapid  advance  was  made  in  the  north.  In  the  year  1632 
Yakutsk  was  founded  on  the  Lena ;  in  1643  the  first  Cossacks  forced  their  way  to 
the  upper  Amur,  and  followed  this  stream  down  to  the  sea  of  Okhotsk.     Kam- 

'  Genghis  Khan 

•Juji 

I 
Shaiban 


K 


Kozum  (Kuchum) 

I 


Ishim  Juveh 

I  I 

Ablai  Girari  Daulet  Girai 

I J 

I 
Tsars  of  Tinmen  until  1659 


2-20  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [(7.aj>ter  ii 

chatka  was  discovered  a  few  years  later,  but  it  was  not  occupied  until  after  1696. 
^Ul  these  residts  were  naturally  not  obtaiued  without  a  struj^^le ;  the  collection  of 
the  fur  tribute,  the  i/assnk,  often  led  to  insurrections.  l>ul  the  imucity  of  the 
native  population  and  the  European  armament  of  the  Cossacks  always  turned  the 
scale  in  favour  of  the  new  masters.  The  ostro;/  or  fortress  of  Nijiii  Koliiusk,  on 
the  Arctic  Ocean  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kolyma,  which  was  founded  in  1644  by  the 
Cossack,  Micluiel  .Sladuchin,  fornieil  for  a  long  lime  an  important  base  for  the  open- 
ing up  of  Northeast  Siberia.  Anadyrsk,  the  iidiabitants  of  which  held  their  own 
for  years  in  their  wars  with  the  Chidichis,  was  built  soon  afterward.  When  the 
Cossacks  had  lirndy  establislied  themselves  on  the  Amur,  the  country  round  I^ake 
Baikal  was  annexed  to  the  Kussiau  dominions,  and  Irkutsk  founded  in  the  year 
1652.  But  it  usually  happened  that  the  authority  of  the  home  government  was 
for  a  long  time  disregarded  in  the  distant  territories  tliey  acquired.  The  Cossack 
settlers  habitually  indulged  in  civil  war,  plundering  and  ma.'^sacring  each  other 
without  scruple ;  sometimes,  also,  they  openly  defied  the  home  authorities,  as  was 
the  case  in  Kamchatka  during  the  years  1711-1713. 

In  the  Amur  districts  resistance  was  met  with  from  the  Manchus,  who  at  first 
retreated,  but  then,  aided  by  the  resources  of  the  subject  Chinese  Emjiire,  regained 
their  old  possessions  (1656).  Once  again  the  Eussiaus  tried  to  extend  their  sov- 
ereignty from  the  strong  town  of  Albasin  (Yaktz),  which  they  founded  on  the 
upper  Amur  as  a  base  of  operations,  but  after  tiie  place  had  been  twice  (1659  and 
1685)  taken  and  destroyed  b}-  the  Chinese,  they  were  compelled  in  the  year  1689 
to  decide  to  evacuate  the  whole  Amur  district.  Eussia,  nevertheless,  did  not 
cherish  hostile  feelings  toward  China,  whither  repeated  endiassics  were  sent.  On 
the  contrary,  the  most  northerly  of  the  trade  routes  to  China,  which  now  was  com- 
pletely in  Eussian  hands,  began  to  develop  vigorously.  The  two  nations  gradually 
recognised  that  both  imports  and  exports  would  pass  best  and  most  safely  at  the 
point  where  their  territories  directly  touched  each  other  with  well-detined  boun- 
daries. The  crests  of  those  mountains,  which  border  the  Gobi  desert  and  the  Tarim 
basin  on  the  north,  seemed  suitable  as  such  boundaries.  The  first  settlement  of 
frontiers  was  arranged  by  the  envoys  of  the  two  great  powers  in  the  years  1728 
and  1729.  The  Chinese  party  in  Manchuria  h;ul,  however,  been  much  strengthened 
in  consequence  of  the  wars  witli  the  iiussians,  and  a  systematic  partition  of  the 
country  had  been  canied  out,  so  that  for  the  future  Chinese  culture  triumphed  in 
the  original  home  of  the  IMauchus.  Cliinese  military  colonies  guarded  the  Amur, 
which  formed  a  fixed  boundary  for  a  long  period.  The  .seat  of  the  Chinese  military 
administration  was  at  first  at  Aigun  (founded  in  1684),  subsequently  Mergen, 
and  finally  Tsitsikar.  The  disturbances  on  the  frontier  now  almost  entirely 
terminated. 

The  gradual  establishment  of  jieace  and  order  in  Siberia  enabled  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment to  undertake  the  scientific  exploration  of  this  enormous  and  still  unknown 
territory.  There  were  fii-st  and  foremost  geographical  problems  to  be  solved,  espe- 
cially the  problem  wiiether  Asia  was  joined  to  America.  The  report  of  the  Cos.sack 
Deschuef  about  his  voyage  through  the  channel,  afterward  called  the  Berhig  Straits 
(1648),  still  reposed  unread  in  the  archives  of  Irkutsk.  Finally  in  the  year  1733  a 
scientific  exj^edition  was  sent,  which,  by  its  admirable  constitution,  gave  to  the 
entire  civilized  world  for  the  first  time  definite  information  as  to  the  nature  of 
Siberia.     It  was  almost  entirely  composed  of  non-Eussians.     The  Danish  captain, 


S'^lrr]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  221 

Vitus  Bering,  who  had  already  explored  the  seas  round  Kamchatka  in  the  years 
1725-1730,  commanded  the  expedition.  He  was  accompanied  by  Martin  Spaugen- 
berg  and  Alexis  Tschiiikov,  who  had  been  his  lieutenants  on  his  previous  voyages, 
and  by  members  of  the  Russian  Academy  of  Sciences,  namely,  the  Tubingen  botan- 
ist, Joh.  Georg  Gmelin,'  the  astronomer,  Louis  Delisle  de  la  Croyfere  (died  October 
22,  1741),  the  historian,  Gerhard  Friedrich  Miiller,^  and  Johann  Eberhard  Fischer,  of 
Esslingen.^  The  expedition  was  joined  later  by  Georg  Wilhelm  Steller  *  and  Stephen 
Krascheuinnikov,  who  devoted  their  energies  to  the  exploration  of  Kamchatka. 
A  number  of  minor  expeditions  were  sent  at  the  same  time  to  investigate  particular 
regions,  especially  the  east  coast.  In  the  course  of  some  few  years  large  portions 
of  Siberia  were  thoroughly  explored,  while  Bering  himself,  amidst  many  dangers 
and  adventures,  cruised  on  the  icj-  coasts  of-  the  sea  that  was  called  after  him. 
He  was  able  to  prove  the  existence  of  the  strait  between  Asia  and  America,  but 
died  on  December  19,  1741,  of  scurv}'.  Miiller  and  Gmelin  returned  home  to  St. 
Petersburg  in  1743,  the  rest  of  the  expedition  not  until  1749.  Steller  had  died  on 
his  way  back  from  Kamchatka  in  1 746.  Since  this  splendidly  organised  imdertak- 
ing,  the  scientific  exploration  of  Siberia  has  been  continuous,  although  enthusiasm 
for  the  work  has  sometimes  flagged.  Especially  successful  were  the  geological 
researches,  which  re\nved  the  muiing  industry  on  the  Altai  and  confirmed  the 
existence  of  auriferous  strata.  Much  has  been  added  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
coasts  of  Eastern  Asia  by  the  voyages  of  Russian  circumnavigators,  especially  by 
those  of  Adam  Johann  Ritter  von  Krusenstern  (1803-1806)  and  of  Otto  von 
Kotzebue  (lSl.5-1818  and  1823-1826).  It  should  be  noticed  that  these  voyages 
were  partly  prompted  by  the  wish  of  Russia  to  open  relations  with  Japan. 

(/3)  The  Strutjijle  with  the  Komads  of  Southwest  Siberia. — The  itate  of  things 
in  the  southwest,  where  a  boundless  horizon  of  steppe  seemed  to  bid  defiance  to 
all  the  permanent  and  restraining  influences  of  civilization,  was  very  different  from 
that  in  the  regions  of  Northern  and  Eastern  Siberia.  -  The  southwest  was  the  theatre 
of  the  real  struggle  between  Russia  and  the  nomads,  whose  eastern  representatives 
had,  at  almost  this  same  period,  been  finally  subdued  by  China.  While  in  the  east 
the  Cossacks  showed  themselves  wUliug  conquerors  and  settlers,  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment itself  was  forced  to  undertake  the  struggle  in  the  southwestern  steppe,  to 
which  direction  settlers  reluctantly  turned.  After  the  death  of  Peter  the  Great 
(1725),  who  had  raised  Russia  to  a  great  European  power,  the  frontier  ran  from  Kur- 
gan to  Omsk,  and  then  along  the  Irtish  as  far  as  the  spurs  of  the  Altai.  The  sys- 
tem of  cordons  was  introduced  Ijy  Field-marshal  Burkhard  Christoph  von  Munuich, 
and  such  a  cordon,  corresponding  roughly  to  that  frontier,  was  drawn  througli  West 
Siberia.  For  a  long  time  this  fortified  line  was  hardly  crossed,  although  the  influ- 
ence of  tlie  Russian  power  soon  produced  the  result  that  a  large  part  of  the  Kirghiz 
living  further  to  the  south  professed  their  submission.  Raids  by  these  "  subjects  " 
into  the  sphere  of  the  Russian  colonies,  and  corresponding  punitive  expeditions, 
form  for  nearly  a  century  the  scanty  history  of  the  possessions  in  West  Siberia. 


>  Anthor  of  "Flora  Sibirica,"  St.  Petersburg,  1748-1749,  and  "Beisc  durcb  Sibirien,"  Gbttingen, 
1751-1752. 

'  Editor  of  "SammlungrussischerOeschichte,"  St.  Petersburg,  1758. 

'  Author  of  "Ge>cliichte  von  Sibiiieu,"  St.  Petersburg,  1768. 

*  Author  of  "Keise  von  KaniUchatka  nach  Amerika"  (cf.  p.  204),  St.  Petersburg,  1793. 


222  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  ^Chaphr  ii 

It  was  only  after  the  termination  of  the  Napoleonic  xvars  that  attention  was 
paid  once  more  to  Asiatic  affairs.  The  lirst  object  clearly  was  to  effect  a  perma- 
nent occupation  of  tlie  Kirghiz  territory  by  advanciiio;  tlie  Kvissian  cordon.  For 
this  purpose  the  services  of  the  Cossacks  were  again  employed  with  success.  In 
this  way  Russia  entered  on  a  path  of  conquest  which  had  for  its  ultimate  goal  the 
subjugation  of  the  turbulent  steppe-countrj-  and  the  acquisition  of  a  firm  foi>thold 
on  its  southern  margin  where  permanent  settlements  existed.  Step  by  step  the 
troops  pushed  forward.  Every  fresh  advance  of  the  line  made  the  nomads  more 
desperate.  When  they  saw  their  freedom  of  movement  curtailed  and  their  pastur- 
ages cut  off,  they  broke  out  in  revolt ;  and  Russia's  answer  to  revolt  was  invariably 
an  extension  of  the  fortress  cordons.  But  for  a  long  time  it  was  impossible  to 
carry  out  the  plan  systematically,  since  large  tracts  of  the  steppe  were  not  suited 
for  permanent  settlements.  The  Russian  lines  of  defence  had  therefore  to  rest  on 
the  rivers ;  in  the  year  1847  the  soutliern  frontier  line  ran  fmm  the  lower  Syr 
Daria  to  the  river  Chu  and  thence  to  the  IlL  But  it  was  impossible  to  halt  at  this 
stage.  Hitherto  the  struggle  had  been  with  the  Kirghiz  and  other  nomad  hordes, 
but  now  the  sphere  of  the  power  of  Turkestan  was  entered.  If  the  Khanates  had 
been  consolidated  States,  with  which  a  well-defined  boundary  could  have  been 
arranged,  the  advance  would  have  been  perhaps  checked  for  a  long  time  tliere,  as 
was  actually  the  case  on  the  Chinese  frontier,  with  the  exception  of  the  districts 
on  the  Anuir.  But  these  countries  were  only  centres  of  power  with  an  ill-ilefined 
sphere  of  influence,  which  exjianded  or  contracted  according  to  the  energy  of  the 
ruler  and  the  accidents  of  fortune. 

The  first  collision  was  with  Khiva,  since  on  the  west,  between  the  Aral  and 
the  Caspian  Seas,  a  frontier  secure  against  the  predator}-  nomads,  wiio  were  willing 
to  act  as  subjects  of  Khiva,  could  only  be  obtained  by  the  occupation  of  the  Kiia- 
nate  proper.  In  the  year  1839  General  I'erovsky  started  from  Orenburg,  but,  after 
losing  a  quarter  of  his  army  and  ten  thousand  four  hundred  camels  from  snow- 
storms in  the  steppe,  he  was  compelled  to  return  without  having  set  eyes  on  the 
troops  of  Allah-Kuli  Khan.  On  the  other  side  the  first  conflicts  with  Khokand 
occurred  in  the  year  1850,  when  the  men  of  Khokand,  and  the  Kirghiz  who  were 
subject  to  them,  tried  to  drive  back  the  Russians  from  the  lower  Syr  Daria,  with 
the  sole  result  that  the  number  of  Russian  fortresses  was  increased.  Fort  Perovsk 
was  built  in  1853  as  the  most  advanced  post.  After  a  long  period  of  quiet  caused 
by  the  Crimean  War,  the  upper  Chu  valley  was  occupied  from  the  Hi  district  in 
spite  of  Khokand.  The  town  of  Turkestan  fell  on  .June  23,  1864,  and  Cliimkeut 
on  October  4. 

In  the  meantime,  however,  a  war  had  broken  out  between  Bokhara  and  Ivlio- 
kand,  and  wlien  the  Russians  under  Michael  Tschernajev  took  possession  of  Tash- 
kent also  (June  29,  1865),  whieh  tlie  Bokharians  alread}-  regarded  as  a  certain 
prize,  a  war  between  Russia  and  Bokhara  was  tlie  natural  consecpience.  After  an 
uneventful  campaign,  the  Bokharian  army  was  totally  defeated  by  the  Russians  on 
May  20,  18ri6,  near  Irjar;  and  immediately  afterwards  General  Romanovski 
marched  against  the  Khanate  of  Khokand,  now  a  dependency  of  Bokhara,  and  took 
the  town  of  Khojent.  The  territory  on  the  Syr  Daria,  whicli  had  been  previously 
administered  from  Orenburg,  was  united  in  1867  with  the  possessions  on  the  Hi 
(Semireehansk)  into  a  general  government  of  Turkestan  (until  1878).  Mozaffar 
ed-din  of  Bokhara,  who  had  been  compelled  to  abandon  Khokand,  now  made  vain 


f^'^tnr]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  223 

efforts  to  conclude  an  alliance  ■n-itli  it  against  tlie  Russians.  Khiva  also  refuseil  to 
help  him,  when,  urged  by  the  fanaticism  of  his  people,  he  once  mure  made  prepa- 
rations to  attack  the  new  Russian  territorj-  from  Samarkand.  But  before  he  liad 
raised  his  sword,  it  was  struck  out  of  his  hand  ;  General  Koustantin  von  Kaufmann 
unexpectedly  advanced  on  Samarkand,  defeated  the  superior  forces  uf  the  Boklia- 
rians,  and  entered  the  old  capital  of  Timur  on  May  14,  lcS68. 

The  humbled  Khan  of  Bokhara  was  forced  to  abandon  the  Zarafshan  valley 
with  Samarkand,  and  so  lost  one  of  his  best  provinces.  It  was  in  the  end  an  ad- 
vantage for  Bokhara  that  Russia  in  this  way  obtained  a  well-defined  boundary  in 
the  ci\'ilized  country.  This  is  the  only  explanation  why  tliere  was  no  complete 
subjugation,  and  why  the  reigning  house  was  left  in  possession  of  some,  even  if 
very  restricted,  powers.  Russia  subsequently  went  so  far  as  to  support  the  Emir 
of  Bokhara  (died  November  12,  1885)  and  his  sou  Seyyid  Abd  ul-Ahad  against 
insun'ections  of  his  subjects. 

By  their  advance  into  Turkestan  the  Russians  had  entered  on  the  region  wliich 
since  earliest  times  had  commanded  the  central  Asiatic  trade  and  the  roads  tlirough 
the  Tarim  basin.  Although  this  trade  had  greatly  fallen  off,  it  still  appeared  to  be 
an  important  source  of  wealth  and  political  influence.  Russia  had  early  tried  to 
establish  communications  with  Yarkand.  The  revolt  of  the  Dungans  and  the  suc- 
cesses of  Yakub  Bey  in  the  Tarim  basin  (p.  195)  during  the  sixties  had  prevented 
any  direct  intercourse  with  China,  which  was  bound  to  be  the  final  object  of  Rus- 
sian policy ;  the  Russians  were  obliged  to  content  themselves  with  occupying  Kul- 
jar,  the  terminus  of  the  northern  road  (1871),  and  with  requiring  Yakub  Bey  to 
conclude  a  commercial  treaty  (1872).  Even  then  the  diplomatic  rivalry  with  the 
English,  who  anxiously  watched  the  advance  of  the  Russian  power  in  Central  Asia, 
and  the  still  independent  States  of  Turkestan,  was  in  full  swing.  While  the  Rus- 
sians were  busy  in  diverting  the  trade  of  the  Tarim  basin  to  their  possessions,  the 
English  were  renewing  the  old  connection  between  India  and  that  region.  Every- 
where, in  Khokand,  Bokhara,  and  Khiva,  English  gold  was  pitted  against  Russian 
bayonets.  Gradually,  also,  China,  which  after  prodigious  efforts  had  suppressed 
the  revolts  of  her  subjects  in  the  Tarim  basin,  appeared  on  the  scene  as  a  great 
power,  with  whom  definite  frontiers  could  be  arranged.  Kuljar  was  restored  to 
the  Chinese  at  their  own  wish  (p.  110). 

Meanwhile  in  the  west  the  struggle  with  Khiva  had  begun  afresh,  since  Seyyid 
Mohammed  Itahim  Khan  was  neither  willing  nor  able  to  hinder  the  incursions  of 
the  Kirghiz  and  Turkomans  into  Russian  territory.  In  spring,  1873,  the  Khanate 
was  attacked  simultaneously  from  the  Caspian  Sea  and  several  other  directions. 
The  Khan  was  not  deposed,  but  was  forced  on  August  12  to  abandon  the  right 
bank  and  the  delta  of  the  Amur  Daria  and  become  a  vassal  of  Russia.  Soon  after- 
wards the  days  of  the  Khanate  of  Khokand  were  also  numbered ;  a  revolt,  which 
caused  the  prince  Khudayar  to  seek  flight  (1875),  furnished  the  Russians  with  a 
welcome  pretext  for  interference.  Finally,  on  March  3,  1876,  all  that  was  left  of 
the  Khanate  of  Khokand  was  incorporated  with  the  Russian  Empire  as  tlie  province 
of  Ferghana.  A  condition  of  things  which  promised  to  be  stable  was  thus  estab- 
lished in  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  Turkestan ;  in  front  of  the  Russian  ter- 
ritory, the  nomad  inhabitants  of  which  might  be  considered  as  subjugated,  lay  the 
Khanates  of  Kliiva  and  Bokhara,  both  subject  to  Russian  influence,  as  a  secure  belt 
of  frontier,  whose  complete  incorporation  into  the  dominions  of  the  Tsar  could  be 
of  little  importance. 


T2-L  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichajjter  Ji 

The  situation  was  different  in  the  west,  in  the  steppes  between  the  Caspian 
Sea  and  the  Amu  Daria.  Here  marauding  Turkoman  tribes  still  roamed  without 
let  or  hindrance ;  and  their  nominal  suzerain,  the  Khan  of  Khiva,  was,  after  his 
humiliation  by  Russia,  less  capable  than  ever  of  holding  them  in  check.  To  sub- 
due them  was  only  possible  if  the  southern  frontier  were  pushed  forward  to  the 
southern  margin  of  the  steppe  and  the  Persian  sphere  of  influence.  But  there  was 
a  twofold  inducement  for  undertaking  this  laborious  enterprise.  It  was  not  merely 
a  question  of  abating  the  nuisance  of  Turkoman  marauders;  Russian  statesmen 
considered  the  new  move  as  a  check  to  EnglaniL  The  military  party  avowed  their 
belief  that  the  surest  way  of  settling  the  Eastern  question  in  Europe  was  to  frigliten 
England  by  advancing  to  the  gates  of  India.  Both  military  men  and  civilians 
thought  that,  at  the  least,  an  advance  was  the  only  means  of  neutralising  hypo- 
thetical English  ijitrigues  with  the  native  princes  of  Central  Asia.  Accordingly, 
the  Turkomans  were  attacked,  at  first  by  a  series  of  small  campaigns,  but,  these 
proving  unsuccessful,  larger  schemes  were  framed,  and  attempts  were  made  to 
reach  the  chain  of  oases  which  were  the  real  centre  of  Turkoman  power  either 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Atrek,  or  from  Krasnovodsk  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  on 
the  Persian  frontier.  The  first  undertaking  of  this  kind  failed  in  the  year  1879. 
But  a  year  later  a  new  expedition  started,  under  the  command  of  General  Michael 
Skobeleff.  This  time  a  railway  was  built  simultaneously  with  the  ailvance  of  the 
troops,  the  first  portion  of  the  subsequent  Transcaspian  Railway,  which  has  now 
reached  Samarkand  and  opened  a  new  road  to  international  tratiic.  The  fate  of 
the  Turkomans  was  soon  sealed.  On  January  24,  1881,  their  strongest  fortress, 
Geok-Tepe,  was  taken  after  a  heroic  defence,  and  soon  afterward  the  subjugation 
of  the  northern,  or  Tekke,  Turkomans  was  complete.  In  this  same  year  a  frontier 
treaty  with  Persia  made  the  fact  clear  that  Russia  had  as  her  neighbour  on  that 
side  a  State  possessing  a  tolerable  degree  of  culture.  Toward  the  southeast,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  advance  of  the  Russians  did  not  stop  until  it  reached  the 
borders  of  Afghanistan.  There  was  no  necessity  for  further  wars  against  the 
nomads :  the  Turkomans  of  Merv  tendered  their  submission  under  diplomatic  and 
military  pressure.  In  spite  of  this  the  Russians  were  soon  active  in  the  country  to 
the  south  of  Merv ;  and  in  1SS5  their  advanced  posts  came  into  collision  with  the 
Afghans  on  the  river  Kushk,  and  a  battle  was  fought  in  wliich  the  Afghans  were 
defeated.  The  blame  for  this  collision  has  been  thrown  by  some  on  England ;  it 
is  alleged  that  the  Afgliaus  were  instigated  to  prevent  Russia  from  acquiring  that 
firm  position  in  the  south  of  the  steppe  country  which  was  a  political  necessity  for 
her.  Others  have  accused  the  Foreign  Office  at  St.  Petersburg  of  having  deliber- 
ately forced  on  a  breach  with  Afghanistan.  The  trouble  would  seem  to  be  that 
the  hand  of  the  Russian  government  was  forced  by  the  zeal  of  frontier  generals. 
The  questions  at  issue  were  settled  by  a  Boundary  Commission  in  1886-1887,  which 
fixed  the  frontier  between  Afghanistan  and  Asiatic  Russia.  In  1895  the  delimita- 
tion of  English  and  Russian  spheres  of  influence  was  advanced  yet  another  step  by 
the  partition  of  the  mountainous  Pamir  region,  which  separates  Northeastern  Af- 
ghanistan from  the  Tarim  basin.  Since  1880  the  influence  of  Russia  within  her 
allotted  sphere  has  been  materially  increased  by  tlie  extension  of  the  Transcaspian 
Railway,  which  has  brought  districts  long  desolate  within  the  range  of  Russian 
commerce,  and  has  completely  assured  the  military  supremacy  of  its  possessors. 

If  we  look  back  on  what  Russia  has  done  in  Turkestan,  we  shall  see  that  tliere 


f^'SJ^rJ  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  225 

is  room  for  conjecture  as  to  her  ultimate  policy.  Her  advance  might  be  explained 
solely  by  the  causes  which  have  induced  the  peaceful  Chinese  Empire  to  occupy 
the  Tarim  basin  on  the  verge  of  the  Central  Asiatic  steppes,  were  it  not  that 
evidence  exists  to  suggest  some  motive  beyond  the  mere  desire  of  obtaining  security 
from  the  raids  of  nomad  tribes.  The  first  plan  for  a  Russian  invasion  of  India 
was  framed  as  long  ago  as  1791 ;  and  similar  plans  have  been  considered  at  various 
dates  since  then,  notably  in  1800,  1855,  and  1876.  These  plans  have  usually  been 
formed  wnth  the  idea  of  influencing  the  European  situation  to  the  advantage  of 
Eussia,  by  locking  up  English  troops  in  India  and  inducing  England  to  take  a 
more  conciliatory  attitude.  In  all  oi  tliem  the  occupation  of  Afghanistan  has  been 
an  essential  feature,  and  no  pains  have  been  spared  to  detach  that  country  from  its 
dependence  on  England.  An  attempt  of  this  kind  in  1878,  immediately  after  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  was  so  far  successfid  that  the  Afghans  declared  war  on  England. 
But  Russia  took  no  steps  to  assist  the  Afglians  wlien  they  had  been  drawn  into  the 
war ;  and  since  that  time  Russian  influence  in  Afghanistan  has  suffered  a  check. 
To  judge  from  recent  events  the  foreign  policy  of  Russia,  at  the  present  time,  looks 
rather  toward  the  Persian  Gulf  than  toward  India.  The  possession  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Euphrates  would  give  Russia  one  of  those  outlets  for  the  trade  of  her  empire 
which  it  has  always  been  her  prime  anxiety  to  secure. 

(7)  The  Endeavours  to  ohtcui  a  Secure  Position  on  the  Pacific  (after  If^OO). — 
The  occurrences  m  East  Asia  liave  shown  that  the  necessity  of  obtainmg  free 
access  to  the  ocean  can  really  alter  the  otherwise  clearly  marked-out  policy  of 
Russia.  AMiLle  in  Central  Asia  the  boundaries  between  Russia  and  China,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Kulja  country,  have  hardly  been  .shifted  to  any  appreciable 
degree,  Russia  is  recklessly  pushing  on  in  the  northeast  toward  China  and  Korea, 
and  thus  finds  herself  confronted  by  the  hardest  problems  of  her  policy.  The 
causes  of  this  phenomenon  are  those  which  brought  about  the  wars  of  the  Russians 
with  the  Swedes,  who  commanded  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  uamel}-,  the  wish  for 
a  large  naval  base  on  the  ocean. 

■\\nien  the  Russian  Cossacks  firmly  established  their  position  on  the  sea  of 
Okhotsk,  they  suddenly  gave  a  new  base  to  tlie  Russian  power,  wliose  centre  had 
been  separated  from  East  Siberia  liy  an  uifinity  of  sparsely  popidated  tracts. 
However  immense  the  distance  by  sea  might  be  to  the  harbours  of  the  Baltic  or 
the  Black  Sea,  it  was,  on  the  whole,  easier  to  smmount  than  the  shorter  one,  dia- 
gonally across  Siberia.  But  apart  from  tliis,  the  possibility  of  some  communication 
witli  the  civUized  peoples  and  international  trade  marts  of  Central  Asia  meant  a 
considerable  advantage  to  the  countries  on  the  Pacific.  The  value  of  this  position 
has  increased  largely  since  the  introduction  of  steam  navigation.  On  the  other 
side,  it  was  incontestable  that  Russia's  position  on  the  sea  was  extraordinarily 
unfavourable ;  the  shores  of  the  sea  of  Okhotsk  with  their  thinly  inhabited  hinter- 
land, their  harbours  icebound  for  many  months,  and  their  mountain  chains  which 
rise  up  directly  behind  the  coast,  were  far  from  being  adapted  to  promote  a 
flourishing  commerce.  An  improvement  of  the  situation  could  only  be  attained 
by  the  acquisition  of  the  Amur  district ;  more  favoured  harbours  were  to  be  foimd 
there,  and  the  valley  of  a  mighty  river  opened  up  a  comparatively  rich  hinterland, 
and  offered  easy  communications  with  the  interior.  Little  was  to  be  feared  from 
the  Chinese,  who  only  occupied  the  right  bank  of  the  upper  Amur  and  had  neither 

VOL.  11  —  15 


226  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD  Ichapter ii 

garrisons  nor  colonies  on  the  coast.  A  fresh  advance  then  was  made  by  the 
Hussians  iii  the  nineteenth  oenturv  towards  the  south,  which  they  had  ah-eady 
once  partly  possessed,  but  had  esacuated  owing  to  the  tlireats  of  tlie  Mauchus. 
In  the  year  1849  the  Kussian  Hag  was  lioisted  without  opposition  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Amur;  in  1851  a  bay  near  the  Korean  frontier  was  seized,  where  later 
Vladivostok  was  founded ;  in  1854  a  fleet  under  Count  Nikolai  Muravier  (Amurskij) 
was  sent  from  the  upper  Amur,  where  the  Russians  still  had  possessions  from  an 
earlier  date,  down  to  its  mouth,  and  Nikolaievsk,  founded  there  in  1850,  was  more 
strongly  fortified.  The  government  in  Peking,  which  did  not  dare  to  venture 
on  war,  raised  futile  protests.  By  the  convention  of  Aigun  (ilay  28,  1858),  the 
wht>le  left  bank  of  the  Amur  was  ceded  to  the  Russians,  and  on  November  14, 
1860,  the  Ussuri  district  together  with  the  whole  coast  as  far  as  Korea  was  added 
to  it. 

Since  by  the  founding  of  Vladivostok  an  almost  ice-free  harbour  was  obtained, 
the  movements  of  Russia  ceased  for  some  time.  But  diplomatic  intrigues  con- 
tinued to  ruffle  the  relations  of  Russia  with  other  powers  in  this  quarter,  and 
notably  with  the  ambitious  State  of  Japan ;  the  object  at  stake  in  these  intrigues 
was  the  preponderance  of  influence  in  Korea.  The  Chinese  government  favoiu^ed 
the  colonisation  of  Manchuria  as  far  as  possible;  but  tlie  suppression  of  strong 
bodies  of  bandits,  who  had  collected  in  the  deserted  border  provinces,  proved  a 
troublesome  task.  The  successes  of  Japan  in  the  war  of  1894—1895  with  China 
were  a  serious  check  to  Russian  j)laus,  and  proved  that  tlie  island  kingdom  of  East 
Asia  had  taken  its  place  among  the  great  powers  of  the  world.  The  Russians  now 
found  themselves  inferior  to  the  Japanese  at  sea,  and  they  were  alarmed  by  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  their  new  rivals  to  seize  Southern  Manchuria.  A  counter- 
blow was  soon  delivered.  By  a  treaty  concluded  with  China  on  March  27,  1898, 
Russia  occupied  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan  on  the  CJulf  of  Pechili;  and  even 
before  this  treaty  she  had  already  exacted  from  China  the  permission  to  construct 
a  railway  through  Manchuria  (September  6,  1806),  which  was  intended  to  join 
tlie  great  Trans-Siburian  line,  begun  iu  the  meantime. 

Then  the  situation  was  suddenly  altered  by  the  outbreak  of  an  antiforeign 
movement  in  Chuia,  which  was  aimed  with  peculiar  force  against  the  Russians,  and 
Ru.ssia  was  driven  to  occupy  Manchuria  (1900).  The  ultimate  reason  which  forced 
the  Russians  to  round  off  their  East  Siberian  dominions  by  the  absorption  of 
Manchuria  may  easily  be  conjectured ;  they  knew  that  the  Amur  countrj-  was  not 
ada])ted  for  colonisation  on  a  large  scale,  and  gave  the  Russian  power  on  the 
Pacific  no  Hrm  support,  while  Manehuria.would  completely  meet  this  re(juirement. 
Resides  this  the  ice-free  harbour  of  Port  Arthur  was  of  little  value  to  Russia,  so 
long  as  it  was  not  in  assured  command  of  the  hinterland  and  the  overland  com- 
iiuuiications  with  Siberia.  At  the  same  lime,  indeed,  the  plan  seems  to  have  been 
formed  of  shifting  the  Russian  frontiers  forward  across  the  steppes  up  to  China 
proper;  in  other  words,  of  detaching  Mongolia  and  East  Turkestan  from  China. 
Russia  has  in  recent  times  repeatedly  formed  alliances  with  the  Dalai-Lama  (p.  189). 
In  this  way  the  same  policy  was  adopted  in  the  east  and  iu  the  heart  of  Central 
Asia  which  Russia  followed  in  the  west  as  far  as  the  borders  of  Afghanistan  and 
the  gate  of  India ;  political  and  economic  superiority  over  China  is  the  natural 
consequence  to  which  this  policy  should  lead. 

"\Miile  advantageous  frontiers  had  lieen  thus  won  by  a  series  of  wars  the 


fr^^^f]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  22 


economic  situation  of  Siljeria  had  passed  through  many  phases.  The  first  occupa- 
tion had  been  effected  by  the  Cossacks,  who  governed  as  lords  among  the  Hyper- 
boreans, exacted  the  tax  known  as  the  yassak,  and,  without  exactly  outdoing 
Spanish  conquistadorea  in  cnielty,  were  the  cause  of  an  extraordinar}'  diniiuution 
in  the  popidation;  fre(pient  revolts  of  the  natives  (for  example,  in  1731  in 
Kamchatka)  hastened  this  result.  Even  after  affairs  had  been  more  satisfactorily 
organised,  the  shrinkage  of  the  native  population  continued.  S.  Patkanoff,  who 
made  a  searching  investigation  into  the  cunditiciu  (jf  the  Iriish-Ostiaks,  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  low  buth-rate  among  the  natives,  which  in  itself  must,  so  soon  as  the 
rate  of  mortality  increases,  cause  the  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  to  become  sta- 
tionary or  shrink.  The  diseases  introiluced  by  Kuropeans,  especially  smallpox  and 
typhus,  have  produced  terrible  aud  permanent  gaps  in  the  jiopulation.  Still  more 
disastrous  is  the  effect  of  alcohol,  not  only  frtmi  the  degeneracy  and  vice  which 
it  brings  with  it,  but  perliaps  still  more  because  the  drunken  mothers  neglect  their 
cliildren  and  let  them  die.  Finally  there  are  the  economic  changes,  such  as  the 
diminution  of  wild  animals  and  C(jnsequent  scarceness  of  food,  and  the  intrusion  of 
Eussian  peasants  into  the  Ostiak  communities ;  so  soon  as  the  Eussians  are  in  the 
majority,  they  make  use  of  the  existing  commcin  land  for  their  own  advantage,  and 
appreciably  reduce  the  earnings  of  the  natives.  The  consequences  are  paujierism, 
non-payment  of  taxes,  and  serfdom  for  debtoi-s,  aud  all  these  causes  unfavourably 
affect  the  increase  of  the  popidation.  Nevertheless  decadence  is  not  so  rapid 
that  we  may  not  anticipate,  under  an  amelioration  of  the  conditions,  a  change  for 
the  better,  since  on  the  whole  the  Ostiaks  have  shown  some  capacity  of  adapting 
themselves  to  the  requirements  of  an  advanced  civilization.  The' state  of  things 
existing  among  most  of  the  tribes  of  North  Siberia  will  be  much  the  same. 

The  Russians,  apart  from  the  Cossacks,  who  poured  into  Siberia,  were  still  less 
calculated  to  carry  out  a  systematic  colonisation  and  to  settle  in  the  zone  suitable 
to  agriculture.  Partly  to  remedy  this  disadvantage,  partly  on  other  grounds,  it 
became  customarj^  by  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  to  send  criminals 
to  Siberia,  as  well  as  to  force  prisoners  of  war,  especially  Poles,  to  settle  there. 
The  unruly  and  Cossack-like  features  of  the  national  life  in  Siberia  were  still 
more  accentuated  by  this,  aud  for  a  long  time  healthy  development  was  checked. 
A  second  hindrance  was  the  tendency  of  oflicials  to  regard  the  country  as  a  mere 
source  of  profit  to  themselves,  for  the  improvement  of  which  no  means  were  avail- 
able. It  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  the  reformed  methods 
of  Western  government  were  applied  to  neglected  Siberia.  The  settlement  of  free 
peasants,  which  had  been  tried  before,  was  now  resumed  on  a  more  systematic 
basis,  although  it  did  not  always  meet  with  the  anticipated  success.  The  trade 
route  from  China  to  Eussia  ran  through  the  zone  of  Siberian  civilization,  and 
a  great  part  of  the  settlers  found  it  more  remunerative  to  devote  themselves 
to  trade  or  the  carrying  industry  than  to  clear  the  forests  and  cultivate  the 
soil,  since  the  roving  tradesman  and  carrier  could  better  avoid  the  extortions  of 
the  officials.  The  short  period  of  energetic  reform  inaugurated  by  Michael 
Speran-sky  (1819-1821)  did  much  to  ameliorate  these  conditions.  The  mining 
industry,  especially  in  the  Altai,  where  it  was  only  needful  to  revive  the  habits  of 
the  past  and  appeal  to  the  traditions  of  an  older  civilization,  did  much  to  revive 
the  prosperity  of  Siberia.  How  neglected  and  on  the  whole  unexplored  the  greater 
part  of  Siberia  nevertheless  remained,  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  even  in 


228  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [c/.aptfr  ii 

the  agricultural  zone  of  Siberia  new  settlements  often  remained  for  years  unknown 
to  the  oflicials,  until  they  were  eventually  discovered  and  included  in  the  tax- 
paying  community.  Tlie  country  has  at  last  been  more  thoroughly  opened  up 
through  the  devoted  energy  of  many,  and  maiidy  German,  scientists.  The  intel- 
lectual life  of  Siberia  made  verj'  slow  progress,  altliough  the  great  number  of  edu- 
cated e.xiles  had  its  effect.  Tlie  founding  of  tlie  University  of  Tomsk  in  the  year 
18SS  had  a  beneticial  intluence,  and  was  followed  on  December  .'51,  1900,  by  the 
ojiening  of  the  first  Siberian  polytechnic.  The  first  .school  for  secondary  studies 
in  East  Siberia  was  opened  in  November,  1899,  at  Vladivostok. 

The  construction  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Eailway,  which  connects  the  east  with 
the  west  and  also  for  the  first  time  gives  a  projjcr  support  to  the  strong  position 
of  Russia  on  the  Pacific,  long  secured  by  a  systematic  organisation  of  the  Amur 
district,  must  be  of  vital  importance  for  all  periods  of  the  development  of  Siberia. 
The  commencement  of  the  railway  was  ordered  by  an  imperial  Ukase  of  Marcli  29, 
1891.  The  line  starts  from  Cheliabinsk  on  the  southern  Ural  and  traverses 
Western  Siberia  at  about  the  fifty-fifth  degree  of  latitude,  touches  Omsk,  Tomsk,  and 
Krasnoyarsk,  then  takes  a  bend  to  the  southeast  to  Irkutsk,  coasts  the  lake 
of  Baikal,  passes  diagonally  across  Transbaikalia,  then  runs  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Amur  down  stream  as  far  as  Khabarovka,  and  finally  turns  westward  to 
Madivostok.  Pending  the  entire  completion  of  the  line  the  sections  already 
in  existence  are  connected  by  steamboat  services  on  Lake  Baikal  and  tlie  A  in>ir. 
This  great  undertaking  has  been  supplemented  by  the  Eastern  Chinese  Kailway, 
whicli  starts  from  the  upper  waters  of  the  Amur,  traverses  Manchuria,  and 
will  in  due  course  be  extended  to  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan.  The  construction 
of  the  railroad  has  been  begun  simultaneously  at  various  jioints,  among  others 
from  Vladivostok  on  the  Pacific,  where  the  present  emperor,  Nicholas  II,  then 
the  heir  to  the  throne,  turned  the  first  sod  on  May  19,  1891.  At  the  beginning 
of  1902,  since  the  difficult  section  round  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Baikal 
had  been  completed  in  1901,  the  permanent  way  of  the  gigantic  undertaking 
was  rouglily  complete. 

Toward  tlie  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  colonisation  of  Siberia  with 
free  Russian  immigrants  had  made  immense  strides,  a  result  indirectly  due  to 
the  extraordinary  increase  of  the  population  in  the  once  so  sparsely  inhabited 
continent  of  European  Russia.  The  commencement  of  the  railway  had  a  stimu- 
lating effect,  since  it  was  then  possible  to  export  agricultural  pioduce  on  a  larger 
scale,  as  the  western  section  of  the  line  traversed  the  fertile  black-earth  region. 
In  1800  the  European  population  of  Siberia  amounted  rouglily  to  half  a  million. 
The  slow  rate  of  growth  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  somewhat 
quickened  after  1861,  the  year  of  the  abolition  of  serfdom,  and  then  increased 
its  pace  rapidly.  From  1860-1880  the  number  of  free  immigrants  amounted 
to  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand;  between  1880-1892,  four  hundred  and  sixty- 
seven  thousand  new  colonists  settled  there,  and  between  1892-1899  a  million 
persons  or  more  sought  homes  in  Siberia.  The  first  railroad  (Perm-P^katerinburg- 
Tiumen),  which  cnjssed  the  Ural  in  the  year  1881,  produced  a  great  infiux  of 
colonists.  A  law  has  been  in  force  since  1889,  which  guarantees  to  every  man 
who  immigrates,  with  permission  of  the  government,  fifteen  desxintincs  (about 
forty  acres)  of  land  as  his  own,  three  years'  exemption  from  taxation,  and  nine 
years'  exemption  from  military  service.     Even  more  advantageous  terms  are  offered 


^slUL"]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  229 

to  immigrants  in  the  provinces  on  the  Amur  and  the  Pacific.  Must  settlements 
spring  up  naturally  along  the  railway  uuiler  the  direction  of  the  Siberian  Kailroad 
Committee,  which  at  the  same  time  builds  churches  and  schools  and  promotes  iii 
every  way  the  interests  of  tlie  colonists.  The  use  of  tlie  water-ways  has,  however, 
not  been  neglected ;  for  example,  the  lleet  of  steamers  on  the  Obi  has  increased  in 
the  years  1880-1898  from  thirty-seven  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  vessels.  Thus 
a  movement  is  visible  on  every  side,  which  in  spite  of  all  possible  reverses  cannot 
but  exercise  a  profound  intiuence  on  the  future  of  Northern  Asia  and  indirectly 
on  tliat  of  Central  Asia. 

Siberia  will  certainly  not  be  spared  grave  economic  crises.  It  is  already  clear 
that  the  work  of  colonisation  has  been  carried  out  prematurely  and  in  unsuitable 
regions.  Wliile  masses  of  pauper  euiigiants  continually  stream  into  Siberia  from 
the  famine-stricken  districts  of  Russia,  they  ai'e  already  met  by  another  stream 
of  starving  and  disillusioned  wanderers  who  are  returning  to  their  old  soil. 
Besides  all  this,  agriculture  in  Siberia,  whether  practised  near  the  Arctic  fnmtier 
in  the  old  forest  area  or  in  the  steppe  districts,  is  threatened  more  than  elsewhere 
by  the  severity  of  the  climate.  Even  the  colonists  of  the  Amur  district  had 
to  contend  witli  unexpected  difliculties. 

There  is  apparently  a  wish  to  abandon  the  very  dubious  method  of  populating 
the  country  by  settlements  of  criminals  or  political  suspects.  In  tlie  year  1899 
the  Tsar  Nicholas  II  invited  a  commission  to  give  an  opinion  as  to  the  advisa- 
bility of  discontinuing  transportation  to  Siberia.  Tliis  is  the  beginning  of  the  end 
of  a  practice  which  has  given  an  unfortunate  aspect  to  the  character  of  Siberian 
colonisation  and  of  the  newly  created  national  life.  The  custom  of  sending  polit- 
ical offenders  out  of  Eussia  to  Siberia  has  obtained  from  an  early  period ;  the 
first  authentic  case  occurred  in  1599.  The  country  has  been  dotted  witli  penal 
colonies  of  ordinary  criminals  since  1653;  but  by  the  side  of  these,  a  large 
number  of  capable  and  intelligent  men,  who  had  merely  become  inconvenient 
to  the  government,  have  been  at  all  limes  removed  to  tlie  Far  East.  The  further 
destinies  f)f  the  exiles  concerned  nobody ;  the  majority  probably  died  there. 
Others  on  the  contrary  furthered  the  cause  of  civilization  by  their  efforts  to  obtain 
means  of  subsistence  for  themselves ;  exiles  gave  the  first  impetus  to  the  mining 
industry  on  the  Altai.  It  was  not  until  1754:  that  regulations  were  made  as  to  the 
settlement  and  employment  of  the  exiles  by  which  two  classes  of  bani.shed  were 
distinguished,  namely,  the  criminals  condemned  to  hard  labour  (Katorga),  and 
the  deported  colonists  (Posselenie).  In  the  nineteenth  century  the  Decabrist 
rebellion  of  1825  (Vol.  YIII),  the  Polish  insurrections  of  1830-1832  and  1863, 
and  the  Nihilist  movement,  brought  again  a  large  number  of  educated  men  to 
Siberia.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  influence  of  the  exiles  on  the  development 
of  Siberia ;  in  any  case  it  would  be  wrong  to  describe  it  merely  as  unfavourable. 
The  abolition,  moreover,  of  the  transportation  laws,  which  were  perhaps  most  dis- 
astrous for  Eussia  itself,  will  inaugurate  for  Siberia  also  an  era  of  economic  moral 
and  spiritual  imfirovement. 


230  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD        [chapter  iii . 

ni 

AUSTRALIA  AND  OCEANIA 

Br   PROFESSOR    DR.    KARL    WEILE 


1.   INTRODUCTOKY   REMARKS 

TuERF.  can  be  no  doubt  tlmt  the  southeast  part  of  Australia,  together  with  the  adja- 
cent island  of  N'ew  Zealand,  is  destined  some  day  to  rule  the  whole  Oceanic  half  of  the 
world. —  C.  E.  Meinicke,  1836. 

CONTRARY  to  the  customary  French  nomenclature,  which  includes  under 
the  collective  name  of  Oceania  the  continent  of  Australia  together  with 
the  whole  immense  world  of  islands  in  the  I'aciKc  Ocean,  so  far  as  it 
does  not  belong  to  Indonesia  and  the  eastern  border  of  Asia,  the  Ger- 
mans do  not  accept  this  extended  meaning  of  the  word,  but  divide  the  vast  region 
into  two  halves,  by  distinguishing  between  the  Australian  continent  and  an  Oceania 
in  a  more  restricted  sense,  comprising  only  the  island  groups  of  Polj-nesia,  Micro- 
nesia, and  Melanesia.  This  di\'ision  is  based  equally  on  geograjihical  grounds  and 
on  those  of  anthropology  and  ethnology;  it  expresses  tlie  contrast  between  the 
compact  mass  of  the  Australian  continent  and  the  world  of  islands  spread  over 
a  vast  space  but  containing  a  quite  trilling  superficial  area.  It  also  indicates  the 
truth  that  the  population  of  these  islands,  whatever  diversities  it  may  reveal  to  the 
eye  of  the  anthropologist,  is  ethnologically  homogeneous  and  entirely  different  from 
the  population  of  the  Australian  continent. 

It  would  hardly  have  been  necessary  for  the  \vriting  of  history,  so  far  as  there 
can  be  any  idea  of  such  when  dealing  with  the  native  races  of  the  South  Sea,  that 
this  example  should  be  followed.  There  is  a  diff"erence,  it  is  true,  between  the 
history  of  the  insular  and  the  continental  peoples,  in  so  far  as  the  development  of 
culture  reached,  on  the  whole,  higher  stages  among  the  former  than  in  Australia. 
Beside  that,  a  small  number  at  least  of  archipelagoes  can  look  back  on  a  certain 
independent  political  growth.  In  both  the.se  respects,  the  mainland,  so  far  as  the 
aborigines  are  concerned,  is  far  behind ;  ip  fact,  it  shows  absolutely  no  trace  of  any 
real  development  in  a  political  sen.se.  Xotwithstanding  all  this,  the  difference  is 
not  so  fundamental  as  to  necessitate  a  partition  of  the  whole  region.  This  would 
be  imperative,  so  soon  as  one  or  the  other  of  the  divisions  detiiiitcly  intruded  into 
the  turmoil  of  universal  historj',  or  when  one  was  influenced  by  tliis  in  a  con- 
spicuously greater  degree  than  the  other.  But  neither  alternative  has  happened. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  separate  history  of  the  whole  vast  region,  from  New  Zea- 
land in  the  south  to  Hawaii  in  the  norlli,  and  from  New  Guinea  and  the  Caroline 
Islands  in  the  west  to  Easier  Island  in  the  east,  is  characterised  by  a  remarkable 
isolation.  Only  on  the  extreme  western  margin  of  this  region,  in  the  Marianne, 
Caroline,  and  Pelew  groups,  in  Western  New  (Juiiiea  and  Northwestern  Australia, 
do  we  find  instances  of  brief  and  involuntary  intercourse  with  the  neighbouring 


A  HstrnHa  and' 

Ocean  ia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  231 


and  more  aggressive  races  of  Asia  and  Indonesia.     These  exceptions  apart,  botli 
Oceania  and  Australia  have  played  a  minor  and  self-centred  part  in  history. 

If  under  these  circumstances  we  retain  the  usual  two  great  divisions,  we  do  so 
from  the  following  reasons.  Fii-st,  for  a  reason  not  connected  with  our  own  sub- 
ject :  this  division  is  preserved  by  the  sciences  of  geography  and  ethnology,  which 
are  closely  akin  to  history;  and  one  l)rauch  of  science  ought  never,  without  con- 
vincing reasons,  to  repudiate  the  classilications  which  are  recognised  in  other 
branches.  There  is  the  less  object  in  doing  so  since  we  have  waited  a  long 
time  before  we  have  attained  any  clear  or  satisfactory  classification.  A 
second  reast)n  is  found  in  the  above-mentioned  contrasts  in  degrees  of  cul- 
tures and  political  self-development  between  the  two  principal  regions.  Under 
this  head  it  is  especially  the  great  core  of  the  island  world  with  Fiji,  Samoa, 
and  Tonga,  and  the  pillars  on  the  north  and  south  in  the  shape  of  Hawaii 
and  New  Zealand,  which  claim  peculiar  attention  owing  to  their  individual 
historical  development.  The  last  and  most  weighty  argument  for  the  diWsion  of 
the  whole  region  is  connected  with  the  changes  which  have  been  effected  in  the 
South  Sea  by  encroachments  from  outside.  At  the  present  day  the  original  popu- 
lation, —  and  it  does  not  matter  whether  it  had  ever  previously  reached  the  stage 
of  making  history,  or  whether,  as  in  Australia,  it  led  an  obscure  existence  as  a 
primitive  race  of  hunters,  —  has  been  covered  Vjy  a  new  and  foreign  stratum  of 
Europeans,  Americans,  ^lalays,  and  Eastern  Asiatics,  which  is  barely  a  few  cen- 
turies old.  These  have  assumed  everywhere  in  the  Pacific  the  task  of  colonisation 
and  simultaneously  the  role  of  political  and  industrial  leaders.  But  while  none 
of  the  several  groups  of  islands  have  been  able,  owing  to  their  small  size,  to 
attain  an  importance  which  might  raise  them  politically  or  economically  far  above 
their  circle  of  neighbours,  and  each  of  them  is  rather  regarded,  at  all  times,  by 
the  interested  powers  as  a  no-man's  land  which  may  be  made  useful  as  a  stra- 
tegic base  in  the  Pacific,  the  case  is  different  with  Australia.  This  great  contuient, 
under  the  rule  of  European  immigrants,  has  shown  a  development  which  at  the 
present  day,  only  one  century  after  the  beginning  of  its  colonisation,  prevents  it 
from  being  compared  in  any  respect  with  tlie  island  world. 

The  main  difference  lies  in  the  complete,  though  easily  explicable,  refusal  of 
the  Australian  colonists  to  enlist  the  services  of  the  aborigines.  These  have  not 
allowed  themselves  to  be  ignored  on  any  of  the  island  groups.  On  the  small 
islands  of  Micronesia  and  Polynesia,  where  the  colonising  energ}-  of  the  wliites 
was  limited  to  the  exportation  of  the  few  natural  products  suitable  for  inter- 
national trade,  the  assistance  of  the  native  or  the  imported  Oceanian  was  indispen- 
sable. On  the  main  groups,  the  Fiji,  Samoan,  and  Tonga  Islands,  the  comparatively 
large  population  showed  itself  as  uninterested  in  the  industrial  efforts  of  the  wliite 
men  as  the  aborigines  of  the  Australian  continent ;  but,  politically,  they  derived 
the  most  important  suggestions  from  their  contact  with  strangers.  Before  the 
arrival  of  the  explorer  in  Oceania  no  State  extended  beyond  the  limits  of  a  single 
island ;  often  there  was  no  political-organisation.  But  in  the  nineteenth  centurj' 
each  separate  group  coalesced  into  a  more  or  less  united  State ;  until  the  most 
recent  times  the  government  of  these  federated  groups  remained  in  native  hands. 
New  Zealand  and  finaUy  Hawaii  had  prepared  the  way  for  this  step  even  before 
the  intrusion  of  the  whites,  and  they  carried  it  out  with  remarkable  energy,  until 
eventuallv  in  quite  modern  times  the  united  efforts  of  the  intruders  succeeded  in 


232  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Icho^^t,,- iii 

levelling  the  laboriously  reared  jiolitical  edilice  and  iilacing  the  ahoiigines  com- 
iilelelv  iu  the  haekgroiiud.  Alliioiigli  tlie.se,  iu  view  of  iheir  jiast  achieveiiieuts  and 
their  former  advanced  civilization,  will  never  sink  into  such  insigniticauce  as  the 
Australians,  yet  their  nMe  in  history  is  ended.  The  future  development  of  the  two 
island  groups  lies  as  completely  in  the  liauds  of  the  whiles  as  it  has  iu  Australia 
since  their  lauding  in  Botany  l>ay  in  17SS.  New  Zealand,  owing  to  tlie  proximity 
of  the  Australian  continent,  experienced  this  change  at  an  earlier  time  than  the 
Hawaiian  group.  Relations  between  the  two  countries  were  soon  opened  when  a 
new  life  and  vigour  began  to  stir  in  Australia,  and  tlie  connection  was  gradually 
tightened.  Only  in  quite  recent  days  has  New  Zealand  drawn  slightly  apart,  since 
it  has  not  joined  the  Australian  Confederation  which  has  at  last  become  an  accom- 
plislied  fact.  It  remains  to  be  seen  if  this  isolated  position  will  be  maintained, 
i'rom  the  standpoint  of  geographical  position  there  is  no  necessity  for  union  be- 
tween New  Zealand  and  its  enormous  neighbour ;  in  fact  the  position  is  in  favour 
of  standing  aloof.  After  all,  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  future  of  New  Zea- 
land iu  any  case ;  its  situation  facing  the  broad  southern  expanse  of  the  Pacific  is 
so  advantageous  that  the  greater  part  of  the  later  history  of  the  Pacific  must  be 
bound  up  with  New  Zealand.  Melanesia  (see  the  accompanying  map)  occupies  a 
peculiar  position  toward  the  whole.  If  we  apply  the  standard  of  superficial  con- 
tents, then  the  small  islands  are  simply  to  be  ranked  with  the  corresponding  for- 
mations in  Micronesia  ami  Polynesia ;  they  too  are  historically  insignificant.  This 
standard  is  no  longer  applicable  to  the  groups  of  wider  area,  such  as  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago,  the  Solomon  Islands,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  New  Caledonia.  Each 
of  these,  from  its  size  and  population,  would  be  suited  to  play  a  part  in  history  at 
least  as  important  as  that  of  Central  Oceania.  But  what  do  we  find  ?  Apart 
from  Fiji,  which,  from  the  standpoint  of  politics  rather  than  of  anthropology  and 
ethnology,  shows  a  Polynesian  stamp,  none  of  them  has  developed  any  political 
constitution  which  is  superior  to  the  village  community.  There  are  therefore  no 
tangible  historical  events  to  be  recorded  of  them.  On  the  other  hand  the  neigh- 
bouring Australian  has,  for  the  time  being,  shown  a  want  of  perseverance,  since 
not  one  of  these  island  groups  has  been  taken  in  hand  by  the  whites  on  a  large 
scale  as  a  focus  of  civilization.  I'ntil  this  attempt  has  been  once  made  it  is 
impossible  to  ascertain  what  historical  character  is  peculiar  to  the  Melanesians. 
That  their  prospects  of  playing  a  more  noteworthy  role  would  be  especially  good, 
even  if  they  on  their  part  contributed  all  the  necessary  preliminaries,  can  hardly 
be  asserted,  if  we  consider  the  existing  conditions  in  the  Pacific  and  the  general 
political  situation.  It  is  due  to  this  latter  that  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  at  present  the 
object  of  universal  interest,  and  is  constantly  navigated  by  the  fleets  of  all  colonial 
powers.  Owing  to  this  the  Oceanic  island  world  is  far  from  being  the  remote  part 
of  the  globe's  surface  which  it  was  some  centuries,  or  even  decades,  since.  The 
vigorous  economic  rivalr}'  of  all  nations  even  in  these  regions  must  be  considered ; 
in  a  word,  all  circumstances  point  to  the  fact  that  the  natives  from  the  first  will 
have  to  be  content  with  playing  a  very  subordinate  part.  The  more  active  and 
enterprising  Melanesian  may  under  the  circumstances  save  himself  from  such 
repression  as  has  been  the  fate  of  the  Australian,  but  on  the  other  liand  any  com- 
bination into  larger  societies  is  impossible  from  the  purely  material  drawback  of 
the  nniltijilicity  of  languages;  to  say  nothing  of  the  boundless  distrust  with  which 
one  tribe  inspires  another.     These  conditions  hold  good  for  the  island  groups,  and 


Jrwlhrl.  :Dt>ddjeKiA^C 


f^m- 


TO  fttHn.  Qramnngh 


Pi-ii\Ud  h\-  Uii-  Biblio^mpliisilii's  Instilul  Leq)£i^ 


.r™-K«Tt  OntldJb^uLtr* 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  233 


in  increased  force  for  New  Guinea.  This  gigantic  island,  which  exceeds  in  size 
the  Japanese  and  the  Britisli  island-empires  together,  is  historically  unique,  not 
only  in  the  Pacific  but  on  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth ;  Borneo  alone  shows 
some  points  of  resemblance.  Fitted,  from  its  size  and  apparently  from  its  natural 
wealth  as  well,  to  dominate  the  eutire  system  of  islands  in  Indonesia  and  Oceania, 
New  Guinea  has  the  initial  disadvantage  of  lying  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
incomparably  vaster  Australia,  and,  what  is  more,  of  facing  the  barren  part  of  that 
continent.  While  New  Zealand,  which  lies,  as  one  may  say,  opposite  the  fa(;ade 
of  Australia,  has  been  involved  with  it  in  a  most  happy  development.  New  Guinea 
has  of  all  the  large  islands  in  the  world  remained  the  longest  totally  neglected. 
The  most  recent  encroachments  of  the  modern  colonial  powers  have  called  atten- 
tion to  it,  but  it  has  had  the  further  misfortune  of  not  being  annexed  to  its  natural 
neighbour  Australia,  but  of  being  partitioned  among  no  fewer  than  three  powers 
with  completely  conflicting  interests.  Although  the  unnatural  character  of  this 
arrangement  has  not  yet  caused  serious  iuconveniences,  owing  to  the  caution  with 
which  the  preliminary  steps  have  been  taken,  a  time  will  certainly  arrive  when 
the  drawbacks  of  the  system  will  be  patent.  Tlie  part  that  suffers  from  this  is 
in  the  first  place  New  Guinea  itself,  but,  in  the  second,  Australia.  British  New 
Guinea  has  indeed  the  advantage  of  forming  the  coast  opposite  to  North  Australia, 
a  position  which  everywhere  and  always  in  the  course  of  the  history  of  mankind 
has  proved  to  be  profitable.  But  it  turns  its  face  away  from  the  open  sea,  and  thus 
stands  far  behiud  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land,  the  German  part  of  New  Guinea, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  political  importance.  This  circumstance  had,  however, 
been  realised  by  the  Anglo-Australian  colonies  long  before  the  inauguration  of 
the  new  colonial  age,  since  they  have  always  rightly  estimated  the  special  value 
of  their  geographical  situation.  They  like  to  call  the  South  Sea  "  our  ocean,"  and 
it  is  never  forgotten  how  at  the  first  dawn  of  that  period  the  colony  of  Queensland 
enforced  the  "  natural  right  of  possession  "  for  the  whole  area,  from  New  Guinea 
in  the  west  to  Fiji  in  the  south.  That  inheritance,  on  which  doubts  were  then 
generally  cast,  has  now  been  accepted  by  the  great  Australian  Commonwealth. 

The  sources  of  our  information  for  the  history  of  Australia  and  Oceania  differ 
in  kind  and  value,  according  as  we  deal  with  the  period  anterior  to  or  later  than 
the  arrival  of  the  whites.  About  the  modern  era,  wliich  we  may  fairly  define  as 
the  period  from  the  permanent  discovery  of  the  islands  to  the  present  day,  we 
possess  on  the  whole  ample  information  from  the  accounts  of  missionaries  and 
travellers ;  but  for  the  whole  of  the  early  period  no  records  exist.  We  find  merely 
tradition,  wliicii  does  not,  however,  extend  over  the  wliole  region,  but  is  limited  to 
Polynesia ;  but  there  it  comes  into  the  foreground  in  a  way  that  is  unparalleled 
among  primitive  peoples.  The  whole  of  Polynesian  chronology  is  based  upon 
generations;  separate  groups  and  islands  enumerate  long  series  of  them.  Thus 
Rarotonga  reckons  thirty  generations ;  New  Zealand,  since  the  Maori  immigration, 
fifteen  to  twenty ;  the  dynasty  of  Mangarewa,  twenty-seven.  Hawaii  with  the 
sixty-seven  ancestors  of  Kamehameha  I,  and  Nukahiva  with  eighty-eight  genera- 
tions far  exceed  these  figures  ;  but  in  these  instances  a  series  of  deities  and  spirits 
as  ancestors  are  plainly  introduced  into  the  royal  succession. 

Tradition,  from  the  reasons  above  mentioned,  shows  itself  to  be  an  obscure, 
unimportant,  and  doubtful  source  of  information,  and  on  other  grounds  it  is  only 
of  qualified  interest  to  us.     However  interesting  its  study  may  be  for  an  exhaustive 


234  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD         [chapter iir 

examination  of  some  special  district,  yet  it  is  entirely  immaterial  to  the  general 
course  of  the  history  of  mankind  whether  on  an  island  lost  in  the  vastness  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  a  few  chiefs  more  or  less  of  tills  or  that  name  lived  and  worked. 
The  value  of  their  ascertained  total  merely  consists  in  the  pussihility  wliich  is  then 
presented  of  calculating  rougiily  the  beginning  of  tribal  life  in  the  islands,  and 
thus  of  obtaining  some  starting-point  for  the  i)eriod  of  the  first  migrations.  The 
answer  to  this  question  is  the  pivot  of  the  first  and  general  part  of  our  investiga- 
tions devoted  to  Oceania.  The  second,  and  in  a  narrower  sense  historical  part, 
opens  everjTvhere  with  the  appearance  of  the  Europeans.  From  that  era  onwards 
there  are  visible  traces  of  reciprocal  relations  between  the  South  Sea  and  the  rest  of 
the  globe.  Ethnology  as  a  coadjutor  in  the  science  of  history  has,  if  possible, a  more 
difficult  task  to  perform  in  Oceania  than  in  Africa  (cf.  Vol.  III).  In  the  first  place, 
it  alone  can  only  give  unexceptionable  proof  of  the  relations  between  the  separate 
great  ethnical  groups  of  the  region  itself ;  there  is  no  other  method  available  here 
than  that  of  comparative  anthropology  and  ethnology.  The  second  task  is  more 
important  and  incomparably  nu)re  difficult,  that  of  elucidating  the  origin  and  affin- 
ity of  the  Polynesians.  The  solution  of  this  problem,  notwithstanding  the  diligence 
of  numerous  explorers,  is  still  wanting.  We  may  not  only  hope  but  assume  that 
it  will  in  the  end  be  discovered,  and  mainly  by  the  help  of  ethnography. 


2.     AUSTRALIA    AND   TASMANIA   AS   PARTS  OF   THE 
INHABITED   EARTH 

A.   Australia 

(a)  The  Position  of  Australia.  —  The  position  of  Australia,  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  history  of  the  world  and  of  civilization,  is  best  described  as  terminal  or  mar- 
ginal. In  this  respect  it  has  many  features  in  common  with  Africa,  and  especially 
the  southern  half  of  Africa.  Just  as  this  continent  runs  out  toward  the  west  into 
the  narrow  but  almost  landless  Atlantic,  and  toward  the  south  into  the  desolate 
and  inhospitable  Antarctic  Ocean,  so  the  mighty  waste  of  waters  of  the  Southern 
Indian  and  Southern  Pacific  Oceans  spreads  round  the  western  and  southern  halves 
of  Australia.  And  precisely  as  the  inhalntauts  of  the  western  and  southern  sides 
have,  of  all  therijces  in  Africa,  remained  most  aloof  from  the  sea,  so  the  correspond- 
ing parts  of  Australia  have  always  been  the  least  attractive  to  navigators.  Even 
in  the  present  days  of  enormous  commerce,  when  the  enterprising  wliite  man  does 
not  ignore  the  less  alluring  districts,  the  south  and  southwest  of  Australia  are  far 
behind  the  other  parts  of  the  country  in  every  respect.  Australia  is  only  shut  off 
from  the  open  sea  upon  the  east ;  we  there  find  large  clusters  of  islands,  wliich,  on 
the  map  at  least,  produce  the  impression  of  a  dense  mass.  But,  in  realitj-  the  area 
of  these  eastern  islands  is  nothing  in  comparison  with  the  expanse  of  ocean  and  the 
continent;  and  leaving  New  Zealand  out  of  the  question,  they  cannot,  with  their 
diminutive  superficial  size,  be  considered  as  having  influenced  Australia  in  the  jiast. 

Australia  is  thus  the  most  insular  of  all  continents.  It  would  appear  completely 
free  and  detached  from  the  other  continental  land  masses,  were  it  not  for  the  dense 
Indonesian  group  which  lies  to  the  northwest,  and  forms  a  connecting  link  with 
the  southeast  coast  of  Asia.     This  group  contains  larger  islands  than  its  Oceanic 


o«rf™'']  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  235 

continuatiou ;  it  is  also  more  densely  packed,  so  that  it  seems  admirably  adapted  as 
a  bridge  for  migrations.  And  it  has  undoubtedly  served  such  purpose.  In  the  case 
of  certain  plants  and  animals,  the  migration  from  Asia  to  Australia  can  be  proved, 
and  it  is  extremel}-  probable  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Australian  native  tribes  crossed 
the  Indonesian  bridge. 

If  we  consider  Australia  under  these  circumstances  a  part  of  the  Old  World,  we 
are  certainly  treating  the  question  rightly  ;  only,  this  conclusion  is  less  frequently 
based  by  historians  on  the  facts  of  geography,  zoology,  and  botany,  than  upon  tlie 
evidence  of  native  culture  and  institutions,  which  are  entirely  borrowed  from  the 
civilization  of  the  Old  World.  But  the  first  argument  is  more  interesting  and  his- 
torically mure  far-reaching,  since  it  brings  into  our  field  of  view  not  only  Australia, 
but  also  all  Oceania,  which  is,  much  more  obviously  than  Australia,  connected 
with  the  Asiatic  continent.  The  path  from  Asia  to  both  regions  is  almost  precisely 
the  same. 

The  marginal  situation  of  Australia  has  produced  on  its  aboriginal  iniiabitants 
all  the  effects  which  we  find  in  every  primitive  nation  in  the  same  or  a  similar  posi- 
tion. The  whole  development  of  their  culture  bears  the  stamp  of  isolation.  The 
disadvantageous  position  of  the  continent  is  by  no  means  lialanced  by  variety  of  in- 
ternal conformation.  The  coast  line  compares  favourably  in  extent  with  those  of 
South  America  and  Africa  when  the  greater  superficial  area  of  these  two  continents 
is  taken  into  account.  So  with  tlie  number  of  its  peninsulas,  Australia  fares  better 
than  tliose  two  continents,  as  a  glance  at  the  map,  p.  232,  will  show.  But  what 
profit  do  the  natives  derive  from  these  very  slight  advantages,  if  the  islands  and 
peninsulas  are  as  sterile,  inaccessible,  and  desolate  as  most  of  the  coast  districts  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  interior  itself  ? 

(t)  Tlie  Physical  Cliaracteristics  of  Australia.  —  The  physical  characteristics 
of  Australia  show  at  the  first  glance  a  great  poverty  and  monotony.  The  continent, 
according  to  its  vertical  configuration,  is  a  vast  plateau,  rising  in  the  east,  and  .^ink- 
ing in  the  west,  which  slopes  away  from  north  to  south.  This  table-land  is  only 
fringed  by  mountain  ranges  on  its  edges.  A  chain  of  mountains  runs  along  the 
east  coast  from  the  southern  extremity,  which  follows  the  coast  line  at  a  varying 
though  never  great  distance,  until  it  ends  in  Cape  York.  From  this  great  water- 
shed the  land  gradually  slopes  away  in  a  southwesterly  direction  to  the  Indian 
Ocean,  seamed  by  a  few  detached  ranges  and  mountains,  which  rise  to  a  consider- 
able height  in  isolated  masses.  The  western  coast  range  is  not  so  high  as  the 
eastern;  but,  in  contrast  to  the  latter,  it  is  prolonged  into  the  interior  as  a  table-land, 
which  abounds  in  extensive  salt  marshes  and  stretches  far  into  the  centre  of  the 
country.  On  the  south  and  north  there  is  no  such  high  ground  bordering  the  coast 
and  turning  inwards.  Some  half  century  ago,  this  high  ground  jjlayed  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  current  theories  as  to  the  interior,  since  its  assumed  existence  neces- 
sarily required  the  interior  to  be  an  enormous  basin,  in  which  the  rivers  from  all 
sides  united  their  waters  in  a  large  inland  sea.  We  know  now  that  the  north  rises 
so  gradually  from  the  sea  to  the  interior  that  the  rivers,  in  consetjuence  of  their 
gentle  and  uniform  fall,  overflow  their  banks  far  and  wide  after  every  heavy  down- 
pour of  tropical  rain.  There  is  still  less  difference  of  height  observable  between 
the  interii)r  and  the  south  coast.  The  lake  district,  which  runs  in  a  long  line  from 
Spencer  Gulf  to  the  north  and  northwest,  lies  almost  on  the  level  of  the  sea. 


236  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter  in 

(c)  The  Hydrography  of  Australia.  —  The  hydrograi>hy  of  Australia  is  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  country.  Not  one  of  its 
mountains  is  high  enough  to  form  among  perpetual  snows  a  reservoir  for  the 
constant  supply  of  the  rivers ;  but  the  principal,  and  from  its  position  the  most 
important  range,  that  of  the  east  coast,  is  high  enough  to  divert  tlie  atmospheric 
moisture  from  the  remaining  parts  of  the  continent.  The  existing  condition.s  are 
precisely  similar  to  those  iu  South  Africa,  wliich  geographically  and  elhmigniplii- 
cally  has  many  points  of  affinity  with  Australia.  Just  as  the  curving  ranges  of 
the  east  coast  of  Africa  collect  on  their  wild  and  rugged  flanks  all  tlie  aqueous 
vapour  of  the  southeast  trade-wind  blowing  from  tlie  Indian  Ocean,  so  the  mois- 
ture contained  b}-  the  Pacitic  soutlieast  trade-wind  does  not  go  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  high  grounds  of  East  Australia ;  this  is  a  blessing  for  the  colonies  of  Victoria, 
New  South  Wales,  and  Queensland,  where  the  economic  and  political  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  whole  continent  must  always  lie,  but  a  curse  for  the  whole  of  the 
rest  of  the  interior. 

As  a  result  of  this  restricted  area  of  rainfall,  there  is  no  river  system  of  im- 
portance, except  that  of  the  Murray  and  its  tributarj-,  the  Darling,  on  the  east  of 
the  continent.  This  testities  to  the  absence  of  any  watershed  in  the  interior,  in  so 
far  as  its  sources  comprise  the  whole  western  slopes  of  the  East  Australian  coast 
range  from  New  South  Wales  to  Queensland.  Measured  by  a  European  standard, 
the  region  included  by  the  two  rivers  embraces  a  triangle,  the  angles  of  which  would 
be  formed  by  the  towns  of  Turin,  Kiinigsberg,  and  Belgrade.  We  are  concerned, 
therefore,  with  measurements  such  as  Europe  can  only  show  in  its  eastern  half  at 
most.  The  real  value  both  of  these  rivers  and  of  most  of  the  rest  in  Australia, 
whether  rapid  or  stagnant,  does  not  unfortunately  accord  with  the  figures.  The 
Darling,  indeed,  is  by  far  the  longer  but  shallower  arm,  which  onl)-  becomes 
navigable  after  great  floods,  and  can  then  be  ascended  bj-  steamers  of  small 
draught  as  far  as  the  point  where  it  cuts  the  thirtieth  degree  of  southern  latitude. 
Even  the  Murrumbidgeo,  the  right  tributary  of  the  Murray,  is  only  open  to  navi- 
gation some  mouths  in  the  year.  The  Murray  alone  is  available  at  all  times  for 
the  objects  of  commerce,  but  only  since  a  great  and  lasting  interest  has  been 
taken  in  the  regulation  of  its  channels. 

In  the  north  and  northeast,  owing  to  the  heavier  rainfall,  there  is  less  scarcity 
of  water.  We  find  there  numerous  watercourses  of  considerable  breadtli,  of  wliich 
quite  a  number  are  navigable  for  a  short  distance  inland.  But  they  do  not  open 
up  the  interior  of  the  country  itself.  Only  the  still  little  known  streams  of  the 
northern  ten-itory,  the  Roper,  the  Daly,  and  the  Victoria,  seem  to  form  a  notable 
exception,  since  they  can  be  ascended  by  large  vessels  for  a  very  considerable 
distance. 

In  contrast  to  this,  the  prospect  throughout  the  west  and  south,  and  in  the 
interior  is  very  disheartening.  We  find,  indeed,  numerous  and  apparently  large 
watercourses  on  the  map,  but  not  in  reality.  The  name  of  a  river  in  those  parts 
is  given  to  channels  which  either  lie  quite  dry  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  or 
under  the  most  favourable  conditions  consist  of  a  chain  of  broad  ponds,  which  are 
divided  by  banks  and  never  connected  after  their  formation.  These  beds  only 
become  real  watercourses  at  the  time  of  the  summer  rains ;  but  then  they  swell  to 
such  a  size  that  the  overflow  does  no  good  to  the  land.  The  torrents  then  rush 
down  many  feet  deep,  only  to  disappear  in  the  ever-thirsty  ground  after  a  short 


o^t'""]  HISTORY    OF    THE   WORLD  237 

course  aud  a  still  shorter  time,  and  thus  once  more  to  make  room  for  the  old  order 
of  things.  Australia,  like  Africa,  is  the  land  of  contrasts.  The  south  coast  does 
not  even  enjoy  the  doubtful  advantage  of  such  streams  ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  as 
far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Murray  entirely  devoid  of  any  river  worth  mentioning.  It 
is  sufficiently  obvious  that  such  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  water  supply  of  the 
continent  must  have  the  most  far-reaching  effects  on  all  its  phenomena  of  life. 
The  abrupt  change  from  complete  drought  to  a  deep  flood  which  destroys  all  life 
is  in  itself  sutlicient  to  reduce  wide  tracts  to  wildernesses,  and  all  the  more  so 
since  the  numerous  lakes  are  subject  to  the  same  variations.  Ethnographically, 
however,  and  therefore  in  a  wider  sense  historically,  more  important  than  this 
change  is  the  permanent  characteristic  of  Australia,  the  marvellous  drought, 
which  prevails  over  the  whole  continent  as  far  as  the  tropical  regions  of  it,  and  is 
only  made  more  apparent  by  tlie  rarity  and  short  duration  of  the  rainfall.  This 
drought  is  in  the  first  place  the  cause  of  the  barrenness  of  the  country,  and  in  the 
next  place  it  obliges  the  natives  to  be  continually  migrating  if  they  wish  to  find 
sutticient  food.  Finally,  it  is  the  cause  why  these  unsettled  migratory  bands  can 
never  attain,  any  size,  if,  indeed,  the  scanty  supplies  of  the  soil  are  to  be  enough  to 
feed  them.  The  consequence  is  that  the  Australians  are  split  up  into  a  number 
of  small  tribes  or  hordes,  among  wliom  no  traces  of  national  life  can  be  discovered. 
Their  gradual  disappearance  without  lea\iug  any  mark  on  history  is  a  necessary 
sequel.  Nor  does  this  main  feature  of  the  hydrography  of  Australia  limit  its 
effects  to  the  natives  only ;  it  has,  on  the  contrary,  exercised  a  marked  influence  on 
the  density  of  colonisation  by  the  whites.  In  the  parts  of  the  country  remote 
from  the  coast  the  colonist,  precisely  as  in  sub-tropical  South  Africa,  required 
ample  room,  and  it  is  no  mere  coincidence  that  the  colonies  of  Australia  were 
everywhere  founded  in  the  more  fertile  coast  districts. 

(ff)  The  Australian  Climate.  —  The  characteristic  feature  of  the  Australian 
climate  is  its  dryness.  The  country  from  its  position  between  the  tenth  and 
fortieth  degrees  of  southern  latitude  is  for  the  most  part,  and  unfortunately 
throughout  its  whole  length,  included  in  the  region  of  the  southern  trade-winds. 
In  addition  to  this,  tliere  is  the  second  disadvantage  which  we  have  already 
mentioned,  that  the  highest  ranges  of  mountains  are  found  on  the  weather  side  of 
the  continent ;  the  result  of  which  is  that  the  main  portion  of  the  country  is 
sheltered  from  wind  and  rain.  If,  under  these  circumstances,  the  interior  is  not 
such  a  sandy  waste  as  the  Sahara,  the  centre  of  tlie  North  African  trade-wind 
region.  Central  Australia  owes  this  merely  to  the  excessive  heating  of  its  soil  and 
the  openness  of  the  north  coast.  The  former  produces,  in  summer  especially,  an 
extensive  Central  Australian  zone  of  low  pressure,  which  gives  rise  to  a  rain- 
bringing  northwest  monsoon,  and  draws  it  far  into  the  continent,  sometimes  even 
to  the  south  coast.  Unfortunately  this  wind,  in  the  extent  of  the  regions  over 
which  it  passes  and  in  its  effect  on  the  climate,  is  far  inferior  to  the  southeast 
trade-wind,  under  the  dominion  of  which  many  tracts  are  for  months  without  any 
rain  whatever.  The  west,  which  it  reaches  after  all  moisture  has  been  deposited, 
suffers  peculiarly  from  this  drawback. 

The  conditions  of  the  ramfall  in  Australia  go  by  extremes.  "  It  never  rains 
but  it  pours  "  is  the  saying  of  the  settlers,  which  aptly  characterises  the  way  in 
which  the  water  pours  down  from  the  clouds ;  in  Sydney,  on  one  occasion,  ten 


238  HISTORY    OF   THP:    WORLD         [chapter in 

inches  of  rain,  a" quarter,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  annual  rainfall,  fell  in  two  hours 
and  a  half.  The  vegetation  of  the  country  is  nowhere  sutlicient  to  store  up  such 
volumes  of  water ;  they  rush  away,  doing  more  or  less  havoc,  are  immediately 
sucked  up  by  the  ever-thirsty  eartli,  and  then  make  way  for  as  parching  a  drought 
perhaps  as  hud  previously  prevailed. 

The  temperatures  also  are  no  exception  to  this  general  description.  The 
vicinity  of  the  sea  modifies  tlie  extremes  on  tlie  coast  regions ;  yet  in  Perth,  for 
example,  a  maximum  temperature  of  113°  Fahrenheit  is  contrasted  with  a  mininmm 
temperature  of  24"  Fahrenlieit.  The  interior,  however,  is  completely  subject  to  a 
pronounced  continental  climate;  there  the  thermometer  during  the  day  rises  to 
120°  Fahrenheit, while  at  night  the  pouls  are  covered  by  a  thick  coating  of  ice;  for 
night  represents  winter  in  Australia.  However  easy  it  has  been  for  the  Euro- 
pean immigrant  to  adapt  himself  to  these  climatic  peculiarities,  the  aborigine 
has  always  been  helpless  in  face  of  them.  In  addition  to  anxious  care  for  his 
daily  food,  and  above  all  for  tlie  life-giving  water,  he  is  met,  in  the  sub-tropical 
regions  at  any  rate,  by  a  second  and  not  less  serious  anxiety  about  a  shelter  from 
the  weather.  Certainly,  for  a  creature  so  dependent  on  nature  as  the  Austra- 
lian, the  combination  of  these  three  cares  is  sutlicient  to  divert  the  thoughts  of 
even  the  most  intelligent  among  them  from  any  higher  intellectual  occupation. 

(e)  The  Vegetation  of  Austral u(.  —  The  vegetation  of  his  native  soil  only  assists 
the  Australian  to  a  limited  extent  in  his  struggle  for  existence,  yet  he  owes  more 
to  it  than  to  the  animal  kingdom.  The  Australian  flora  is  like  that  of  all  stepjie 
regions,  rich  in  varieties,  of  which  it  alTords,  for  example,  more  than  Europe ;  but 
in  its  general  characteristics  of  dryness,  stiffness,  and  want  of  sap  it  is  quite  on  a 
keeping  with  the  pervading  nature  of  the  country.  These  features  belong  to  the 
Australian  trees  with  their  stifl",  ever  green  yet  dull  and  lustreless,  foliage  and  their 
scanty  shade ;  they  are  still  more  emphatically  peculiar  to  the  typical  Australian 
growth  of  "  scrub,"  that  dense  gray  tangle  of  stubborn,  sapless  bushes,  which  is 
hard  to  destroy  even  by  burning  and  presents  more  obstacles  to  the  advance  of 
the  explorer  than  the  most  luxm'iant  vegetation  of  tlie  tropics.  The  characteristic 
of  stiffness  and  dryness  is  found  in  every  blade  of  the  notorious  Australian  spinifex 
or  porcupine-grass  plains  with  their  diy,  sharp-edged  grasses.  And  lastly  we  find  it 
most  conspicuously  in  those  districts  seamed  with  sandhills,  salt  plains,  and  stony 
tracts,  where  the  steppe  becomes  a  desert,  and  where  only  the  extraordinary  abun- 
dance of  certain  grasses  and  thorns  succeeds  in  keeping  the  soil  fiom  being  abso- 
lutely bare. 

These  different  forms  of  vegetation  have  totally  different  effects  upon  the  popu- 
lation. From  the  point  of  ^'iew  of  moving  from  one  place  to  another,  the  forest 
and  the  grass  steppe  are  contrasted  with  the  scrub  and  the  sinnifex  steppe.  The 
forest,  or,  as  it  would  be  more  correctly  called,  the  Australian  heath,  with  its 
tree  trunks  standing  far  apart  and  its  want  of  underwood,  lias  never  offered  any 
obstacle  to  the  wanderings  of  the  natives  or  the  whites.  On  the  contrary,  with  the 
vigorous  giowtli  of  grass  which  has  been  able  to  spring  up  unchecked  everywhere 
between  the  smooth,  branchless  stems,  it  has  formed  a  car[)et  over  which  the 
settler  could  march  to  the  tempting  pasture  grounds  of  the  hinterland.  The  eco- 
nomic centre  of  gravity  of  the  continent  lies,  even  at  the  present  day,  in  these  open 
forests  and  meadow-like  districts,  which  are  limited  to  the  southeast  and  the  northern 


^Z'^""'^]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  239 

parts  of  the  interior ;  indeed,  cattle-breeding,  the  most  extensive  and  important  of 
Australian  industries,  entirely  depends  on  them. 

The  two  other  forms  of  vegetation  have  nothing  of  this.  It  is  a  known  fact 
that  the  impenetrability  of  the  scrub  is  one  of  tlie  chief  causes  why  the  exploration 
of  Australia  has  proceeded  so  slowly.  The  boldest  travellers  have  wandered  for 
weeks  and  months  round  the  enormous  thickets  without  finding  a  path  through  the 
stubborn  mass.  So,  too,  the  boundless  spinifex  plains,  with  their  pleasing  aspect, 
which  recalls  waving  fields  of  ripe  com,  form  anything  but  a  i^leasant  road.  The 
stalks,  from  their  dryness  and  stiffness,  are  unsuited  for  fodder,  and  the  leaves  are 
so  sharp  that  they  draw  blood  from  the  legs  of  the  traveller.  All  traffic  through 
these  districts,  therefore,  has  been  abandoned.  Economically  also,  neither  kind 
of  country  concerns  the  European  for  the  present.  It  is  true  that  for  some 
time  very  successful  attempts  have  been  made  to  increase  the  value  of  the  dryer 
grass  steppes  by  a  system  of  wells,  and  without  doubt  in  the  future  the  feasibility 
of  cultivating  the  steppes  now  overgrown  with  scrub  and  porcupine  grass  will 
be  considered.  But  it  appears  problematical  whether  the  labour  expended  wUl 
repay  itself.  The  native  has  nothing  to  hope  from  either  kind  of  country.  They 
have  both  been  always  inaccessible  to  him  and  in  the  future  will  secure  for  him 
neither  a  shelter  nor  a  liveliliood.  "With  food  plants  of  all  kinds  the  native  has 
not  been  so  stingily  provided  by  the  continent  as  the  older  accounts  would  seem 
to  say.  The  bulbs  so  characteristic  of  steppe  coimtries  are  indeed  insignificant  in 
Australia ;  but  in  their  place  the  native,  who  is  certainly  not  fastidious,  has  at  his 
disposal  numerous  other  roots,  various  wild  kinds  of  corn,  mushrooms,  berries,  and 
blossoms,  so  that  there  can  be  no  question  of  any  actual  lack  of  food.  But  the 
niggard  nature  of  the  country  does  not  make  it  easy  for  him  to  obtain  these  crops, 
any  more  than  it  will  ever  allow  the  white  settler  to  bring  agriculture  into  the  first 
rank  of  industries  in  place  of  cattle-breediug. 

(/)  The  Animal  Life  of  Axistralia.  —  The  Australian  has  been  most  inade- 
quately endowed  with  a  native  fauna.  As  one  might  expect  from  the  general 
physical  features  of  the  continent,  it  is  limited ;  but  it  has  become  a  matter  of 
grave  importance  for  the  native  that  it  has  not  provided  him  with  a  single  domestic 
or  useful  animal.  The  few  animals  that  might  be  thought  of  for  such  purposes,  are 
all  considered  too  vrild.  The  dingo,  tlie  only  mammal  available  for  domestication, 
was  in  all  probability,  introduced  in  a  domesticated  state  and  has  since  become  wild. 
In  addition  to  this,  hunting,  owing  to  the  fleetness  of  all  animals  of  the  chase,  is  a 
very  difficult  undertaking  for  the  aborigine  armed  with  inadequate  weapons  ;  none 
even  of  the  numerous  well-equipped  European  expeditious  have  ever  been  able  to 
provide  themselves  with  food  by  this  means.  The  nocturnal  habits  of  an  unusually 
large  number  of  animals  greatly  inc^rease  the  difficulty  of  catching  tliem.  Tliis 
diiiiculty,  insuperable  for  the  aborigines,  the  European  has  met  in  the  best  possible 
way  by  introducing  European  domestic  animals.  They  have  aU  succeeded  admi- 
rably, have  multiplied  to  an  astouuiling  degree,  and  now  represent  a  most  valuable 
part  of  the  national  property,  in  fact,  together  with  the  mineral  output,  cattle-" 
breeding  has  contributed  the  largest  share  to  the  marvellously  rapid  development 
of  the  colonies. 

{g)  Australia's  Mineral  Wealth.  — Even  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  has 
entu-ely  failed  to  affect  the  position  of  the  native.     He,  like  the  Bushman  of  South 


240  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter iir 

Africa,  has  never  gone  so  far  as  to  employ  any  metal  in  its  crude  state,  but  meets 
the  European  as  a  fully  developed  man  of  the  Stone  Age,  or  in  some  degree  of  a 
yet  earlier  stage.  The  wliites  have  set  about  all  the  more  vigorously  to  make  use  of 
the  mineral  treasures  of  Australia.  The  opening  of  the  gold  tields  about  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  certainly  marks  the  most  crucial  chapter  in  the  history  of 
the  colonies.  Even  now,  when  the  "gold  fever"  has  long  since  given  way  to  a 
normal  temperature,  the  mining  industry  has  all  the  greater  importance  for  the 
development  of  Australia  and  its  position  in  the  great  future  which  we  may  antici- 
])ate  for  the  Pacific  Ocean,  because  its  wealth  in  other  useful  minerals,  especially 
in  coal  and  iron,  is  undisputed.  The  east,  in  all  things  the  favoured  region,  in  this 
respect  also  retains  its  natural  superiority,  since  it  possesses  the  most  extensive 
coal-fields.  The  history  of  the  continent  will  thus  in  the  future  point  more 
decisively  and  distinctly  toward  the  east  and  the  north  than  hitherto. 

B.   Tasmania 

The  natural  features  of  Tasmania  call  for  little  remark.  In  the  conformation 
of  its  surface,  a  direct  continuation  of  the  coast  range  of  East  Australia,  it  re- 
sembles m  its  flora  and  fauna  also  the  southeast  of  the  continent.  On  these  and 
above  all  on  geological  grounds  it  cannot  be  separated  from  the  mainland,  in  com- 
pa'-ison  with  wliich,  however,  it  is  singularly  favoured  by  climate.  Tasmania  has 
neither  abrupt  contrasts  of  heat  and  cold  nor  an  uncertain  supply  of  water ;  a 
comparatively  large  rainfall  is  distributed  over  the  whole  year,  and  the  tempera- 
ture has  (mly  the  range  of  a  genial  and  temperate  maritime  climate.  There  is  an 
abundant  and  perpetual  supply  of  water  both  running  and  stagnant,  and  Tas- 
nianian  vegetation  is  of  a  luxuriance  such  as  on  the  mainland  is  found  only  in  the 
more  favoured  parts  of  Victoria.  Tasmania  really  deserves  the  name  of  "  Australia 
Felix,"  which  was  formerly  given  to  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  mainland.  It 
may  appear  at  the  first  sight  astonishing  that  from  such  a  favourable  foundation 
the  aborigine  has  not  mounted  to  any  higher  stage  of  culture  than  the  Australian, 
but  the  explanation  is  not  far  to  seek.  In  the  first  place,  owing  to  the  close 
affinity  of  the  Tasmanian  and  the  Australian,  the  intellectual  abilities  of  the  two 
races  are  on  a  par.  Even  in  the  domain  of  ethnical  psychology,  the  law  of  inertia 
holds  good ;  the  better  conditions  of  life  enjoyed  by  the  Tasmanian  are  balanced 
by  the  greater  isolation  and  seclusion  of  his  country.  The  forest  and  the  sea, 
which  runs  far  inland  in  numerous  creeks,  have  furnished  the  native  with  a  more 
ample  diet ;  but  an  opposite  coast,  which  might  be  the  transmitter  or  source  of 
new  achievements  in  cultiu'e,  was  more  comjiletely  wanting  there  than  even  in  the 
case  of  Australia.  Tiie  coasts  of  the  mainland  were  out  of  the  question  as  pro- 
moters of  culture ;  and  the  Tasmanian  only  navigated  the  sea  to  the  most  modest 
extent ;  longer  voyages  would  only  have  brought  him  to  a  wilderness  of  water. 

3.  THE   POPULATION   OF   AUSTRALIA   AND   TASMANIA 

What,  then,  is  the  state  of  the  inhabitants  of  these  countries,  whose  external 
conditions  have  just  been  sketched  as  guides  to  the  historical  development,  and  of 
the  makers  of  their  history  ?  What  jilace  do  the  primitive  inhabitants  take  in  the 
circle  of  mankind  ?     Are  they  autochthonous  in  their  land,  or  liave  they  immi- 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  241 


grated  ?  Have  they  kinsmen,  and,  if  so,  where  ?  And  what,  lastly,  is  the  compo- 
sition of  the  modern  non-native  population  of  the  continent  ?  We  will  endeavour 
to  answer  these  questions. 

A.  The  Anthropological  Position  of  the  Australians 

A  satisfactory  consensus  of  opinion  now  prevails  as  to  the  anlhropological 
position  of  the  Australians.  The  similarity  of  their  methods  of  life,  the  uni- 
formity of  their  attainments  in  culture  and  of  their  habits,  and  to  some  degree  the 
identity  of  the  languages  might  lead  to  the  erroneous  view  that  they  are  a  homo- 
geneous race,  which  cannot  be  grouped  with  the  ^Malayan  or  Papuan.  Anthropo- 
logical investigation  has  now  proved  that  this  homogeneousness  does  not  exist,  and 
that  the  native  population  of  Australia  represents,  on  the  contrary,  a  mLstuie  of  at 
least  two  very  distinct  elements.  This  view  finds  corroboration  in  the  difl'erences 
of  the  colour  of  the  skin  and  the  formation  of  the  hair,  and  also  of  the  shajie  of 
the  face.  The  colour  of  the  skin  varies  from  a  true  yellow  to  a  velvety  black  with 
numerous  intermediate  degi-ees,  among  which  the  dark-brown  tint  is  far  the  most 
common  colouring.  The  hair,  too,  with  a  prevalent  tendency  to  curl,  ranges  from 
the  true  straight-haired  type  to  the  complete  wooUy-haired  type  of  the  negro. 
The  shape  of  the  face  and  skull,  finally,  shows  a  multiplicity  of  difl'erences,  such  as 
cannot  be  greater  even  in  nations  proved  to  be  largely  mixed  with  foreign  blood. 
The  flat  negro  nose  on  the  one  side,  and  the  tj-pical  Semitic  nose  on  the  other,  form 
the  extremes  here.  It  is  thus  clearly  established  that  a  dark,  woolly-liaired  race 
and  a  light,  straight-haired  race  shared  in  the  ancestry  of  the  Australian.  But 
where,  then,  was  their  original  home  ?  Both  races  obviously  could  not  be  autoch- 
thonous at  the  same  time  ;  indeed,  the  nature  of  the  continent  seems  to  exclude 
the  possibility  that  it  was  the  cradle  even  of  one  race.  Whence,  therefore,  did  the 
two  elements  of  admixture  come,  and  which  is  the  earlier  on  the  new  soil  ? 

A  key  to  this  problem  we  find  even  at  the  present  day  on  the  north  coast  of 
Australia,  in  the  still  existing  trade  of  the  ilalays  with  the  northwest,  and  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  New  Guinea  with  a  Papuan  population,  which  also  has  a 
predilection  for  crossing  the  group  of  islands  of  the  Torres  Straits  to  the  south. 
For  the  migration  of  the  Papuan-Melanesian,  or,  in  more  general  terms,  of  tlie 
negroid  element,  no  other  path  than  that  by  New  Guinea  can  be  thouglit  of.  But 
two  roads  were  open  to  the  Malayan ;  the  direct  road  from  the  Indian  archipelago, 
which  even  at  the  present  day  maintains  a  connection  with  Australia,  and  the 
detour  by  Polynesia.  We  have  no  e\idence  that  this  second  one  was  used  ;  but 
we  know  now  from  the  ethnography  of  Xew  Guinea  that  its  population  had  a  dis- 
tinct infusion  of  Malayan-Polynesian  blood.  But  what  in  the  case  of  New  Guinea 
is  demonstrable  fact  lies  in  the  case  of  Australia  within  the  range  of  probability, 
since  the  conditions  of  access  to  both  countries  from  Polynesia  are  practically 
identical. 

Tlie  question  of  priority  sinks  into  the  background  compared  with  the  solution 
of  the  main  problem.  An  answer  also  is  barely  possible,  since  the  migration  from 
both  sides  to  Australia  must  not  be  regarded  as  an  isolated  event,  but  as  a  con- 
tinuous or  frequently  recurring  movement.  A  certain  coincidence  of  time  is  under 
the  circumstances  to  be  assumed. 

From  another  standpoint  also  the  question  of  priority  gives  way  before  that  of 

VOL.  II  — IG 


242  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD         \_nu,pter ill 

the  predominance  of  the  one  or  the  other  i-U'iueut.  The  point,  briefly  jmt,  is  to 
ascertain  clearly  the  causes  of  the  wouderful  inability  of  tlie  inoderu  Australian 
to  na\'igate  the  sea,  —  a  peculiar  defect,  which  has  prevented  him  from  settling  not 
only  on  the  more  remote  of  the  coasts  which  face  Australia,  but  even  on  the  neigh- 
bouring islands,  with  the  exception  of  Tasmania,  to  which  access  was  facilitated  by 
the  crowded  group  of  islands  in  the  Bass  Strait.  When  we  see  how  the  negroes 
and  all  the  dusky  remnants  of  nations  on  the  southern  margin  of  Asia  feel  the 
same  dread  of  the  sea,  and  when  we  reflect  that  the  nature  of  his  present  home 
has  induced  the  Melanesian  to  become  a  navigator,  although  he  is  far  removed 
from  being  a  true  seaman,  we  must  at  once  entertain  the  conjecture  that  it  is  the 
negroid  blood  in  his  veins  that  fetters  the  Australian  so  firmly  to  the  sod.  Up  to 
a  certain  point  this  conjecture  is  doubtless  correct,  for  the  law  of  heredity  holds 
good  in  the  domain  of  ethnical  psychology.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to  make 
Papuan  ancestry  alone  respousiVde  for  this  peculiarity ;  it  has  not  hindered  the 
Melanesiaus  from  arriving,  under  favourable  circumstances,  at  a  fair  degree  of 
proficiency  in  navigation.  If  the  Australian  has  failed  to  do  the  same,  it  is  partly 
because  his  circumstances  have  made  him  unfamdiar  with  the  sea. 

The  full  force  of  this  second  cause  is  apparent  when  we  consider  the  nature  of 
the  country,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  economic  basis  of  the  Australian  native's 
life  is  narrowed  by  the  poverty  and  inhospitable  character  of  his  surroundings. 
He  who  must  devote  every  moment  in  the  day  to  the  task  of  providing  food  and 
drink  for  his  body,  and  is  forced  to  roam  unceasingly  as  he  follows  his  fleeting 
quarrv  from  place  to  place,  has  neither  the  time  nor  the  inclination  to  retain  or  to 
develop  an  accomplishment  like  navigation,  which  recjuires  constant  practice,  and 
which  does  not  at  first  seem  necessary  in  a  new  country.  And  even  if  the  ances- 
tral Malayan  blood  had  transmitted  to  tlie  young  race  any  nautical  skill,  such  as 
we  admire  to-day  among  the  Poljuesians  and  Western  Malays,  the  Australian  con- 
tinent would  have  put  an  end  to  it,  for  it  has  always  been  the  country  of  material 
anxiety,  and  as  a  consequence  the  country  of  continual  decadence. 

The  loss  of  seamanship  is  in  reality  only  a  sign  of  this.  The  aloofness  from 
the  outer  world  which  began  with  it  was  the  first  step  toward  that  complete  dis- 
appearance of  Australia  from  history  for  the  millenniums  that  have  elapsed  since 
its  first  colonisation.  The  cause  of  this  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  isolation  of  the 
continent,  for  other  completely  remote  races  have  developed  a  history  and  a  civili- 
zation. It  was  not  to  the  absolute  seclusion  from  the  rest  of  the  world  and  the 
unbroken  quiet  in  which  Australia  reposed,  as  the  corner  pillar  of  the  Old  World 
between  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Pacific,  that  the  entire  absence  of  any  historical 
development  of  its  own  was  due,  but  to  the  total  impossibility  of  creating  a  true 
national  life  on  its  niggard  soil.  The  attempts  to  do  so,  which  the  Europeans 
found  on  their  arrival,  can  at  best  be  termed  a  caricature  of  political  organisation. 

B.   TiiK  Anthropological  Position  of  the  Tasmanians 

The  Tasmanian  also  has  not  progressed  far  in  tlie  field  of  political  development. 
Since  the  nature  of  his  country  is  richer  in  resources  than  Australia,  economic  con- 
siderations nmst  be  excluded  from  the  list  of  possible  causes.  The  same  remark 
applies  to  the  small  proficiency  in  navigation,  which  we  noticed  also  in  Australia. 
The  explanation  can  only  be  found  in  that  close  allinily  of  the  Tasmanian  to  the 


o:Z:t ""''']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  243 

jMelaoesian  etlmical  group,  upon  which  all  observers  have  insisted.  This  is 
primarily  shown  in  the  physical  characteristics;  but,  secondarily,  it  appears  in 
the  inability  of  the  Papuan  to  rise  higher  than  the  stage  of  village  communities. 
New  Guinea  offers  the  closest  parallel. 

C.   The  Whites 

The  whites  do  not  belong  to  the  continent,  but  have  made  it  commercially  sub- 
ject to  them,  and  have  thus,  in  contrast  to  the  aborigines,  who  have  never  succeeded 
in  breakmg  the  strong  fetters  of  nature,  become  the  true  makers  of  its  history. 
This  history  even  now  looks  back  barely  on  a  century,  a  period  of  time  that  hardly 
counts  in  the  life  of  a  people.  Yet  it  has  already  been  full  of  \icissitudes,  even  if, 
in  this  respect,  it  has  been  greatly  surpassed  by  the  outwardly  similar  history  of 
the  United  States  of  America.  Australia  has  so  far  followed  the  comfortable 
road  of  a  daughter  State ;  the  storms  begin  to  gather  when  the  first  thought  of 
independence  is  suggested. 

In  contrast  to  America,  which  for  centuries  has  been  a  crucible  for  almost  all 
the  races  and  peoples  of  the  globe,  the  immigrant  population  of  Australia,  Tas- 
mania, and  New  Zealand  is  unusually  homogeneous.  It  is  composed  almost  exclu- 
sivel}"  of  Britons,  by  the  side  of  whom  the  members  of  other  nationalities  practically 
disappear.  Even  the  hundred  thousand  Germans  who  have  settled  there  hardly 
affect  the  result,  especially  since  their  absorption  in  the  rest  of  the  population  is 
merely  a  question  of  time.  The  Chinese,  since  the}-  never  make  their  home  in  the 
country,  may  be  disregarded  as  factors  in  the  growth  of  national  life. 

The  ethnical  unity  of  the  white  population  of  Australia  is  of  extreme  impor- 
tance for  the  British  empire.  England's  dominant  position  on  the  Indian  Ocean 
(see  the  section  at  tlie  end  of  the  volume)  may  appear  most  favourable ;  but  in 
view  of  the  efforts  made  by  the  colonial  powers  of  Western  Europe  to  strengthen 
their  recently  acquired  possessions  in  those  parts  and  to  increase  their  influence 
generally,  but  above  all  in  view  of  the  danger  tliat  Russia  may  deliver  a  flank 
attack  from  the  north  on  India,  this  position  may  grow  less  tenable  from  day  to 
day.  The  same  turn  of  fortune  is  in  prospect  for  England  (and  aU  other  European 
colonial  powers)  on  the  Pacific.  There  it  is  the  cutting  of  the  Central  American 
Isthmus,  which  is  to  the  advantage,  both  strategically  and  economically,  of  the 
United  States,  above  aU  other  powers,  and  threatens  to  give  them  in  the  South  Seas 
a  great  superiority  over  all  rivals.  The  interests  of  England  are,  from  the  posi- 
tion of  affairs,  most  at  stake.  It  is  for  this  reason  a  gi'eat  stroke  of  good  fortune  for 
her  that  the  corner  pillar,  which  both  supports  the  dominions  on  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  is,  on  the  other  side,  the  chief  agent  of  British  interests  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is 
not  only  an  English  possession,  but,  as  it  were,  a  part  of  England  itself.  In  thought 
and  action,  customs  and  habits,  mother  and  daughter  exactly  resemble  each  other. 
Even  in  the  matter  of  dress  the  daughter  country  has  not  found  it  necessary  to 
consider  the  change  of  climate ;  the  tall  hat  is  the  only  admissible  head  gear  even 
in  the  streets  of  Sydney  and  Melbourne. 

This  feeling  of  complete  sympathy  must  be  most  soothing  to  the  mother  coun- 
try. It  knows  that  the  two  countries  are  identical  in  customs  and  manners,  and  it 
tacitly  assumes  that  the  same  community  of  feeling  must  reign  in  every  other 
department  of  life.     This  feeling  is  so  strong  that  even  the  latest  and  boldest  of 


244  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter i/i 

all  the  political  steps  of  the  Australian  colonies,  their  union  into  the  Coninion- 
woallh  of  Australia,  which  was  proclaimed  on  Sei)teinber  17,  1900,  is  regarded  in 
England  as  taken  entirely  in  the  interests  of  Great  Britain.  Tiiis  view  o{  the  situ- 
ation is  creditalile,  in  a  way,  to  Knghind,  since  it  proves  her  comidete  couKdence  in 
the  colonies ;  but  there  is  room  to  doubt  whether  it  is  justified  by  the  facts.  How 
would  it  be  if  this  federation,  notwithstanding  all  professions  of  loyalty,  were  the 
first  step  toward  jxililieal  indc]ieiidence  ?  Joseiili  Cliamberhiin,  who  with  all  the 
defects  of  his  character  is  undoubtedly  the  most  far-seeing  Juiglish  statesman 
of  the  present  day,  has  declared  emphatically  iii  a  public  speech  that  such  a 
step  or  even  the  thought  of  it  lay  entirely  outside  the  range  of  possibility.  But 
when  we  see  how  in  the  national  life  of  to-day  economic  interests  outweigh  all 
other  impulses  and  have  become  completely  the  gauge  of  international  relations, 
we  can  hardly  share  the  view  of  the  English  minister,  es])eciall)-  wlien  we  recall 
the  defection  of  the  United  Slates,  whose  ethnographical  relations  toward  the 
mother  couutrj'  were  quite  as  favourable  as  those  of  Australia. 

P2nglaud  might  see  a  faint  ray  of  hope,  so  far  as  she  could  ever  imagine  herself 
in  need  of  it,  in  a  phenomenon,  which  perhaps  is  even  more  interesting  in  the  his- 
tory of  development  than  it  is  pregnant  willi  rcsidts  frtmi  the  jminL  of  view  of 
colonial  politics,  namely,  iu  the  political  antl  intellectual  transfurmulion  which  has 
taken  place  among  the  white  immigrants  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  The 
astonishing  change  which  the  white  man  of  North  America  lias  imdergone  in  his 
whole  physical  aspect  is  well  known.  It  has  now  gone  so  far  as  to  create  a  pccidiar 
type,  the  Yankee,  that  tall,  gaunt  figure,  which  no  longer  suggests  the  original  ]">uro- 
pean  immigrant,  but  seems  completely  Americanised.  Even  in  the  colour  of  his  skin 
and  the  formation  of  his  hair  the  Yankee  has  begun  to  dilt'erentiate  himself  from 
his  Jluropean  kinsmen  and  to  approach  the  type  of  the  aboriginal  Indians.  Similar 
changes,  for  which  on  .so  large  a  scale  we  cannot  suggest  any  exjjlanation,  although 
generally  the  climate  may  be  regarded  as  the  main  cause  of  the  transfoi-mation,  have 
been  suffered  by  the  Briton  ui  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  A.  K.  Newman,  in 
1876,  only  some  thirty  years  after  the  colonisation  of  New  Zealand  by  Europeans, 
pointed  out  (as  Heinrich  Schurtz  describes  in  his  "  Urgeschichte  der  Cultur  ")  the 
growth  of  a  peculiar  New  Zealand  type,  which  sliows  itself  in  a  narrowing  of  the 
lower  jaw,  a  contraction  of  .space  for  the  teeth,  and  irregularities  of  the  teeth  them- 
selves. There  are  also  other  modifications  of  type.  "  The  fresh  complexions  of  the 
Englishmen  give  way,  among  the  yoving  New  Zealanders,  to  duller  and  more  faded 
tints.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  very  few  children  are  born  in  New  Zealand 
with  dark  eyes  and  hair.  The  parents  Jiiay  be  as  dark  as  they  can  be,  with  jet- 
black  hair  and  black  eyes,  their  progeny  will  always  show  less  intense  colour.  On 
the  Australian  continent,  by  contrast,  the  blondes  seem  always  in  a  minority  with 
the  brunettes.  The  effects  also  of  a  hotter  climate  on  the  peo]>le  are  noticeable 
in  New  Zealand,  but  more  especially  on  the  continent  of  Australia.  In  Australia, 
under  the  influence  of  a  scorcliing  sun,  the  children  grow  up  quickly ;  but  they 
also  fade  as  quickly  as  hothouse  flowers,  and  their  intellectual  and  ])hysical 
powers  are  nearly  exhausted  at  an  age  when  the  P'nglishman  still  pcjsses.ses  his 
youthful  energy.  The  young  people  of  New  Zealand  and  of  the  Australian  colonies 
are  physically  and  intellectually  weaker  than  tlie  inhabitants  of  the  old  country  at 
the  same  age.  They  are  less  capable  of  working;  toil  and  jirivations  (piickly  tell 
on  them.      This  colonial  younger  generation   possesses  little  physical  power  of 


A^rauoana-^  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  245 

endurance ;  every  attack  of  sickness  rapidly  prostrates  the  people,  and  they  recover 
slowly.  Even  the  women  soon  lose  their  bloom.  The  Australian,  like  the  Yankee 
type,  tends  toward  a  tall,  slouching  figure,  with  slender  muscular  development,  a 
peculiarity  which  has  produced  the  nickname  of '  corn-stalk.' "  For  the  present  this 
remarkable  phenomenon  possesses  merely  an  anthropological  interest;  sufficient 
time  has  not  elapsed  for  political  results  to  follow  from  it.  Should,  however,  the 
question  of  political  independence  come  before  the  colonies,  the  possibility  is  not 
excluded  that  the  steadily  increasing  total  of  the  negative  qualities  just  enumerated 
may  decide  it  unfavourably  for  the  Australian. 

4.   THE   ASCERTAINABLE   FACTS   IN   THE   HISTORY   OF   THE 
AUSTRALIANS   AND   TASMANIANS 

A.     COXJECTUKES    AS    TO    THE    PRE-EUROrEAX    PeKIOD 

One  of  the  greatest  achievements  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  the  field  of 
ethnology,  the  art  of  reconstructing  from  prehistoric  finds  the  national  history 
of  long-past  ages,  lying  beyond  all  tradition  and  written  record,  fails  in  Australia. 
This  does  not  imply  that  discoveries  of  the  kind  might  not  be  made ;  quite  the 
reverse.  The  continent  has  its  mirnjongs,  or  ash-heaps,  measuring  sometimes  ten 
feet  in  height,  and  often  several  hundred  yards  in  circumference,  and  containing 
pieces  of  bone  and  stone  axes ;  these  are  very  common  in  South  Australia  and 
Victoria,  particularly  on  Lake  Connewarren,  and  form  an  exact  counterpart  of  the 
"  kitchen  middens  "  of  Denmark  and  the  sambaquis  of  South  America  (cf.  Vol.  I, 
p.  182).  Great  heaps  of  mussel-shells  are  also  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea- 
shore ;  tliere  is  even  one  really  artistic  erection  dating  from  prehistoric  times.  This 
ancient  monument,  as  we  may  fauly  call  it,  is  the  stone  labyrinth  of  Breewarina 
on  the  upper  Darling,  some  sixty  miles  above  Bourke.  It  consists  of  a  stone  weu' 
a  hundred  yards  or  so  long,  which,  built  on  a  rocky  foundation,  stretches  diagonally 
through  the  river.  From  this  transverse  dam  a  labyrinth  of  stone  walls  reaching 
some  ninety  yards  up  stream  has  been  constructed,  which  is  intended  to  facilitate 
the  catching  of  the  fish  which  swim  up  or  down  stream.  The  walls  form  for  this 
purpose  circular  basins  of  from  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter ;  some  are  connected 
together  by  intricate  passages,  while  others  only  possess  one  entrance.  These 
walls,  according  to  Emil  Jung,  are  so  firmly  built  of  ponderous  masses  of  rock,  that 
the  mighty  Hoods,  which  sometimes  poured  down  with  a  depth  of  twenty  feet,  were 
only  able  at  best  to  dislodge  the  topmost  layers  of  the  stones. 

The  conclusions  which  we  can  draw  from  the  existence  of  the  mirnjongs  and 
the  shell  mounds,  but  especially  from  the  Breewarina  Labyrinth,  throw  some  little 
light  on  the  ancient  Australians.  Each  of  the  three  constructions  presupposes 
in  the  first  place  that  the  population,  at  least  in  the  southeast,  was  considerably 
denser  in  early  times  than  at  the  time  of  the  landing  of  the  Europeans ;  otherwise 
the  piling  up  of  the  refuse  mounds  would  imply  periods  of  whose  length  we  could 
form  no  conception.  The  building  of  the  labyrinth  also  can  only  be  explained 
by  the  employment  of  large  masses  of  men,  especially  since  the  materials  had 
to  be  brought  from  a  considerable  distance.  But,  besides  this,  it  can  only  have 
been  erected  by  an  organised  population ;  Australian  hordes  of  the  present  day 
would  be  incapable  of  such  combined  efforts. 


246  HISTORY    OF     THK    WORLD         \_rhaj.t.r  in 

Auother  circumstance  eonfirius  our  assumption  of  the  retrogression  of  the 
Australians  both  in  numbers  and  in  culture.  The  boats,  whetiier  they  consist 
of  nothing  better  than  a  piece  of  bark  tied  together  at  both  ends  and  kejit  apart 
in  the  middle  by  pieces  of  inserted  wood,  or  appear  in  the  shape  of  simple  rafts, 
carry  in  the  middle  on  a  little  pile  of  clay  a  fire,  the  modern  object  of  which 
is  merely  the  immediate  cooking  of  the  fish  that  are  caught,  but  its  invariable 
presence  there  suggests  the  thought  that  it  is  a  survival  from  former  regular  sea 
voyages,  when  the  custom  was  justified. 

This  proof  by  probability  that  the  Australians  have  retrograded  in  numbers 
and  in  civilization  is  all  that  can  be  derived  from  the  evidence  of  the  country  and 
the  national  life.  This  is  no  great  achievement;  but  it  shows  how  completely 
unfavourable  natural  conditions  have  overwhelmed  the  energy  and  capabilities 
of  the  natives.  It  is,  for  the  time  being,  impossilde  to  judge  the  length  of  the 
periods  with  which  we  have  to  reckon  or  to  determine  whetlier  a  deterioration 
of  the  climate  has  contributed  to  this  decline ;  such  a  contingency  is  not  impossible 
(cf.  Vol.  ]  11,  p.  398,  as  to  the  Sahara). 

After  all  we  can  only  follow  the  history  of  the  Australians  and  Tasmanians 
from  the  moment  of  their  intercourse  with  the  white  men.  There  is  no  question 
here  of  a  true  development,  such  as  can  be  traced  in  all  nations  except  a  few 
border  nations  in  the  north  and  south  of  the  globe.  The  expression  "  history  " 
really  connotes  too  nnirh  in  this  case ;  for  all  that  European  civilization  and  the 
white  men  brought  to  them  tended  to  one  and  the  same  result  ultimately ;  the 
slow  but  sure  extinction  of  the  whole  race.  The  methods  of  extermination  may 
differ,  but  the  end  is  always  the  same. 

In  pliysical  geography  the  expression  "  geographical  homologies  "  is  constantly 
employed.  It  is  borrowed  from  comparative  anatomy  and  signifies  the  recurrence 
of  the  same  configuration,  whether  in  the  horizontal  outlines  or  in  the  elevation  of 
the  surface,  which  we  find  in  the  countries  of  6\xv  globa  The  best  known  of 
these  homologies  is  the  striking  similarity  in  the  contours  of  South  America, 
Africa,  and  Australia,  which,  in  the  words  of  Oskar  Peschel,  display  as  great 
a  uniformity  of  shape  as  if  they  had  been  constructed  after  a  model.  It  is  not 
our  intention  to  examine  this  similarity  closely;  but  we  nuist  consider  for  a  few 
moments  that  exact  correspondence  of  the  southern  extremities  of  those  continents, 
which  goes  far  beyond  a  mere  linear  resemblance. 

The  tapering  away  into  a  wedge-like  ])oint,  facing  the  Antarctic,  which  is  a 
feature  peculiar  io  the  three  continents  (if  the  island  of  Tasmania  is  reckoned 
as  part  of  Australia),  is,  so  far  as  its  shape  goes,  an  excrescence  breaking  through 
the  general  scheme  on  which  their  outlines  are  modelled ;  the  meaning  and  cause 
of  this  jirccise  contour  have  remained  a  mystery  to  men  like  Huml)oldt  and 
Peschel.  But  there  is  no  doul)t  as  to  the  influence  which  these  vast  and  lonely 
promontories,  tapering  away  into  the  ocean,  have  exercised  on  physical  geography 
and  the  distribution  of  cvilture. 

From  the  first  point  of  view,  their  })osition  and  shape  determine  tiie  course 
of  the  entire  circulation  of  the  seas  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  The  character 
of  the  climatic  conditions  is  influenced  by  them,  and  the  greater  or  less  degree  to 
which  the  land  masses  of  the  southern  hemisphere  can  be  inhabited  is  decided 
in  the  last  resort  by  them.  On  civilization  the  elTect  of  this  wedge-like  shape 
is  exclusively  negative.  ,  It  places  the  inluibitant  of  those  promontories  on  the 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  247 


remote  southern  edge  of  the  liabitable  world,  cuts  him  o£f  to  the  north  from 
the  centres  of  civilization,  and  confines  him  to  regions  which  are  continually 
narrowing.  Still  more  momentous  are  the  consequences  on  the  art  of  navigation. 
The  vast  ocean,  limitless  and  islaudless,  suiTounds  each  of  the  three  extremities. 
How,  then,  should  primitive  people  venture  on  the  high  seas,  when  even  a  highly 
developed  navigation  cannot  flourish  without  some  opposite  coast  which  can  be 
reached  ? 

But  the  homology  goes  still  further,  for  Africa  and  Australia  in  a  large  degree, 
and  in  a  more  restricted  degree  for  South  America.  It  shows  itself  this  time 
in  the  destiny  of  the  natives  dui'ing  intercourse  with  the  whites.  How  these 
latter  have  treated  the  Bushman  and  the  Hottentot  in  South  Africa  can  be  seen 
in  another  part  of  this  history  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  424) ;  the  result  of  a  war  of  exter- 
mination for  more  than  two  centuries  was  similar;  both  peoples  at  the  present 
time  can  hardly  be  called  even  the  fragments  of  a  nation.  The  aborigine  of 
southern  South  America  has  hitherto  fared  better.  Neither  Patagonians  nor 
Araucos  have,  it  is  true,  emerged  imscathed  from  intercourse  with  the  white 
intruders ;  but  they  have  been  able  to  retain  the  characteristics  of  their  race,  and 
have  remained  free  and  independent.  No  careful  observer  \vill  imagine  that  this 
is  a  consequence  of  creole  courage ;  what  has  preserved  the  Indian  hitherto  from 
destruction  is  merely  the  political  immaturity  of  his  opponents  and  the  insufficiency 
of  their  numbers  to  people  the  vast  territory  of  South  America. 

B.   The  History  of  the  Tasmanians 

The  Australians  and  Tasmanians  did  not  fare  so  well.  The  latter  have  been 
for  a  quarter  of  a  century  blotted  out  from  the  list  of  li%ang  peoples ;  the  same 
fate  impends  upon  the  former,  and  is,  from  all  appearance,  inevitable.  The  Tas- 
manian  tragedy  is  not  only  the  most  gloomy  from  its  denouement,  but  has  a  sad 
pre-eminence  for  the  large  number  of  sensational  details.  It  opens  on  the  4th  of 
May,  1804,  when  the  natives,  on  approaching  the  new  settlement  of  Hobart  in  a 
friendly  spirit,  were,  through  an  unfortmiate  misunderstanding  of  their  intentions, 
greeted  by  the  English  garrison  with  a  volley  of  bullets ;  or  we  can,  if  we  prefer, 
take  the  date  June  13,  1803,  when  the  first  batch  of  English  convicts  lauded  on 
the  spot  where  the  present  capital  of  the  country,  Hobart,  stands.  This  year  saw 
the  birth  of  the  Tasmanian  woman,  Trukanini,  or  Lalla  Rookh,  who  was  destined 
to  survive  all  her  tribesfolk.  She  died  in  London  in  1876.  The  death  struggle  of 
the  whole  people  had  thus  precisely  lasted  a  lifetime. 

The  destruction  of  the  Tasmanians  was  not  accomplished  without  vigorous 
resistance  on  their  part.  By  natural  disposition  peaceable,  harmless,  and  contented, 
they  had  endured  for  many  years  the  ill-treatment  of  the  transported  convicts  and 
the  colonists  without  transgressing  the  laws  of  self-defence.  It  was  only  after 
1826  that,  driven  to  frantic  desperation,  they  amply  revenged  the  treatment  they 
had  suffered,  and  murdered  all  their  tormentors  who  fell  into  their  hands.  The 
*  %venty-two  years  that  had  intervened  do  not  add  fresh  laurels  to  the  history  of 
English  colonisation,  nor  redound  to  the  honour  of  mankind  generally.  In  the 
very  first  years  of  the  settlement,  the  hostilities,  which,  according  to  the  official 
admission,  were  always  commenced  by  the  whites,  assumed  such  proportions,  and 
the  oppression  of  the  natives  was  so  harsh,  that  in  1810  a  special  law  (Collins) 


-l^  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD  Irhaj.ter  ii[ 

liad  to  be  passed  which  proposed  to  punish  ll>e  murder  of  an  ahorigine  as  an  actual 
crime.  Like  so  many  measures  which  have  been  passed  iu  the  course  of  European 
colonial  history  for  the  protection  of  the  native  populations,  this  also  remained  a 
dead  letter,  since  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  legal  evidence  in  the  case  of  blacks, 
who  were  despised  and  possessed  no  rights.  The  aborigines  were  shot  down  where 
they  were  met,  just  as  before ;  their  women  were  captured  or  enticed  away,  to  live 
in  concubinage  witli  their  captors. 

It  was  not  only  l>y  these  persecutions  that  the  growth  of  the  English  colony 
exercised  an  adverse  influence  on  the  fortunes  of  the  native.s.  Until  the  landing 
of  the  whites,  the  sea,  with  its  inexliaustible  store  of  fish,  molluscs,  and  other 
living  creatures,  had  supplied  aU  their  food;  but  in  proportion  as  the  colony 
increased,  with  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  towns,  the  advance  of  the  colon- 
ists, and  the  multiplication  and  extension  of  their  pasture  grounds,  the  region 
where  the  natives  could  live  was  curtailed ;  above  all,  they  were  driven  away  from 
the  coast.  But  this  was  a  vital  question  for  the  Tasnianiaus,  since  the  rough  and 
wild  interior  was  absolutely  wanting  iu  all  the  means  of  life.  We  now  underetand 
how  these  originally  timid  natives  became  veritable  heroes  from  desperation,  and 
strove  to  harm  their  persecutors  when  and  how  they  coidd. 

The  "  vict<iry  "  of  the  English  was  not  lightly  won.  The  natives,  driven  by 
force  into  the  interior,  soon  acquired  so  accurate  a  knowledge  of  this  country, 
covered  with  dense  forest  and  intersected  by  ravines,  that  it  was  ditlicult  to  get  at 
them.  As  Charles  Darwin  tells  us,  they  often  escaped  their  pursuers  by  throwing 
themselves  flat  upon  the  black  ground,  or  by  standuig  rigidly  still,  when,  even  at  a 
short  distance,  they  were  indistinguishable  from  a  dead  tree  trunk.  P'aced  by 
these  tactics,  the  English  finally  resorted  to  other  measures.  By  a  proclamation 
they  forbade  the  natives  to  cross  a  certain  boundary.  They  then  (in  1828)  offered 
them  also  a  reservation  where  the  persecuted  and  pursued  might  collect  and  live 
in  peace.  Both  measures  proved  futile.  The  first  would  never  have  been  really 
understood  by  the  people,  even  if  they  grasped  the  sense  of  the  words.  For  the 
second,  the  time  was  already  past :  the  natives  were  no  longer  susceptible  to  a  fair 
treatment,  nor  were  the  Europeans  disposed  to  maintain  a  pacific  altitude.  The 
old  order  of  things  revived.  Head-money,  and  liberal  sums  of  it,  since  the  quarr}- 
was  so  splendid,  was  offered  for  the  shooting  or  capture  of  the  blacks,  and  abor- 
igines were  brought  over  from  Australia  in  order  to  track  out  the  enemy  more 
surely.  Finally,  when  all  failed,  Colonel  Arthur,  the  governor,  who  suggested  all 
these  measures,  tried  to  attain  his  object  by  a  colossal  "  drive."  A  cordon  was  to 
be  drawn  across  the  whole  island  from  coast  to  coast,  and  the  "  game  "  thus  forced 
on  to  a  narrow  peninsula.  Two  natives,  (jr,  according  to  other  accounts,  only  one, 
composed  the  "  bag "  of  this  attempt,  which  cost  the  mother  country  the  sum  of 
thirty  thousand  pounds  sterling. 

With  the  failure  of  these  last  attempts  of  Arthur,  the  tragedy  of  the  Tas- 
manians  enters  on  another  pliase.  This  was  free  from  bloodshed,  but  was  not 
less  disastrous  than  the  former,  and  is  inseparably  connected  with  llie  name  of 
George  Augustus  Robinson.  This  extraordinary  man,  by  trade  a  simple  carpenter 
at  Hobart,  and  unaVde  to  write  English  correctly,  offered,  when  all  warlike  meas- 
ures were  ineffective  against  the  natives,  to  induce  them  by  peaceful  overtures 
to  emigrate.  We  know  how  thoroughly  he  accomplished  his  self-imposed  task. 
Unarmed  and  single-handed,  he  attained  by  pacific  negotiations  a  result  which  a 


Australia  and 

Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  249 


whole  populous  colony  had  failed  to  achieve  in  decades  of  bloody  warfare,  and 
thus  clearly  demonstrated  how  easily  matters  might  have  been  arranged  with  the 
Tasmanians  if  only  the  good-will  had  been  forthcoming.  Through  the  media- 
tion of  EobLnson,  one  tribe  was  assigned  to  Swan  Island,  three  others  to  Gun 
Carriage  Island.  Later  (1843)  all  the  natives  were  united  ou.Flmders  Island. 
These  "  tribes  "  were  by  this  time  not  very  numerous :  powder  and  shot,  syphilis, 
and  smallpox,  had  caused  too  great  ravages  in  the  past  forty  years.  In  1804  the 
native  population  was  put  at  eight  thousand  souls  roughly;  in  1815  some  five 
thousand  were  still  estimated  to  exist.  Their  number  in  1830  reached  some  seven 
hundred,  and  in  1835  dwindled  to  two  hundred  and  fifty,  or  one  hundred  and 
eleven  heads.  In  1845,  when  the  survivors  were  talveu  across  to  Oyster  Cove  in 
the  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel,  only  forty-five,  and  in  1861  only  eighteen,  were 
left.  The  last  male  Tasnianian,  King  Billy,  or  William  Lanne,  died  in  1869  at 
Hobart,  aged  thirty-four,  and  in  1876  the  race  of  the  Tasmanians  became  entirely 
extinct  on  the  death  of  Trukanini,  —  the  fate  that  awaits  all  primitive  races  from 
intercourse  with  civilization. 

It  is  idle  at  the  present  day  to  load  the  parties  concerned  with  reproaches.  No 
nation,  vigorouslj'  engaged  ui  colonisation,  has  yet  been  destined  to  keep  the  shield 
of  humanity  spotless  and  pure.  It  must  also  be  admitted  that  in  later  years  earnest 
attempts  were  made  to  atone  for  the  wrongs  done  to  the  natives  in  the  earlier 
period.  That  the  wrong  methods  were  chosen  is  another  consideration,  which  does 
not  do  away  with  the  crime,  but  may  be  pleaded  as  an  extenuating  circumstance. 

C.  The  History  of  the  Australians 

The  knell  of  the  Australians  has  not  yet  sounded.  The  restless  race  still 
roams  the  vast  steppes,  still  hunts  here  and  there  the  nimble  kangaroo,  and  throws 
with  strength  and  skill  the  spear  and  the  boomerang.  But  how  cooped  in  its  once 
wide  domain !  The  whole  of  the  east,  fairly  rich  in  resources  even  for  the  rude 
savage,  the  northeast  aud  southeast,  have  long  been  taken  by  the  white  man. 
Now,  in  most  recent  times,  the  latter  is  making  vast  strides  from  the  west  into 
the  interior,  and  the  nortli  is  being  more  and  more  encroached  upon.  The  aborigine 
is  faced  by  the  alternatives  of  retiring  into  the  desert-like  interior,  or  of  being 
forced  to  capitulate  to  civilization  and  become  the  servant  of  the  European. 
Neither  alternative  is  calculated  to  perpetuate  either  him  or  his  peculiar  nature. 

The  tragic  history  of  the  Australians  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Tas- 
manians in  two  respects :  it  was  of  longer  duration,  and  covered  an  incomparably 
larger  space.  In  character  the  two  struggles  have  been  much  alike,  and  the  final 
issue  would  have  already  been  the  same  for  the  Australian  as  for  the  Tasmanian 
had  not  better  natural  conditions  been  offered  to  the  victims  in  the  shape  of  a 
wider  district  into  which  to  retire,  and  had  not  times  and  customs  become  less 
cruel.  And  this  even  in  the  Australian  bush.  The  whole  tide  of  misfortune  that 
overwhelmed  the  race  on  the  landing  of  the  whites  in  Australia  may  be  ultimately 
traced  to  the  unbounded  contempt  which  the  Englishman  has  shown  since  1788 
for  the  "black  fellow"  and  the  "black  gin."  This  contempt  has  prevented  him 
from  studying  the  people  and  their  institutions,  and  has  especially  kept  him  from 
conceding  to  the  native  any  vested  rights  in  the  soil.  But  any  one  who  knows 
that  the  political  organisation  of   ancient  Australia  found  practically  its  only 


250  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [ci„.j>t,r iii 

expression  in  the  claim  of  each  single  tribe  to  one  detinile  territory  (within  the 
tribe  itself  the  lain!  was  at  times  ilivided  lietween  tlie  vaiious  families)  will  also 
understand  that  the  rude  encroachments  of  tiie  first  Europeans,  whether  convicts 
or  free  colonists,  could  not  fail  to  provoke  grave  disputes.  Among  the  natives 
themselves  violation  of  territory  ranked  as  the  most  flagrant  breach  of  the  jieace. 

Xext  to  this  contempt  for  all  rights  of  the  natives,  the  class  of  human  beings 
who  were  first  brought  to  those  sliores  greatly  influenced  the  form  which  subse- 
quent conditions  assumed.  There  may  be  a  division  of  opinions  about  the  value 
of  transportation  as  a  means  of  punislimeut  or  as  a  measure  for  colonisation  ;  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  has  been  ruinous  to  native  races,  whose  fine  qualities 
might  have  been  turned  to  good  account.  Tasmania,  to  give  an  example  in  our 
own  field,  has  proved  this ;  so,  too.  New  Caledonia,  and  it  is  patent  in  Australia. 
That  shiploads  of  convicts  were  disembarked  without  ]irecautions,  and  were  still 
more  carelessly  looked  after,  is  admitted  even  by  the  official  reports  of  the  time ; 
in  1803  complaints  were  made  that  the  number  of  guards  was  insufficient.  Under 
the  circumstances  it  was  very  easy  for  tlie  prisoners  to  escape  into  the  bush,  and 
they  did  not  fail  to  use  the  opportunity.  The  consecjuences  for  the  unfortunate 
blacks  were  soon  apparent.  The  first  gift  to  them  consisted  of  smallpox,  brandy, 
tobacco,  and  syphilis ;  and  tliey  soon  learned  to  be  immoral,  foul-mouthed,  beggars, 
and  thieves.  And  while  the  natives  were  at  first  peaceable  and  friendly,  the 
coarseness  and  bnitalit}'  of  the  convicts  soon  led  to  their  becoming  more  and  more 
hostile,  until  the}-,  on  their  part,  began  that  guerilla  warfare  which  has  lingered  on 
more  than  a  centiny.  There  has,  however,  been  no  lack  of  good  intentions  on  the 
Australian  continent.  The  energies  of  the  government  have  been  more  than  once 
directed  toward  the  object  of  gaining  over  the  natives ;  the  term  of  office  of  the 
first  governor,  Phillip,  was  full  of  such  praiseworthy  efforts ;  but  there  could  be 
no  idea  of  any  success  unless  all  tlie  immigrants  radically  changed  their  behaviour 
toward  the  natives. 

The  settlers,  again,  whose  immigration  began  in  1700,  did  their  honest  best  to 
fill  the  cup  to  overflowing.  They  stole  the  wives  of  tlie  blacks,  shot  down  all  of 
them  who  came  within  range,  and  openly  boasted  of  poisoning  tliem  with  arsenic, 
like  rats  and  mice.  A  handful  of  poisoned  meal  which  a  settler  offered  to  the  un- 
suspecting wTetch,  or  a  piece  of  poisoned  mutton  hung  temptingly  in  the  bush, 
were  methods  considered  worthy  of  commendation.  Tiie  government,  it  is  true, 
gave  official  guarantees  of  jirotection  to  tlie  blacks;  but  these  guarantees  existed 
only  on  paper.  Thus  a  proclamation  guaranteed  a  reward  of  XI 00  sterling  to  any 
one  who  handed  over  to  justice  the  black  murderer  of  a  white,  while  in  the  event 
of  the  murder  of  a  black  by  a  white  only  £2.")  were  ofl'ered.  lUit  what  white 
would  have  assisted  to  enforce  this  remarkable  measure  by  giving  evidence  against 
a  man  of  his  own  colour  on  account  of  a  deed  which  no  one  considered  a  wrong, 
much  less  a  crime  ?  And  the  testimony  of  an  aborigine  had  as  little  weight  here 
as  in  Tasmania. 

The  following  story  illustrates  the  popvdar  feeling  and  the  estimation  in  which 
the  native  was,  and  still  is,  hehl.  As  ICmil  Jung  tells  us,  a  society  was  formed  in 
Sydney  in  1839  for  the  protection  of  tiie  aborigines,  and  had,  after  much  trouble, 
caixied  a  law,  which  provided  for  tlie  ajipointment  of  commissioners  who  shoidd 
be  responsible  for  the  care  of  the  natives.  This  measure,  intended  to  check  the 
settlers  in  their  high-handed  treatment  of  their  black  neighbours,  was  sufficient  to 


Australia  and 
Ocean  ia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  251 


rouse  a  certain  section  of  the  population  to  great  indignation.  In  order  to  show 
how  little  they  cared  about  an  edict  which  proposed  to  lessen  their  prescriptive 
rights  over  the  despised  and  detested  race,  seven  Euglishmen  rode  out  one  Sunday 
to  a  native  camp,  which  was  inhabited  by  thirty  men,  women,  and  children.  They 
drove  them  all  into  a  hut,  tied  them  together  with  a  rope,  and  killed  them,  one 
after  the  other,  iu  cold  blood.  When  the  murderers  were  brought  to  justice  the 
whole  colony  rose  up  against  theii-  condemnation,  and  it  needed  the  exercise  of  the 
full  authority  of  the  governor  to  protect  the  witnesses  from  oi)en  threats,  and  to 
bring  the  guilty  parties  to  the  gallows.  The  treatment  of  the  native  in  the  more 
remote  parts  of  the  country  is  even  yet  discreditable  to  humanity.  Any  one  of 
them  in  South  Australia  who  has  no  visible  means  of  subsistence  incurs  the  risk  of 
being  clapped  into  prison  for  six  months,  unless  he  prefers  to  hire  himself  out  as  a 
"  contract  labourer  "  to  the  farmers. 

The  effects  of  such  treatment  of  the  Australian  race  on  the  outposts  of  civili- 
zation can  easily  be  imagined.  The  blacks  have  been  for  more  than  a  hundred 
years  systematically  driven  away  from  the  rivers,  and  thus  exposed  to  the  danger 
of  dymg  from  thirst ;  so,  too,  theii-  once  boundless  hunting-grounds  have  been  sys- 
tematically transformed  into  enclosed  pasturages,  and  they  have  thus  been  robbed 
of  their  most  prolific  source  of  food.  To  crown  all  this,  the  settler  treats  them 
with  universal  contempt,  and  thus  changes  the  native  pride  of  the  free  savage  into 
the  servility  of  the  beggar.  A  physical  and  moral  degeneration  of  the  race  is  the 
first  consequence  ;  a  rapid  diminution  in  numbers  is  the  second.  The  food  supply 
of  the  Australian  has  never  been  abundant ;  the  niggard  nature  of  his  country  has 
ensured  that ;  but  he  had  at  least  the  power  to  exercise  his  own  will  freely  and 
could  adapt  himself  to  circumstances  unhindered,  or  restrained  only  by  the  un- 
written code  of  tribal  custom.  He  thus  presented  the  picture  of  an  infinitely  poor 
yet  morally  and  economically  independent  people.  At  the  present  day  he  roams 
about  emaciated,  starving,  and  ragged,  painfully  eking  out  his  existence  by  beggary 
and  theft,  more  like  a  ghost  of  the  past  than  a  member  of  the  human  family  of  the 
present.  The  scarcely  veiled  and  not  unnatural  feeling  of  revenge  alone  suggests 
the  Australian  of  former  days. 

The  number  of  the  Australian  natives  has  never  been  accurately  determined. 
The  highest  estimate  is  that  of  L.  C.  D.  de  Freycinet,  who  allows  for  more  than 
1,100,000  Australians  at  the  beginning  of  the  European  immigration.  This  figure 
is  certainly  far  too  high  and  is  universally  rejected ;  other  calculations  range  from 
100,000  to  200,000  for  the  pre-European  period.  Beyond  doubt  the  continent  was 
sparsely  peopled.  So  far  as  aborigines  are  concerned,  it  is  Incomparably  more  so 
now ;  50,000  is  certainly  too  high  an  estimate.  The  diminution  of  the  native  pop- 
ulation has  therefore  proceeded  at  an  alarmingly  rapid  rate.  In  Victoria  in  1836 
they  were  counted  to  be  some  5000  souls;  in  1881  they  had  sunk  to  770.  The 
shrinkage  has  not  been  so  gieat  in  all  districts,  but  it  is  universal ;  the  birth  rate 
among  the  natives  is  nowhere  equal  to  the  death  rate. 

The  government  of  the  mother  country  has,  since  it  realised  the  miserable  decay 
of  the  aborigines  and  its  own  responsibility  in  the  matter,  bestirred  itself  to  de%'ise 
remedies ;  it  has  again  and  agam  seriously  exhorted  the  colonial  governments  of 
Australia  to  consider  the  interests  of  the  blacks,  and  has  founded  native  schools  in 
Adelaide  and  other  towns  with  considerable  sums  from  the  imperial  exchequer. 
But  it  did  not  touch  the  root  of  the  matter.     The  -schools  were  certainly  well  and 


252  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         \_rh„i.t.-r iii 

diligently  attended  and  showed  good  results;  but  what  use  could  they  be  to  the 
scholars,  when  they,  like  their  whole  tribe,  only  disappeared  the  sooner,  the  closer 
their  intercourse  was  wiih  the  Kuropean.  Such  a  state  of  things  could  only  have 
been  remedied  by  the  most  thorough  control  over  the  spread  of  colonisation,  but, 
above  all,  by  the  abandonment  of  the  cheap  and  comfortable  principle,  so  ruinous 
for  its  victims,  of  the  appropriation  of  the  land  without  compensation.  The  former 
would  have  directly  protected  the  life  of  the  natives  by  preventing  the  perpetual 
man  himts :  but  a  fair  compensation  for  their  claims  would  in  the  first  jdace  have 
restrained  them  from  the  racial  war  so  fatal  to  them,  and  secondly,  would  have 
strengthened  their  economic  position.  England,  which  did  not  feel  strong  enough 
for  both  steps,  bears  therefore  the  responsibility-  for  the  unceasing  deterioration  of 
the  Australian  aborigines.  If  extenuating  circumstances  count,  they  can  only  be 
found  in  the  mysterious  fact  that  contact  with  the  white  man  is  in  itself  ruinous 
to  every  primitive  people,  and  it  is  i^uite  immaterial  what  treatment  he  vouchsafes 
to  them. 


5.   THE   COLONIAL    HI8TOEY    OF   AUSTI^.VLT.V    AXD   TASMANIA 

The  efforts  of  the  Europeans  of  Australasia  in  the  field  of  economics  and  poli- 
tics have  been  crowned  with  a  success  which  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  failure 
of  their  efforts  to  preserve  and  civilize  the  natives.  On  the  one  side  they  have 
completely  or  partially  effaced  from  the  list  of  living  races  one  or  two  peoples, 
who  although  shattered  had  stdl  some  pleasure  in  existence;  on  the  other  side, 
from  a  corner  of  the  world,  which  Europe  during  a  whole  century  and  a  half,  from 
its  discovery  by  Abel  Tasman  in  1642  to  the  landing  of  Phillip  in  Botany  Bay 
in  1788,  had  not  deemed  worthy  of  any  notice,  they  have  conjured  forth  a  State 
which  at  the  present  day  needs  only  a  sufficient  period  of  development,  inde- 
pendence, and  a  more  considerable  population,  in  order  to  be  reckoned  as  one  of 
the  important  factors  in  the  making  of  the  historj^  of  mankind.  All  these 
deficiencies,  however,  are  such  as  will  repair  themselves  in  course  of  time. 

A.  The  Opexixo  of  the  Coloni.\l  History  of  Australia 

(a)  Tlie  History  of  its  Discovery.  —  The  history  of  tlie  discovery  of  Australia 
is  deeply  interesting,  both  as  regards  the  history  of  civilization  and  as  regards  that 
of  international  trade,  because  its  effects  have  been  parallel  in  many  ways  to  those 
produced  by  the  discovery  of  America,  —  both  continents  required  to  be  twice  dis- 
covered by  the  civilized  world  before  it  appreciated  their  value  and  permanently 
occupied  them.  This  similarity  is  expressed  even  in  the  intervals  of  time  between 
the  old  and  new  discoveries  which  are  to  some  extent  proportional  to  the  size  of 
the  two  land  masses.  In  the  case  of  America  the  ])eriod  that  elapsed  between  the 
discovery  by  the  Northmen  and  the  voyage  of  Columbus  (cf.  Vol.  I.,  p.  340)  was 
five  hundred  years ;  in  the  case  of  Australia  little  more  than  a  century  and  a 
half  elapsed  between  the  voyage  of  Quiros  in  1606  through  the  Torres  Strait 
and  the  discovery  of  the  east  coast  by  James  Cook  in  1770.  If  we  consider  Abel 
Tasman's  voyages  in  1642  and  1644  as  the  first  proper  discovery,  the  interval 
is  considerably  diminished. 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  253 


The  abandonment  of  the  first  discovery  was  no  accident  in  the  case  of  the  two 
continents  ;  no  necessity  then  existed  for  bringing  the  new  worlds  into  the  sphere 
of  civilized  activity.  At  the  period  of  the  first  discovery  of  America,  as  in  the 
centuries  preceding,  the  centre  of  gravity  of  Europe  inclined  one  way,  —  toward  the 
east  which  had  long  supplied  all  its  needs,  both  material  and  spiritual.  It  there- 
fore neither  understood  nor  valued  the  new  discovery  and  let  it  sink  into  complete 
oblivion.  At  the  second  and  final  discovery  of  America  the  position  of  affairs 
was  quite  altered ;  in  fact  it  may  be  said  that  the  discovery  itself  was  a  conse- 
quence of  the  very  alteration.  Europe,  after  the  year  1000,  had  gravitated  strongly 
to  the  east,  as  the  Crusades  and  the  prosperity  of  the  city  states  of  the 
Mediterranean  prove  (cf.  Vols.  VI.  and  VII.) ;  but  since  the  appearance  of  the 
Osmans  the  centre  of  gravity  had  been  considerably  shifted,  and  men  felt  more 
and  more  urgently  the  necessity  of  freeing  themselves  at  least  from  the  necessity 
of  trading  through  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Pontus,  and  of  securing  the  communication 
with  the  south  and  east  coast  of  Asia  by  a  direct  route.  There  was  no  cause 
to  abandon  this  goal,  which  was  at  first  supposed  to  have  been  found  in  the 
discoveries  of  Columbus  and  his  contemporaries,  after  a  new  world  was  recog- 
nised in  the  newly  discovered  continent.  Such  important  economic  considera- 
tions do  not  concern  the  first  discovery  and  subsequent  neglect  of  Australia. 
The  whole  story  of  its  discovery  comes  rather  under  the  head  of  the  search  for  the 
terra  australis  incognita,  the  great  unknown  southern  continent,  which  lasted 
two  thousand  years.  The  search  originated  with  an  assumption  that  the  great 
continents  of  the  northern  hemisphere  must  be  balanced  by  similar  masses  of  land 
in  the  south.  The  hypothetical  southern  continent  always  excited  an  interest 
which  was  purely  theoretic ;  and  herein  lies  the  explanation  why  in  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  that  age  of  practical  tendencies,  so  little  attention 
was  paid  to  the  problem.  The  explorers  of  the  southern  seas  hoped  to  demon- 
strate the  existence  of  this  countr}' ;  but  the  idea  of  making  full  use  of  it  crossed 
no  one's  mind.  Australia,  after  the  first  glimpses  of  her  shores,  was  allowed 
to  relapse  into  oblivion.  Tasman's  first  voyage  had  proved  that  the  ocean  was 
landless  for  many  degrees  of  southern  latitude,  that  is  to  say,  the  presumed 
continent  did  not  exist  in  that  region.  Although  Dutch  ships  had  touched  or 
sighted  points  of  the  west  and  north  coast  of  Australia  several  times  since  1606, 
no  one  guessed  that  in  his  winding  course  Tasman  had  circumna\'igated  a  conti- 
nent. Scientific  curiosity  was  satisfied  with  the  negative  conclusions  established 
by  his  voyage. 

An  additional  circumstance  kept  the  practical  European  long  aloof  from 
Australia :  the  desolate  appearance  of  the  tracts  of  coast  which  were  first  touched. 
Although  with  the  exception  of  the  south  and  east  coasts  the  gi-eater  part  of  the 
coastline  of  Australia  is  little  calculated  to  rouse  pleasant  anticipations  of  the  value 
of  the  country,  yet  it  may  be  termed  a  marvellous  misfortune  for  the  continent  that 
the  majority  of  the  numerous  navigators  who  set  foot  on  the  shore  before  James 
Cook  were  fated  to  land  on  spots  which  were  especially  bleak,  sterile,  and  inhos- 
pitable. This  was  the  case  of  the  Dutchman,  Dirk  Hartog,  who  landed  on  the 
shores  of  Shark  Bay  in  1616;  and  such  were  the  experiences  of  the  numer- 
ous other  Dutchmen  who  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  set  foot 
on  the  west,  north,  and  south  coasts,  Abel  Tasman  among  their  number.  The 
opinion  of  the  Englishman,  William  Dampier,  was,  however,  fraught  with  conse- 


254  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter Jii 

quences  for  the  continent.  This  navigator,  as  successful  in  piracy  as  exploration, 
who  in  two  voyages  (1689-1699)  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  surveyed 
a  considerable  part  of  the  west  coast,  penetrated  to  some  distance  iiiin  the  interior 
in  ortler  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  its  worth.  His  verdict  was  crusliing  enough ; 
according  to  liim  the  country  was  the  poorest  in  the  world,  far  inferior  to  the 
coast  of  Portuguese  South  Africa.  No  corn  grew  there,  no  roots,  no  pod  fruits 
and  vegetables  from  which  food  could  be  got.  The  miserable  aborigines  had 
neither  clothing  nor  houses,  and  were  the  most  miserable  creatures  in  the  world. 
Compared  with  these  blacks  the  very  Hottentots  seemed  gentlemen.  The  results 
of  this  report  by  Dumpier,  wliich  was  unfortunately  only  too  much  based  on  fact, 
show  themselves  in  the  entire  cessation  of  voyages  of  discovery  to  Australia 
for  more  than  two-tliirds  of  a  century,  apart  from  some  attempts  at  colonisation 
in  the  country,  such  as  had  already  been  made  by  the  Dutch  in  1628. 

Even  the  tinal  and  lasting  discovery  of  Australia  by  James  Cook  in  1770 
did  not  immediately  lead  to  tlie  exploration  of  the  continent.  Tliat  far-sighted 
explorer  certainly  had  such  a  goal  before  his  eyes  when  he  took  pi)ssession  of 
the  whole  east  coast,  from  the  thirty-eighth  degree  of  southern  latitude  as  far  as 
Cape  York,  in  the  name  of  his  king,  for  England  ;  certainly  the  glowing  accounts 
which  liis  companion  Banks,  the  botanist,  brought  back  of  tlie  magnificent  scenery 
and  the  splendid  climate  were  calculated  to  attract  the  attention  of  governments 
to  the  possibilit}'  of  colonising  tliis  new  eartlily  paradise.  But  the  political  situa- 
tion was  not  favourable  to  such  plans.  England  stood  on  tiie  eve  of  her  tedious 
war  with  the  united  colonies  of  North  America;  she  required  to  guard  her 
position  on  the  near  Atlantic  and  could  not  possibly  think  of  following  out  any 
plans  in  a  remote  corner  of  the  southern  seas.  And  yet  the  birth  of  the  Australian 
colonies  dates  from  the  War  of  Independence  in  America. 

(6)  The  Founding  and  Early  Bays  of  New  South  IVales.  —  England  had,  since 
1600,  transported  a  large  number  of  her  criminals  to  tlie  Atlantic  colonies  (espe- 
cially to  Virginia ;  cf.  \'o\.  I,  p.  435)  where  their  hard  labour  was  welcome.  The 
convicts  were  bought  by  the  colonists  at  sums  ranging  from  £8  upwards,  and  they 
became  a  source  of  considerable  profit  to  the  government  at  home.  Tlie  War  of 
Independence  brought  this  arrangement  to  an  abrupt  end  in  1779,  and  England, 
whose  prisons  were  soon  overcrowded,  was  compelled  to  look  round  for  some  other 
locality.  Of  the  districts  proposed  in  parliament  in  1783,  namely,  Gil)raltar,  the 
Gambia  territory,  and  the  region  of  Botany  Bay  in  New  South  Wales,  only  this 
latter,  from  reasons  easy  to  explain,  could  be  seriously  considered  :  Gibraltar  did 
not  offer  room  enough,  and  transportation  to  Gambia  would  have  simply  meant 
"  the  execution  of  capital  punishment  by  malaria,"  as  the  phrase  in  the  jtarliamen- 
tary  report  ran.  The  objections  to  Australia  were  only  the  enormous  distance 
and  the  difficulties  attending  tlie  transport  of  such  numbers.  In  any  case  the 
decision  of  parliament,  in  spite  of  tlie  royal  assent,  was  not  put  into  action  soon 
enough  to  anticipate  the  plan  of  a  certain  Mr.  Matra,  subsequently  English  consul 
in  Tangiers.  He  proposed  to  settle  in  New  South  Wales  the  numerous  families 
who  had  been  expelled  from  North  America  on  account  of  their  support  of  the 
mother  country,  and  at  the  same  time  to  improve  appreciably  the  position  of  Eng- 
land in  the  trade  of  Europe  by  the  increase  in  production  wliich  might  be  looked 
for.     Matra,  also,  failed  to  carry  his  plan  then.     The   secretary  of  state.   Lord 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


J  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  255 


Sydney,  certainly  favoured  the  scheme  in  1784,  but  he  tiually  recurred  to  the  idea 
of  transportation. 

A  frigate  and  a  tender  of  the  royal  navy,  six  transports  and  three  store  ships 
with  some  1,100  men,  of  whom  about  350  were  free,  sailed  from  England  on  May 
13,  1787;  they  landed  on  the  shores  of  Botauy  Bay  between  the  18th  and  20th  of 
January,  1788,  but  finding  that  this  site  was  destitute  of  the  natural  resources 
which  they  had  been  led  to  expect,  the  emigrants  removed  within  a  few  days  to 
the  site  of  the  modern  town  of  Sydney.  The  expedition  was  imder  the  command 
of  Captain  Arthur  Phillip,  the  son  of  a  German  governess  who  had  married  an 
English  seaman.  Phillip  conducted  the  dithcult  duty  of  transporting  the  convicts 
with  that  circumspection  and  humanity  which  distinguished  him  during  the  whole 
of  his  five  years'  term  of  office  as  governor,  even  in  his  attitude  toward  the  natives. 
Circumspection  and  an  invincible  energy  were  the  qualities  which  were  required 
in  the  succeeding  years  from  the  governor  of  the  newly  formed  community. 
Phillip  and  his  settlers  were  spared  none  of  the  experiences  which  are  inseparably 
connected  with  the  founding  of  agricultural  colonies. 

In  February,  1788,  the  governor  removed  a  small  number  of  convicts,  under  the 
superintendence  of  Lieutenant  King  and  some  soldiers,  to  Norfolk  Island,  which 
lies  almost  half  way  between  New  Zealand  and  New  Caledonia.  The  duty  of  this 
minor  colony  was  to  manufacture  the  flax  which  Cook  had  found  there  in  large 
quantities,  in  order  to  supply  the  main  colony  cheaply  and  conveniently  with 
material  for  clothing.  King  set  to  work  witli  zeal,  planted  corn  and  vegetables, 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  manufacture  of  flax.  But  in  spite  of  all  efforts  it  was 
possible  neither  here  nor  on  the  mainland  to  feed  the  colony  from  its  own  prod- 
ucts ;  the  need  for  some  help  in  the  way  of  provisions  was  most  urgently  felt  by 
both  countries  during  the  early  years.  The  same  need  had  been  felt  by  some  of 
the  early  colonists  on  different  parts  of  the  east  coast  of  America,  in  Virginia  and 
Carolina ;  and  this  was  the  cause  of  the  failure  of  the  great  French  scheme  of 
colonisation  in  Cayenne  in  1763.  Virgin  soil  is  not  at  once  in  a  condition  to  feed 
large  masses  of  inhabitants,  especially  when  it  is  treated  with  as  little  technical 
knowledge  as  was  shown  by  the  settlers  of  Phillip  and  King,  no  one  of  whom 
understood  anything  of  agriculture  ;  beside  that,  the  soil  of  Sydney  is  not  fertile. 
Again,  the  criminals,  who  preponderated  in  numbers,  felt  little  desire  to  work. 
According  to  Phillip,  twenty  free  men  did  more  than  a  thousand  convicts.  The 
leading  thought  of  the  whole  of  Phillip's  term  of  office  was  to  increase  the 
number  of  free  settlers  and  to  bring  over  skilled  agriculturists.  But  when  PhiUip 
voluntarily  resigned  his  post  in  December,  1792,  through  shattered  health,  the 
number  of  free  immigrants  was  still  insignificant.  The  bulk  of  private  holdings 
were  in  the  hands  of  "  emancipists,"  or  time-expired  convicts,  who  were  hardly 
more  industrious  than  the  convicts   themselves. 

Under  the  prevailing  circumstances  the  internal  conditions  of  the  colony  were 
terribly  disorganised  during  the  first  years.  The  want  of  provisions,  which  was 
felt  soon  after  landing,  became  so  acute  in  1790  that  for  months  only  half  rations 
or  less  could  be  distributed ;  the  cattle  that  had  been  brought  with  the  settlers 
escaped  or  died,  and  the  first  fields  which  were  sown  produced  nothing.  In  addition 
to  this,  scurvy  broke  out  from  want  of  fresh  meat.  The  soldiers  were  disobedient 
and  mutinous,  and  drunkenness  became  a  besetting  vice.  Robbery,  murder,  and 
arson  were  daily  occurrences.     In  February,  1790,  the  distress  became  so  acute  that 


2.36  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [Chapter ill 

the  governor  found  himself  compelled  to  send  two  lunulred  prisoners  to  the  Nor- 
folk Islands,  although  tliere  was  aiiytliing  but  a  superahuiulaiice  of  food  there. 
Meanwhile,  fresh  transports  kept  arriving  from  England  with  prisoners,  masses  of 
poor  wretches  crowded  together,  more  than  half  of  whom  freijuently  died  on  the 
long  voyage.  The  survivors  were  then  often  so  weak,  that,  half  dead,  they  had  to 
be  unloaded  at  Port  Jackson  in  slings  like  bales  of  merchandise.  On  the  other 
hand,  provisions,  seed  corn,  and  cattle  did  not  arrive. 

Governor  Phillip,  in  the  midst  of  all  this  misery,  which  often  forced  him  to  live 
on  half  rations  like  the  convicts,  never  lost  heart  for  an  instant.  On  the  contrary, 
amid  the  mass  of  duties  which  devolved  on  him  in  the  way  of  constructing 
houses,  laying  out  gardens  and  fields,  and  continually  battling  with  famine  and 
mutiny,  he  found  the  time  to  interest  himself  in  the  exph)ration  of  the  interior ; 
he  was  also  desirous  of  forming  amicable  relations  with  tlie  natives.  One  thing 
alone  was  calculated  to  fill  this  patient,  dogged  man  with  distaste  for  his  post,  and 
that  was  the  opposition,  passive  indeed,  but  all  the  more  obstinate,  which  his  own 
troops  showed  to  all  his  measures.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  up  to  the  end  of  1790,  the 
marines,  and  then  the  New  South  Wales  Corps,  a  regiment  specially  organised 
for  Australia,  thwarted  every  one  of  his  regulations.  The  soldiers  disregarded  the 
acts  of  parliament,  in  virtue  of  which  Phillip  exercised  his  ofKce,  and  submitted 
to  military  laws  only. 

A  successor  to  Governor  Phillip  was  finally  appointed  at  the  end  of  17S'5  in 
the  person  of  Hunter,  also  a  sailor,  who  had  accompanied  the  expedition  of  1787. 
The  interval  of  nearly  three  years  was  filled  by  the  government  of  two  officers  of 
tlie  New  Soutli  Wales  Corps,  Major  Grose  and  Captain  Paterson.  The  adminis- 
tration of  both  is  conspicuous  for  the  enormous  growth  of  the  abuses  against  which 
Phillip  had  vainly  contended.  Above  all  the  general  vice  of  drunkenness  had 
assumed  most  dangerous  dimensions,  being  chiefly  encouraged  by  the  increased 
trade  in  spirits,  which  the  soldiers  of  the  militia  as  well  as  their  oilicers  made  their 
chief  business,  from  want  of  military  duties.  The  name  "  Rum  Corps  "  that  was 
soon  given  to  these  troops  has  perpetuated  this  strange  conception  of  military  ser- 
vice. For  the  colony  itself  it  clearly  involved  great  losses.  The  convicts,  instead 
of  being  educated  to  be  peaceable  and  industrious  families  of  farmers,  were  being 
ruined  by  the  vilest  alcohol.  As  a  result,  the  coarsest  immorality,  blood-curdling 
outrages,  and  inhuman  cruelty  were  the  order  of  the  day. 

Captain  Hunter,  tlie  second  governor,  was  unable  to  cheek  these  evils  during  the 
term  of  his  ofhce,  which  he  held  from  September,  1795,  to  ISOO.  He  certainly  put 
an  end  to  the  tyranny  of  the  military,  -and  re-established  the  ci\'il  courts  which 
had  long  been  in  abeyance.  He  also  as  far  as  possible  suppressed  the  distilling 
of  spirits  in  the  colony,  and  checked  the  general  immoralitj-.  But  the  evils  were 
by  this  time  too  deeply  rooted  to  be  eradicated  so  quickly  by  a  somewhat  impru- 
dent man  like  Hunter.  Drunkenness  therefore  continued  rife,  just  as  the  ordinary 
quarrels  of  the  whites  among  tlieniselves  and  witli  tlu?  natives.  Even  the  enormous 
tracts  of  country,  whicli  Hunter's  predecessors  liad  distributed  to  civil  .servants  and 
military  officers,  remained  in  their  possession,  as  well  as  the  excessive  number 
of  convicts,  whom  they  ruled  despotically  like  slaves.  It  would,  liowever,  be 
unjust  if  we  judged  Hunter's  administration  by  this  one  side  of  it ;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  distinctly  promoted  the  development  of  the  colony  in  more  than  one 
department.     The  cultivation  of  large  tracts,  which  was  compulsorily  enforced  by 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


"]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  251 


the  owners,  did  much  to  relieve  the  scarcity  of  food  — the  chief  misfortune  of  the 
colony  up  to  the  nineteenth  century ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  it  placed  the  monopoly 
of  all  economic  advantages  in  the  hands  of  a  few.  These  were  indeed  the  two 
objects  that  Major  Grose  had  contemplated  when  he  made  similar  regulations 
iu  his  time. 

The  two  new  achievements,  by  which  Hunter's  term  of  office  was  honourably 
distinguished  are  more  partial,  but  not  less  important  in  results.  Firstly,  under 
him  the  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  the  continent  was  widened.  This  was  due 
to  the  voyage  of  Mr.  Bass,  a  naval  surgeon,  which  proved  clearly  that  Van  Dieman's 
Land  was  an  island,  to  the  first  exploration  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  to  the 
discovery  of  coal  seams  near  Point  Solander.  It  was  also  found  that  the  cattle, 
which  had  run  away  in  tlie  early  days  of  the  colonisation,  had  begun  to  multiply 
into  large  herds  of  half-wild  animals;  and  iu  this  way  it  was  proved  that  the 
supposed  impossibility  of  acclimatising  cattle  did  not  in  fact  exist. 

The  introduction  of  systematic  sheep  farming  with  a  view  to  the  wool,  which 
is  now  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  industry  on  the  continent,  is 
inseparably  connected  with  the  name  of  John  Mac  Arthur.  During  the  whole 
of  the  unedifying  struggle  between  the  governor  and  the  military,  this  officer  had 
been  the  most  vigorous  representative  of  tlie  movement  in  favour  of  making  and 
selling  spirits.  He  was  altogether  a  shrewd  and  practical  man,  to  whom  among 
other  things  the  Australian  wine  trade  owes  its  origin.  In  1794  MacArthur  pro- 
cured sixty  Bengal  sheep  from  Calcutta,  to  which  he  shortly  added  some  Irish 
sheep.  By  crossing  he  created  a  breed  whose  fleeces  were  a  mixture  of  hair  and 
wool.  In  1797,  in  order  to  produce  a  finer  wool,  he  obtained,  through  the  agency 
of  some  friendly  naval  officers,  a  few  sheep  from  Capetown.  These  were,  as  it 
happened,  fine  merinos,  a  God-send  to  the  continent,  for  these  few  animals,  and 
some  ordinary  Cape  sheep,  which  were  subsetpieutly  added,  were  the  progenitors 
of  immense  flocks,  and  the  foundation  of  the  present  wealth  of  Australia. 

The  results  of  MacArthur's  breeding  were  prodigious.  When  in  1801,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  duel  with  a  fellow  officer,  he  was  ordered  to  England,  he  took  back 
specimens  of  the  wool  he  had  grown  himself  and  put  them  before  experts  in 
London.  Their  verdict  was  most  favourable.  MacArthur's  proposal  that  land  and 
convicts  should  be  assigned  him  in  Australia  with  the  definite  object  of  providing 
the  English  woollen  industry  with  Australian  material  on  a  wholesale  scale,  was 
favourably  answered  in  October,  1804  Lord  Camden,  the  new  secretarj'  of  state, 
instructed  the  governor  of  New  South  Wales  to  concede  to  MacArthur  five  thou- 
sand acres  in  perpetuit}'  for  grazing  purposes,  to  give  him  convicts  as  sheplierds,  and 
to  afford  him  generally  every  possible  assistance.  The  governor  thereupon  issued 
a  proclamation,  in  which  the  concession  of  tracts  for  sheep  farming  or  cattle 
breeding  was  publicly  amiounced.  MacArthur,  however,  received  the  land  he 
selected  in  the  best  part  of  the  colony,  on  Mount  Taurus  in  the  cow  pasture 
district,  where  tlie  half-wild  herds  of  cattle  had  been  found  in  1795.  There  with 
his  original  flock,  augmented  by  purchases  in  England  and  Australia,  he  established 
his  breeding  farm,  which  he  called  Camden  Estate,  in  honour  of  the  secretary  of 
state.  This  became  the  centre  of  the  new  and  rapidly  flourishing  wool-growing 
industry. 

Since  1800  the  governor  had  been  Philip  Gidley  King,  a  man  who  seemed 
more  qualified  than  any  one  else  to  rescue  from  the  quicksands  the  misdirected 


VOL.    n-17 


258  HISTORY    OF    Tlli-     WORLD         lri..,,,t.r  ill 

fortunes  of  the  Auslraliau  colonisalion.  Kinj^  is  tlic  same  man  whom  we  have 
aheaily  (p.  2ri5)  met  \x'u\\  as  vice-goveruor  of  Norfolk  Island,  where  he  had  dis- 
played excellent  qualities  in  his  ten  years'  struj;j;jle  against  tlie  deficiencies  of 
nature  and  the  insuliordiualion  of  his  charges.  Tiie  uiheritanie  to  wiiicli  he 
succeeded  was  not  hoj)efnl.  The  New  South  Wales  Corps  was  more  powerful  than 
ever  in  the  country,  and  had  just  given  a  proof  of  its  influence  in  London  hy 
effecting  the  recall  of  his  predecessor.  As  might  be  expected,  the  l)randy  trade 
was  in  full  swing;  not  less  than  twenty  thousand  gallons  were  stored  in  Sydney 
alone.  Even  of  other  wares  the  civil  and  military  officers  had  a  practical  monopoly 
which  veas  exceedingly  remunerative  to  them,  even  if  it  did  not  bring  in  the  twelve 
hiuulred  per  cent  which  the  spirits  paid.  King's  first  step  was  to  check  this 
abu.se.  Impowered  by  the  government  in  London  to  make  tlie  landing  of  spirits  in 
Port  Jackson  dependent  on  his  consent,  he  prohibited  in  the  aulunui  of  1800  tiieir 
importation  and  sale  without  a  special  permission.  All  that  came  by  ship  in 
defiance  of  this  order  was  either  sent  back  again  (in  one  year,  according  to  Zim- 
merman, no  less  than  thirty-two  thousand  gallons  of  spirits  and  twenty-two 
thousand  gallons  of  wine)  or  was  bought  by  King  and  sold  again  at  a  cheap  price. 
The  cheapness  only  ensured  that  the  usurious  trading  profits  ceased. 

It  is  easy  to  conceive  the  reception  which  the  measures  of  King  found  among 
the  members  of  the  New  South  Wales  Corps,  especially  when  we  consider  what 
a  strong  backing  they  had  in  London.  Owing  to  the  perpetual  European  wars  the 
import  of  Spanish  wool  to  London  had  come  to  a  standstill,  so  that  the  proposals 
of  MacArthur  to  provide  tlie  industry  with  raw  material  from  Australia  were 
thankfully  adopted.  MacArthur  himself  obtained  a  splendid  position  at  home 
through  it,  as  did  the  entire  New  Soutli  Wales  Corps,  whose  most  influential 
member  he  was.  Notwithstanding  the  exasperation  of  the  corps,  things  did  not  go 
so  far  as  open  hostility  to  the  governor.  The  corps  certainly  made  the  governor's 
life  as  unpleasant  as  possible  through  the  infringement  of  his  regulations  in  a 
thousand  ways,  while  King  retaliated  by  limiting  the  authority  of  the  regiment 
to  purely' military  affair.s.  ]5ut  this  did  not  prevent  tiie  governor  from  honourably 
and  honestly  helping  MacArthur  in  his  efforts  in  wool-growing.  Nevertheless  the 
perpetual  friction  was  quite  enough  to  induce  King  to  resign  his  responsible  post 
in  July,  1805.  He  retired  without  expecting  or  receiving  thanks  from  the  home 
government,  which  had  always  listened  to  his  opponents  more  attentively  than 
to  him.  He  might,  however,  take  tiie  consciousness  with  him  that  he  had  done 
good  service  to  the  colony. 

The  survey  of  the  western  part  of  the  south  and  east  coasts  between  Cape 
Stephens  (33°  S.)  and  Cape  I'almerston  (22°  S.)  which  was  carried  out  duruig 
King's  term  of  office,  as  well  as  the  exploration  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  by 
Matthew  Flinders,  were  valuable  additions  to  geography,  and  important  for  later 
coloui-sation.  The  formal  annexation  of  the  continent  by  means  of  extensive 
schemes  of  settlement  was  his  work.  This  step  was  necessitated  by  the  unceasing 
efforts  of  the  French  to  gain  a  firm  footing  in  Australia.  King,  indeed,  impressed 
upon  the  French  explorers  the  ])rescriptive  lights  of  England,  but  at  the  same  time 
he  thought  it  expedient  to  make  these  riglits  ]ialent  to  all  by  an  immediate  coloni- 
sation of  different  places.  In  1.S03  ^'au  Diemen's  Land  was  occupied,  while,  simul- 
taneously with  the  removal  of  the  convicts,  who  constituted  a  common  danger,  two 
settlements  were  founded  at  Itestdown  (Ilisdon)  on  the  left  bank,  and  Ilobart 


Anstralia  and 
Ocean  ia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  259 


Town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Derwent.  At  the  same  time  the  first  (but  imsuc- 
cessful)  attempt  at  colonisation  from  London  was  made  at  Port  Phillip,  the 
great  bay  on  which  Melbourne  now  lies ;  and,  lastly,  the  foundations  were  laid  of 
Laimceston,  on  the  north  coast  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  of  Newcastle,  now 
the  second  harbour  of  New  South  "Wales. 

King  might  also  be  satisfied  with  the  results  of  national  industries  at  the  end 
of  his  career.  On  the  departure  of  Phillip,  in  1792,  about  1,700  acres  were  under 
permanent  cultivation,  and  the  number  of  domestic  animals  could  hardly  be  reck- 
oned in  dozens.  In  1796,  a  year  after  Hunter's  anival,  the  number  of  such  animals 
had  reached  5,000,  and  there  were  5,400  acres  under  the  plough.  In  August,  1798, 
according  to  Jenks,^  the  figures  were  6,000  acres  and  10,000  head  of  cattle ;  for 
August,  1799,  8,000  acres  and  11,000  head.  The  white  population  had  amounted 
to  4,000  souls  when  Hunter  entered  on  office.  On  his  retirement  in  1800,  their 
number  was,  according  to  Mossman,  6,000.  Under  King's  five  years  of  govern- 
ment, tliis  inheritance  had  developed  into  the  following  dimensions :  In  1806, 
according  to  Zimmerman,  165,882  acres  had  been  given  away  in  estates  or  reserved 
for  the  crown ;  of  these  20,000  acres  were  cleared ;  6,000  acres  were  planted  with 
wheat,  4,000  with  maize,  1,000  with  barley,  185  with  potatoes,  433  sei-ved  as  garden 
ground.  Of  the  districts  allotted,  15,620  acres  were  held  by  civil  officials,  20,697 
by  officers;  18,666  acres  were  the  property  of  405  "emancipists."  There  were 
112  free  settlers;  m  addition  there  were  SO  discharged  sailors  and  soldiers, 
and  13  persons  bom  in  the  colony.  The  number  of  stock  was  as  follows  :  566 
horses,  4,790  cattle,  23,110  sheep,  2,283  goats,  7,019  pigs ;  altogether,  37,768  head. 
The  white  population  amounted  to  9,462  persons  in  1806.  Of  these  there  were 
5,172  men,  1,701  women,  and  2,589  children. 

The  successor  of  King,  nominated  in  1805,  was  William  Bligh,  long  well  known 
in  geographical  circles  by  the  wonderful  voyage,  in  the  course  of  which  he  traversed 
in  an  open  boat  large  portions  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans.  Being  commis- 
sioned, as  captain  of  the  ship  "  Bounty,"  to  transplant  the  breadfruit  tree  from 
Tahiti  to  the  West  Indies,  he  had  caused  such  discontent  among  the  crew  by  his 
terrible  severity  that  in  the  middle  of  the  voyage  they  placed  him  with  eighteen 
companions  in  a  boat,  on  which  he  eventually  reached  Batavia,  while  the  rest  of 
the  crew  either  returned  to  Tahiti  or  foimded  on  Pitcaim  Island  the  small  com- 
munity which  has  been  so  often  described  since.  Bligh's  marvellous  rescue  had 
not  deprived  his  character  of  any  of  its  original  roughness.  As  commander  of  a 
man-of-war,  he  had  provoked  a  mutiny  of  the  crew  by  his  tyranny,  and  in  New 
South  Wales,  also,  where  he  arrived  in  the  middle  of  August,  1806,  he  contrived  to 
make  himself  unpopular  from  the  first  by  his  inhuman  severity.  He  was  not, 
indeed,  deficient  m.  an  honourable  intention  of  promoting  the  interests  of  the 
colony,  which  now  showed  such  promise ;  but  he  lacked  a  proper  comprehension 
of  his  duties.  Caprice  of  every  sort,  brutal  floggings  even  of  free  settlers,  the  razing 
of  houses  the  position  of  which  dissatisfied  liim,  the  compulsory  removal  of  colonists 
in  1807  from  Norfolk  Island  to  Van  Diemen's  Land, —  all  these  were  measures 
which  made  the  new  governor  hated.  He  also  by  such  acts  repelled  the  better 
class  of  people,  so  that  he  was  surrounded  with  persons  of  ill  repute  in  their  place. 

The  episode  which  brought  the  ill-feeling  to  a  head,  is,  as  Mr.  Jenks  expresses 


1  "History  of  the  Australasian  Colonies,"  l)y  E.  Jenks  (Cambridge,  1896),  p.  36. 


2G0  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Ichaj.u-r ui 

it  iu  his  "  History  of  the  Australasian  Colonies,"  "  the  most  picturesque  incident 
in  tlie  early  history  of  tlie  ctilony."  Iu  accordance  witli  his  instructions,  which 
required  hiui  to  continue  the  measures  directed  by  King  against  the  excessive 
power  of  the  New  South  Wales  Corps,  and  above  all  to  proceed  against  the  still 
tlouri.^hing  brandy  trade,  lUigh  hud  issued  an  edict  in  February,  1807,  which  abso- 
lutely prohibited  the  making  and  sale  of  spirits,  and  forbade  the  erection  of  distil- 
ling apparatus  on  private  property.  Now,  MacArthur  had  oidered  some  distilling 
apparatus  from  England,  in  comicction  with  his  attempts  at  vine  culture.  This  was 
taken  from  him  and  sent  buck  by  the  orders  of  the  governor.  The  strained  rela- 
tions thus  produced  between  the  two  men  were  aggravated  by  Bligli's  accusation 
that  MacArthur  had  received  his  live  thousand  acres  of  pasture  land  by  supplying 
false  information.  MacArthur's  self-justification  by  reference  to  the  order  of  the 
Privy  Coimcil  was  finally  answered  by  Bligh  with  a  command  to  appear  in  court, 
because  a  convict  had  Hcd  to  one  of  the  breeder's  ships.  When  ^lacArthur  did 
not  obey  the  summons,  he  was  arrested.  Even  if  Bligh  had  law  upon  his  side,  as 
seems  to  have  been  the  case,  yet  his  .sharp  procedure  was  unwise  in  view  of 
MacArthur's  honourable  position.  The  indignation  of  the  New  South  Wales  Corps 
at  once  vented  itself  in  action.  At  the  instigation  of  the  officers.  Major  Johnston 
liberated  the  prisoner  on  January  26,  1808,  occupied  the  government  house,  and, 
agreeablv  to  the  wish  of  MacArtliur  and  otlier  prominent  colonists,  declared  the 
governor  deposed,  and  sent  him  as  a  prisoner  on  board  a  ship  lying  in  the  harbour. 
AH  the  executive  officials  who  had  supjwrted  the  governor  were  dismissed  or 
aiTested,  the  colony  was  put  under  martial  law,  and  for  almost  two  years,  until  the 
arrival  of  the  new  governor  on  December  31,  1809,  was  administered  by  Johnston 
and  tlie  members  of  his  corps.  MacArthur  himself,  on  a  fresh  hearing  of  the  case, 
was  unanimously  acquitted. 

The  attitude  of  the  British  government  toward  the  unpleasant  incident  was 
long  in  making  itself  known.  The  tidings  of  what  had  happened  had  reached 
England  by  the  end  of  the  year,  but  there  every  one  was  so  occupied  with  the 
Napoleonic  wars  that  another  j-ear  elapsed  before  any  steps  against  the  rebels  were 
decided  upon.  Lachlaa  JMacquarie  was  entrusted  with  the  mission.  Johnston  was 
brought  back  to  England  under  strict  arrest  on  a  charge  of  mutiny.  All  the  appoint- 
ments and  assignments  of  land  which  had  been  made  after  Bligh 's  an-est  were 
declared  null  and  void,  and  all  the  old  officials  were  reinstated.  Bligh,  wlio  was 
still  living  on  his  ship  in  Australia,  was  recognised  as  governor,  but  immediately 
recalled  and  replaced  by  Macquarie.  MacArthur  was  finally  expelled  from  the 
country.  He  thus  had  the  hardest  lot ; -keenly  interested  in  its  mdustrial  welfare, 
he  was  compelled  to  remain  for  years  far  awaj-  from  the  country  and  his  undertak- 
ings. It  was  not  until  1817  that  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  liis  Camden  estate. 
Johnston  fared  better,  since,  thanks  to  the  representations  made  by  Macquarie  to 
the  proper  quarters  as  to  Bligh 's  character  and  method  of  governing,  he  was  merely 
cashiered.  Honours  were  finally  showered  upon  Bligli  liimself  in  England.  He 
became  \dce-admiral  of  the  Blue  and  a  fellow  of  the  Koyal  Society.  He  died  on 
December  7,  1817. 

Macquarie  had  not  come  across  from  England  alone.  On  the  contrary,  he 
brought  a  whole  line  regiment  of  soldiers  with  liim.  This  meant  nothing  less  than 
a  complete  change  of  system.  The  New  South  A\'ales  Corps  was  incorporated  into 
the  English  army  and  withdrawn  from  Australia  forever ;  the  governor  henceforth 


Australia  and' 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  261 


had  at  his  disposal  disciplined  regulars  instead  of  a  corps  which  had  been  ruined  by 
twenty  years'  sojourn  in  a  penal  colony.  Alacquarie  had  generally  a  much  easier 
position  than  any  of  his  predecessors.  Twenty  years  of  work  had  produced  valu- 
able results,  notwithstanding  all  hindrances  and  cessations,  and  after  King's  careful 
tenure  of  office  the  colony  had  made  great  advances  in  prosperity.  In  1810  there 
were  already  11,590  white  colonists;  7,615  acres  were  under  the  plough;  the  num- 
ber of  cattle  reached  12,442,  that  of  sheep  25,888 ;  the  taxes  brought  in  nearly 
£8,000  annually. 

Under  these  favourable  conditions,  the  energy  of  Macquarie  could  be  prin- 
cipally devoted  to  matters  of  a  positive  and  executive  nature,  as  was  most  in 
keeping  with  his  disposition.  In  this  respect  he  was  the  direct  opposite  of  Bligh, 
whose  abilities  were  merely  directed  toward  the  repression  of  abuses,  while  he 
displayed  no  sort  of  talent  for  organisation.  Macquarie's  first  care  was  to  establish 
well-regulated  conditions  in  Sydney.'  He  nearly  rebuilt  the  town  ;  the  construc- 
tion of  new  streets,  the  organisation  of  police,  the  erection  of  public  buildings, 
especially  schools  and  churches,  the  laying  out  of  promenades,  —  all  this  is  his  work. 
In  1816  the  first  bank  was  set  up,  followed  three  years  later  by  a  savings  bank. 
He  made  it  his  object  to  construct  good  roads  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town,  as  well 
as  to  regulate  the  courses  of  the  rivers.  He  especially  encouraged  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil  in  every  direction,  and  not  least  so  by  extreme  liberality  in  grants  of 
land.  This  liberality,  coupled  with  the  extensive  demands  for  public,  that  is  to 
say,  home  assistance  for  his  reforms,  exposed  him  even  then  to  much  censure,  both 
in  England  and  Australia.  Macquarie's  efforts  to  extend  the  range  of  colonisation 
were  not  less  meritorious  than  his  attempts  to  raise  the  moral  tone  and  develop 
the  industries  within  the  colony  itself.  His  four  predecessors  had  all  been  sailors, 
whose  interest  in  geography  was  exhausted  by  voyages  of  discovery  along  the 
coast.  The  contour  and  shape  of  the  Australian  continent  had,  it  is  true,  been 
definitely  ascertained  by  them,  but  for  a  full  quarter  of  a  century,  after  the  landing 
in  Botany  Bay,  nothing  more  was  known  of  the  interior  than  the  narrow  strip  of 
land  between  the  coast  and  the  Blue  Mountains  looming  in  the  west,  which  had 
always  been  considered  impassable.  Macquarie  urged  the  colonists  to  new  efforts, 
and  finally  in  1813,  Wentworth,  Blaxland,  and  Lawson  discovered  a  way  through 
the  mountains,  and  found  beyond  them  immense  plains  of  fertile  country.  Mac- 
quarie, in  spite  of  the  hundreds  of  miles  of  most  difficult  groimd  between  Sydney 
and  the  new  territory,  at  once  set  about  constructing  a  road,  which  was  ready  to 
be  opened  in  1815.  At  the  same  time  the  town  of  Bathurst  was  founded  as  the 
centre  of  the  newly  opened  up  country,  which  soon  became  the  seat  of  a  brisk 
wheat-growing  industry  and  the  source  of  the  rapid  prosperity  of  the  colony. 

New  South  Wales  owed  this  renewed  prosperity  largely  to  the  favourable 
period  at  which  its  discovery  and  exploitation  had  taken  place.  With  the  close  of 
the  Napoleonic  wars  England's  hands  were  untied ;  even  private  persons  revived 
their  interest  in  the  oversea  possessions.  New  South  Wales  now  became  the  goal 
of  a  continuously  swelling  stream  of  emigration,  which  added  to  the  existing  set- 
tlers a  large  percentage  of  free  colonists,  who  were  either  time-expired  soldiers  or 
discharged  convicts.  Macquarie  himself  was  by  no  means  friendly  to  the  new- 
comers. From  the  very  first  he  supported  the  view  "  Australia  for  the  convict," 
and  tried  by  every  means  to  check  the  influx  of  free  immigrants.  In  1818  he 
actually  carried  a  measure  by  which  these  latter  were  deprived  of  the  free  passage 


•26-2  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter iii 

which  had  been  customary  since  the  founding  of  the  colony.  The  results  turned 
out  quite  otherwise  from  what  Macquarie  expected.  The  small  man  indeed  kept 
awav,  but  not  the  man  of  means.  The  latter,  however,  could  at  once  set  to  work 
on  a  large  scale.  He  only  required  to  buy  sheep,  the  government  supplied  him 
with  laud  and  convicts  as  shepherds.  Thus  he  became  a  large  lauded  proprietor ; 
but  the  convict  was  not  the  least  helped  by  Macquarie's  measures.  In  spite  of  all 
his  popularity,  the  obvious  favour  which  he  showed  to  the  emancipists  provoked  a 
feeling  against  him  among  the  free  settlers,  which  tiually  led  to  the  recall  of  the 
well-intentioned  governor.  The  unfavourable  attitude  of  the  government  against 
him  was  intensified  by  the  outcry  of  the  great  lauded  proprietors.  These  claimed 
wide  tracts  of  land  for  their  grazing  farms ;  but  the  governor  was  pledged  to  sup- 
port the  small  proprietors  who  had  been  convicts  previously.  This  was  sutBcient 
incentive  to  the  now  powerful  wool  industry  to  advocate  the  recall  of  Macquarie, 
which  took  place  in  1821.1 

Macquarie  had  still  more  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  his  results  tiian  King. 
Even  the  statistics  presented  a  quite  different  aspect.  In  1821  the  white  popula- 
tion of  the  colony  was  estimated  roughly  at  39,000  souls  ;  32,267  acres  were  under 
cultivation ;  there  were  103,000  head  of  cattle,  4,564  horses,  and  more  than 
250,000  sheep.  The  annual  revenue  of  the  community  was  £30,000  sterling. 
Besides  this,  internal  affairs  were  splendidly  organised,  and  there  was  confident 
hope  that  the  stream  of  immigration  would  not  dry  up.  In  short,  the  departing 
governor  might  fairly  feel  that  it  was  his  own  diligent  activity  for  eleven  years 
that  had  extricated  Australia  from  her  seemingly  hopeless  position  in  the  swamp 
of  corruption. 

(c)  The  Development  of  New  South  Wales  to  the  Middle  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury. —  Macquarie's  entrance  on  office  had  brouglit  with  it  a  change  of  system  in 
the  administration,  and  a  similar  change  signalised  his  departure.  The  former  had 
substituted  the  civil  administration  for  the  military ;  the  latter  put  the  beginnings 
of  a  constitution  in  the  place  of  the  autocracy.  All  the  governors  of  the  colony 
had  been  hitherto  practically  despotic ;  they  had  marked  out  the  methods  of  colo- 
nisation according  to  their  own  judgment,  and  embodied  in  themselves  the  legis- 
lative power;  they  were  indeed  the  ultimate  court  of  appeal.  They  were,  it  is  true, 
responsible  to  the  British  secretary  of  state  for  war  and  the  colonies ;  but  London 
was  far  away,  and  the  political  situation  in  Europe  guaranteed  sufliciently  that  too 
much  notice  would  not  be  taken  of  Australia.  Bligh's  motto,  "  My  will  is  the 
law,"  is  characteristic  of  this  view.  So  long  as  the  majority  of  the  population  con- 
sisted of  convicts  or  was  descended  from  them,  unlimited  authority  might  be  con- 
centrated in  one  hand;  but  as  soon  as  the  free  population  predominated,  this 
situation  was  impossible.  Even  in  1812  the  creation  of  a  board  of  assessors,  com- 
posed of  officials  and  colonists,  had  been  suggested,  but  Macquarie  had  considered 
that  such  an  institution,  which  had  proved  its  value  in  all  other  English  colonies, 
was  unsuitable  for  Australia. 

After  his  departure,  the  limitation  of  the  power  of  the  governor  was  an  accom- 
plished fact.     The  acts  of  July  19, 1823,  placed  at  his  side  an  advisory  board,  to 


'  For  a  more  favourable  view  of  Macquarie's  policy  v.  E.  Jenks,  op.  HI.,  p.  49,  wlio  liolds  that  tlie  real 
cause  of  his  unpopularity  was  his  determination  to  give  the  emancipists  ei|ual  rights  and  an  equal 
social  status  with  the  free  immigrants.  —  Edituk. 


Au.,r„Haana-^  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  263 


Oceania 


which  every  law  had  to  be  submitted  for  assent ;  its  five  to  seven  members  exer- 
cised also  a  limited  financial  control.  In  the  one  case  of  a  rebellion  the  governor 
had  dictatorial  power.  If  the  majority  of  the  board  voted  against  a  law,  it  had  to 
be  brought  before  the  crown  for  decision.  On  the  legal  side,  the  reforms  were  also 
extensive.  Hitherto  the  governor  had  been  the  highest  court  of  appeal  in  all 
questions  of  law ;  now  these  were  absolutely  withdrawn  from  his  decision  in 
favour  of  a  supreme  court  of  judicature  on  the  English  model.  The  only  right 
retained  by  the  governor  was  the  remission  of  sentences  on  criminals,  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  English  government.  The  first  governor  who  ruled  under 
these  new  forms  was  Sir  Thomas  Brisbane  (1821-1825).  His  administration  kept 
strictly  within  the  limits  imposed  on  the  governor ;  but,  in  compensation,  he 
devoted  his  chief  attention  to  the  further  exploration  and  opening  up  of  the  coun- 
try. The  course  of  the  Murray  and  Murrumbidgee  was  now  traced ;  the  country 
was  traversed  diagonally  as  far  as  the  south  coast  in  the  vicinity  of  modern  Mel- 
bourne, the  shores  of  Queensland  and  North  Australia  were  explored,  and  the  con- 
tinent secured  from  the  renewed  designs  of  the  French  by  settlements  on  various 
outlying  points.  The  first  observatory  on  Australian  soil  was  constructed  at 
Brisbane. 

The  effects  of  Brisbane's  attitude  toward  the  colonisation  of  the  newly  opened 
up  interior  are  economically  more  important  than  the  fruits  of  this  scientific 
activity.  Even  Macquarie  had  made  settlement  in  the  interior  dependent  on  per- 
mission from  himself ;  Brisbane  was  more  liberal ;  he  gave  the  perpetually  increas- 
ing number  of  free  immigrants  the  land  for  grazing  purposes  free,  and  conceded  to 
the  Australian  Agricultural  Company,  founded  in  England  in  1824  with  a  capital 
of  one  million  pounds  sterling,  not  less  than  a  million  acres  of  land  near  Port 
Stephens  and  in  the  Liverpool  Plains.  He  encouraged  production  and  trade  in 
every  way;  in  1825  there  were  45,514  acres  under  cultivation;  more  than  4,000 
liundred-weight  of  wool  were  exported,  and  some  thirty  Australian  ships  were  en- 
gaged in  fishery  and  commerce.  The  incomings  (over  £70,000  sterling)  had  more 
than  doubled  since  1821. 

Two  other  important  and  essentially  different  events  fall  into  the  term  of 
Brisbane's  office :  the  separation  of  the  island  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  from  New 
South  Wales,  and  the  official  declaration  of  the  freedom  of  the  press.  The 
former  was  decreed  in  1823,  and  took  effect  in  1825  ;  the  latter  was  announced  in 
1824,  but  did  not  come  into  force  under  the  successor  of  Sir  Thomas.  Its  actual 
application  was  postponed  until  the  administration  of  Bourke  (see  later). 

Brisbane's  successor  was  Sir  Ealph  Darling,  who  guided  the  destinies  of  the 
colony  from  1825  to  1831.  He  did  not  make  himself  during  the  six  years  of  his 
administration  the  favourite  of  the  people  which  his  name  would  imply.  He  con- 
tinued, it  is  true,  his  predecessor's  policy  of  expansion  with  success,  and  added 
Westernport  in  the  south  and  Shark  Bay  in  the  west  to  the  list  of  English 
stations.  It  was  once  more  essential  to  take  steps  against  the  expected  encroach- 
ments of  France ;  but  his  action  in  the  colony  itself  w.as  little  calculated  to  win 
him  friends.  The  convicts  had  in  his  eyes  absolutely  no  claim  on  humane  treat- 
ment, while  he  treated  the  free  settlers  with  tyranny  and  brutality.  Two  sol- 
diers, who  had  stolen  a  piece  of  cloth  with  the  object  of  being  transported  to  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  were  ordered  by  him  to  be  fettered  together,  in  defiance  of  the 
verdict  in  the  case  given  by  the  jury,  an  institution  established  in  the  interval.    He 


264  HISTORY     OF    TIIK    WORLD         {chapter iir 

then  had  a  hea\'j'  iron  collar,  studded  on  the  inside  with  sharp  pouits,  put  round 
the  neck  of  each,  and  compelled  them  to  work  on  the  roads  in  the  blazing  sun. 
One  of  the  poor  wretches,  who  suil'ered  from  heart  disease,  died  a  few  days  after; 
the  other  went  mad.  This  incident  jirovoked  furious  attacks  ou  tlie  part  of  the 
opposition  papers,  which  had  been  started  since  Brisbane's  times;  the  answer  was 
the  abolition  of  the  liberty  of  the  press.' 

At  the  same  time  Darling  did  good  service  in  the  development  of  the  colony. 
Under  this  head  come  his  action  against  the  bushrangers,  and  his  resourceful 
treatment  of  the  laud  question,  which  became  year  by  year  more  difhcult.  The 
liome  government  then  made  many  attempts  in  this  direction ;  one  set  of "  regu- 
lations" followed  another,  up  to  the  middle  of  the  century.  Previous  to  1824, 
estates  had  been  practically  given  away;  the  only  incumbrance  consisted  in  a 
definite  annual  quit-rent,  of  which  the  amount,  in  any  case  insignificant,  had 
undergone  various  alterations  in  the  course  of  years;  from  two  shillings  for  one 
hundred  acres  in  the  case  of  free  settlers,  and  sixpence  for  thirty  acres  in  case  of 
discharged  convicts,  it  had  gradually  risen  to  iive  per  cent  of  the  estimated  annual 
value  of  the  land.  Governor  Brisbane  had  distinctly  made  these  conditions  more 
stringent.  In  the  first  place,  he  altogether  abulished  the  free  concessions  of  land, 
and  tixed  the  purchase  money  at  five  shillings  an  acre ;  but,  besides  this,  he 
altered  the  obligation,  which  had  been  enforced  since  the  colony  was  first  founded, 
of  keeping  and  supporting  one  convict  to  every  hundred  acres  of  land,  by  order- 
ing that  live  convicts  should  take  the  place  of  the  one.  There  was  stQl  in 
addition  the  quit-rent  of  two  shillings  for  every  one  hundreil  acres.  Even  these 
conditions  were  insufficient  in  view  of  the  enormous  demand  for  land,  so  that 
Darling,  in  1828,  adopted  the  expedient  of  establisliiug  a  special  land  office. 
This  was  an  undeniable  advance  towards  settling  tlie  business  of  distributing 
the  land  among  the  applicants.  But  it  no  more  solved  the  land  question  than 
did  the  order  issued  from  London  (1824)  that  the  land  should  be  publicly  sold  by 
the  governor  to  the  higliest  bidder.  The  lowest  price  was  five  shillings  per  acre, 
as  in  Brisbane's  j)riicluiualiim  of  1824  ;  the  highest  amomit  of  land  to  be  conceded 
to  any  one  purchaser  was  9,600  acres. 

The  object  of  this  limitation  was  to  suppress  the  speculation  in  land  which 
was  then  rampant.  The  laud  was  to  be  reserved  for  hon{t  fide  settlers ;  and, 
further,  only  so  much  was  to  be  cultivated  as  the  needs  of  the  colony  required. 
The  object  finally  was  to  look  to  the  future  with  its  growing  claims  for  land.  The 
results  did  not  correspond  to  the  unwearying  solicitude  of  the  government.  On 
Darling's  departure,  the  area  of  the  land  sold  or  leased  amounted  to  3,422,000 
acres,  which  obviously  could  not  be  kept  entirely  under  cultivation  by  the  51,155 
white  colonists.  In  the  short  period  from  1831  to  1835,  this  number  increased  by 
no  less  than  585,000  acres,  wliich  had  been  purchased  by  auction.  The  govern- 
ment had  realised  by  this  sale  the  sum  of  .£202,600;  but  it  could  not  fail  to  see 
that  only  the  smaller  part  of  these  estates  had  been  bought  with  the  immediate 
object  of  cultivation;  the  vast  majority  were  merely  bought  as  a  speculation. 
This  applied  to  the  1,548,700  acres,  wliich  had  been  publicly  sold  in  the  years 


1  Tlie  author  appears  not  to  be  aware  that  these  and  other  rliarges,  made  by  Darling's  opponents,  were 
investigated  by  a  strong  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  that  he  was  absolved  from  all  blame,  and 
subsequently  knighted.  —  Editob. 


Australia  and' 

Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  265 


1836  to  1840.1  The  area  expressed  by  these  figures  was  far  too  gigantic  to  be 
required  by  the  real  demand  for  land,  notwithstanding  the  brisk  immigration  of 
those  years.  Nevertheless  these  figures  testify  to  the  enormous  impetus  which 
was  then  given  to  the  prosperity  of  the  colony,  a  prosperity  which  was  indeed 
interrupted  at  the  beginning  of  the  "forties"  by  a  disastrous  industrial  crisis. 
Its  beginnings  were  foreshadowed  in  the  figures  for  the  years  1839  ami  1840.' 

(a)  The  Land  Question.  —  Hardly  less  than  the  trouble  caused  by  the  specu- 
lative purchaser  of  land  was  that  which  arose  from  the  common  practice  of 
"  squatting."  This  is  a  word  which  originally  came  from  North  America ;  but  the 
practice  designated  by  the  word  proved  more  important  for  the  development  of 
Australia  than  for  the  history  of  the  United  States.  This  process  of  squatting 
was  extremely  simple ;  cattle  breeders  on  their  own  responsibility,  without  any 
authorisation,  and  without  payment  of  purchase  money  or  quit-rent,  took  posses- 
sion of  tracts  of  country  for  grazing  purposes,  and  thus  withdrew  them  from  any 
possibility  of  being  legally  divided  among  later  candidates.  It  was  in  the  first 
place  essential  for  the  squatter's  trade  of  cattle  breeding  that  the  "  run  "  wliich  he 
appropriated  should  cover  a  large  extent  of  country.  IMoreover,  if  endless  quarrels 
and  disputes  were  to  be  prevented  among  the  owners  of  the  herds,  no  other  ex- 
pedient was  left  for  them  except  that  of  all  pastoral  societies  under  simple  con- 
ditions, indeed  of  all  primitive  farming  generally ;  that  is  to  say,  since  the  country 
offered  no  natural  boundaries,  and  there  was  neither  inclination  nor  time  nor 
means  to  erect  artificial  boundaries,  a  clear  demarcation  was  obtained  by  leaving 
broad  tracts  unused  between  the  separate  estates.  There  was  in  fact  a  reversion 
to  the  most  primitive  type  of  boundar}' ;  that  which  consists  of  a  strip  or  border  of 
land.  It  is  a  type  still  to  be  found  in  the  case  of  African  village  communities, 
which  are  often  surrounded  by  zones  of  wilderness  or  forest ;  it  was  prevalent  in 
Europe  of  the  Dark  Ages,  and  some  German  villages  had  boundaries  of  this  kind 
down  to  the  time  of  the  Hohenstaufen  dj'uasty. 

The  most  complicated  difficulties  were  thus  produced  for  the  government.  It 
had  declared  at  home  that  the  whole  continent  was  its  property,  and  all  land  be- 
longed to  the  crown.  In  this  way  it  possessed  the  incontestable  right  to  dispose 
of  the  land  at  pleasure ;  but  on  the  other  hand  the  equally  incontestable  obligation 
was  imposed  on  it  of  directing  its  distribution  in  such  a  way  that  all  who  shared 
in  the  most  important  duty  of  developing  the  colony  —  mother  country,  colonial 
government,  and  settlers  alike  —  might  have  their  rights  secured.  This  was,  how- 
ever, no  easy  task,  owing  to  the  conflict  of  interests  between  large  landed  proprie- 
tors and  small  farmers,  between  cattle  breeding  and  agriculture,  which  had  rapidly 
been  produced  under  the  squatter  system. 

The  most  various  attempts  had  bceu  made  to  solve  the  problem.  The  governor. 
Sir  Eobert  Bourke  (1831-1838),  had  already  attempted  to  check  the  excessive 
growth  of  squatting  by  a  decree  which  deprived  individuals  of  any  legal  title  to  land 
which  they  had  appropriated.  When  that  proved  a  dead  letter,  and  more  and  more 
cattle  breeders  sought  their  fortunes  in  the  interior  so  soon  as  food  for  their  herds 
grew  scarce  in  the  coast  districts,  parliament  in  1836  proceeded  to  liold  an  inquiry, 
the  result  of  which  was,  on  the  whole,  the  retention  of  the  Eegulations  of  1831. 


1  1836 :  389,500  ;  1837  ;  368,600  ;  1838  :  315,300  ;  1839 :  285,900  ;  1840  :  189,400  acres. 


266  HISTORY    OF    THI-    WORLD         [r/,„y,/..,. /// 

A  part  of  the  members  of  the  commission  voted  for  high  prices  for  land ;  others, 
ou  the  contrary,  considered  the  existing  niiiiinuini  i>rice  of  five  shillings  per  acre 
as  excessive,  since  high  prices  of  land  were  the  tirsi  inducement  to  S(iuatting.  The 
governor  of  New  South  Wales  was  therefore  empowered  to  reduce  the  minimum 
price  mentioned  still  lower  if  reipiired. 

Even  this  means  did  not  produce  the  intended  result.  On  the  contrary,  the 
unauthorised  appropriation  of  wide  tracts  of  the  interior  assumed  larger  propor- 
tions ;  and  bloody  tights  with  the  natives,  quarrels  among  the  squatters  themselves, 
and  a  spread  of  iniense  discontent  among  the  small  farmers  who  were  injured  by  the 
practice  of  land  grubbing  were  the  order  of  the  day.  For  this  reason  a  new  procla- 
mation of  the  governor  in  1837,  in  view  of  the  impossibility  of  exercising  even  a 
moderate  control  over  squatting  itself,  made  the  right  to  squat  dependent  on  the  pay- 
ment of  a  definite  fee.  AVhoever  paid  it  had  the  right  to  settle  in  the  interior  as  a 
farmer  wherever  he  liked.  From  the  proceeds  a  new  troop  of  police  was  formed 
and  maintained,  which  was  intended  to  secure  peace  and  order. 

As  might  be  expected,  even  this  arrangement  did  not  remove  all  the  deficiencies 
which  are  connected  with  a  young  farming  industry.  Cattle  breeding  indeed  flour- 
ished and  its  profits  were  enormous.  In  1839  there  were  reckoned  to  be  a  quarter 
million  of  cattle  and  more  than  a  million  sheep.  The  revenue  of  the  colony 
was  also  materially  increased  by  the  grazing  tax,  then  fixed  at  ten  ])ounds  annually, 
to  which  were  added  payments  of  one  penny  for  every  sheep,  threepence  for 
every  ox,  and  sixpence  for  every  horse ;  aad  the  enterprising  spirit  of  the  sheep 
farmers  alone  had  made  the  colony  economically  independent.  Of  the  export 
trade,  which  had  risen  in  1S40  to  five  millions  sterling,  by  far  the  greater  part  was 
due  to  the  wool  industry.  But  two  drawbacks  of  the  .system  are  incontestable: 
firstly,  the  uniformity  of  the  tax  brought  great  grievances  with  it ;  and,  secondly, 
pastoral  enterprise  on  a  large  scale,  the  form  of  industry  which  alone  was  encour- 
aged by  it,  exercised  a  far-reaching,  but  not  beneficial  influence  on  the  entire  social 
development  of  the  white  population  of  the  continent.  The  right  to  occupy  land 
thus  depended  on  the  payment  of  the  fee,  but  after  that  the  choice  of  locality  as 
well  as  the  quantity  of  land  were  entirely  in  the  discretion  of  the  colonist.  None 
of  them  sufl'ered  from  excessive  modesty ;  every  one  took  as  much  as  he  could,  or 
as  the  vicinity  of  the  districts  already  occupied  allowed.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, most  of  the  estates  were  far  larger  than  was  required  to  graze  the  stock  of 
the  owner,  even  if  full  weight  is  given  to  the  often  pleaded  excuse  of  the  growth  of 
the  herds ;  and  properties  as  large  as  a  German  principality  were  not  imcommon. 
This  mattered  little,  so  long  as  free  land  was  available  and  to  spare.  But  when 
the  supply  grew  limited  these  enormous  estates  were  felt  to  be  hindrances  on 
colonisation,  and  the  more  oppressively  so  since  now  the  gross  disproportion 
between  the  holdings  was  obvious  to  all.  A  few  instances  show  for  what  the 
proclamation  of  1837  is  responsible  in  this  respect.  Apart  from  the  inconsider- 
ately large  assignment  of  land  to  the  Australian  Agricultural  Company  (one  million 
acres),  and  the  gifis  to  tlie  officers  and  the  officials  of  the  New  South  Wales  Corps, 
the  concessions  of  land  in  the  first  decades  of  the  century  had  been  confined  within 
very  modest  limits.  Even  the  most  wealthy  man  could  not  call  more  than  a  few 
hundred  acres  his  own.  How  different  was  the  position  of  the  pastoral  kings  of 
the  forties  and  fifties!  When  Governor  Gipps,  in  1845,  made  a  searching  inquiry 
into  the  property  of  some  colonists,  he  ascertained  that  in  one  district  eight  persons 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  267 


with  eight  licenses  occupied  1,747,000  acres,  while  in  the  same  part  nine  others 
with  nine  licenses  had  only  (!)  311,000  acres.  The  four  largest  stock  breeders  of 
the  colony  owned  7,750,000  acres,  that  is  to  say,  they  were  masters  of  a  territory 
nearly  twice  the  size  of  Yorkshire.  The  colossal  size  of  such  tracts  of  property 
could  not  but  be  harmful  to-  the  community.  The  pastoral  industry  requires  on 
the  one  hand  immense  tracts ;  on  the  other,  and  especially  under  the  favourable 
climatic  conditions  of  Australia,  it  has  no  use  for  a  large  supply  of  labour ;  even 
the  largest  sheep  farmers  retain  very  few  hands  in  permanent  employment.  The 
immediate  result  is  a  twofold  loss  to  the  entire  population.  The  wool  clip  brings 
large  sums  of  money  into  the  country,  which  instead  of  circulating  remain  in  the 
hands  of  a  few,  and  thus  encourages  capitalism.  Closely  connected  with  this  is 
the  impossibility  of  raising  the  density  of  the  population  above  a  certain  minimum 
rate.  Wliere  hardly  a  dozen  hands  are  employed  on  hundreds  of  scpiare  miles,  and 
where,  further,  the  settlement  of  other  independent  colonists  would  diminish  the 
profits  of  the  cattle  owner,  it  is  impossible  for  the  population  to  become  dense. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  even  at  the  present  day,  the  rural  population  of  the  interior  is 
trifling  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  towns  on  the  coast. 

Still  more  serious,  however,  than  all  these  defects  in  the  Eegulations  of  1837, 
was  the  immunity  of  the  greater  part  of  the  land  to  which  claim  was  laid  from 
the  payment  of  the  grazing  tax,  since  it  inevitably  jarred  upon  the  popular  idea  of 
justice.  A  man  who  was  fortunate,  or  sufficiently  unscrupulous,  could  acquire  a 
kingdom  for  his  ten  pounds,  while  his  neighbour  could  only  call  a  few  clods  his 
own.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  owner  of  the  above-mentioned  gigantic  tracts  had 
not  paid  a  penny  more  tlian  any  other  colonist  who  had  obtained  land  after  the 
promulgation  of  the  regulations.  Strangely  enough,  the  effort  to  abandon  this 
untenable  position  was  not  started  by  the  population  itself,  which  was  short-sighted 
enough  to  believe  that  the  salvation  of  the  colony  lay  in  the  immediate  and  unre- 
stricted exploitation  of  the  pasture  land.  On  tlie  contrary,  it  was  solely  due  to  the 
services  of  the  despotic  but  far-sighted  governor,  George  Gipps,  who  had  been  at 
the  head  of  affairs  in  Sydney  since  1838.  He  ventured  to  attempt  to  check  the 
extension  of  squatting,  and  issued  a  proclamatii)n  with  retrospective  force,  by 
which  every  squatter  was  bound,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  his  existing  title 
to  his  property,  to  buy  at  least  three  hundred  and  twenty  acres  of  land  by  auction ; 
any  improvement  to  the  land  would  be  taken  uito  consideration.  If  he  did  not  do 
this,  he  exposed  himself  to  the  risk  of  being  ousted  frnm  his  position  by  any  other 
squatter  who  had  conformed  to  the  prescribed  conditions. 

This  proclamation  met  with  the  worst  possible  reception  from  the  people.  This 
is  comprehensible  on  the  part  of  the  menaced  cattle  breeders ;  but  all  otlier  circles 
were  intensely  exasperated,  partly  at  the  contents  of  the  proclamation,  partly  at  the 
want  of  consideration  with  which  Gipps  had  treated  the  legislative  council  of 
New  South  Wales,  which  had  existed  smce  1842;  he  had  neither  laid  his  plan 
before  it  nor  made  any  official  announcement  of  his  decision  in  the  matter. 
Indignation  ran  so  high  that  petitions  were  sent  to  the  English  parlianu-nt  and 
even  to  the  queen,  in  order  to  obtain  a  revocation  of  the  edict,  or  at  least  a  mitigation 
of  its  terms.  But  Gipps  impressed  upon  the  home  government  that  the  continu- 
ance of  the  practice  which  had  hitherto  obtained  would  soon  deprive  the  crown  of 
all  available  land ;  and  by  this  argument  and  by  proving  that  the  greatest  outcry 
was  made  by  the  largest  landed  proprietors  he  succeeded  in  upholding  his  enact- 


268  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chnj.tcr  in 

meats ;  only  in  small  points  was  any  consideration  shown  to  the  squatters.  On 
the  whole,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  proclamation  of  1844  was  bound  to  injure 
the  colony  as  well  as  the  cattle  breeders,  if  we  reflect  on  the  bad  economic  condi- 
tion of  Australia.     This  was  intimately  connected  with  another  question. 

(/S)  The  Transportation  Question.  —  During  the  first  four  decades  of  the  co- 
lonial development  of  Australia  tlie  question  whether  the  introduction  of  English 
con\'icts  was  useful  or  harmful  did  not  come  forward.  It  was  only  at  llie  time 
when  tlu'  free  settlers  began  to  outnumber  the  others,  and  the  influx  of  respectable 
English  countrymen  produced  an  adequate  supply  of  free  labour,  that  a  movement 
made  itself  felt  in  favour  of  checking  or  diverting  the  still  numerous  arrivals  of 
criminals  from  the  old  country.  In  favour  of  this  agitation  was  the  noticeable 
fact  that  the  presence  of  so  many  persons  of  low  morality  in  the  country '  had  a 
most  detrimental  effect  on  the  characters  of  both  old  and  young.  The  number  of 
crimes  and  misdemeanours  committed  by  them  reached  an  alarming  figure.  The 
colony  received  an  annual  suljsidy  of  £200,000  to  defray  the  cost  of  maintaining 
the  convicts,  and  out  of  the  subsidy  there  was  a  substantial  balance  available  for 
public  works.  The  system  also  meant  cheap  labour.  But  these  were  poor  set-offs 
to  the  moral  degradation  for  whicli  the  system  was  responsible,  —  so  at  least 
thought  one  party  of  the  colonists. 

At  the  same  time  there  would  have  been  no  idea  of  any  change  in  the  existing 
conditions  had  not  an  equally  strong  movement  in  favour  of  the  abolition  of  an 
institution  which  had  proved  such  a  failure  arisen  in  England.  It  had  been 
observed  that  there  also  transportation  was  to  blame  for  the  terrible  increase  of 
crimes.  While  the  population  of  England,  as  Alfred  Zimmerman  states,  had 
increased  between  1805  and  1841  by  79  per  cent,  the  number  of  crimes  had  risen 
by  482  per  cent ;  and  from  1834  to  1845  as  many  as  38,844  prisoners  were  trans- 
ported. Transportation  was  not  reckoned  as  a  punishment  in  the  circles  which  it 
concerned.  It  was  owing  to  this  movement  that  a  commission  appointed  by  the 
lower  house  recommended  that  the  transportation  of  criminals  to  New  South 
Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land  should  be  at  once  discontinued,  and  expressed  its 
opinion  that  it  was  desirable  to  facilitate  the  emigration  of  prisoners  to  other 
countries  when  they  had  served  their  sentences.  Tliese  resolutions  went  too  far 
for  the  Australians,  although  they  had  so  often  petitioned  for  the  discontinuance 
of  transportation.  They  feared  to  lose  the  cheap  labour  hitherto  available,  and 
begged,  therefore,  but  without  success,  that  the  existing  arrangement  should  be 
continued.  The  penal  colony  of  Moreton  Bay,  established  in  18l'6,  was  done  away 
with  in  1839;  and  on  IMay  22,  1840,  New  South  Wales  was  struck  out  from  the 
list  of  countries  to  which  prisoners  could  be  transported.  Only  Van  Diemen's 
Land  and  Norfolk  Island  retained  temporarily  their  old  character  (cf.  pp.  269  and 
273). 

This  step,  which  was  very  important  also  from  the  philanthropic  standpoint, 
entaUed  a  series  of  hard  years  for  New  South  Wales.  In  1839  the  amount  of  the 
land  sold  to  colonists  reached  285,900  acres;  in  1840  it  was  only  189,400  acres; 
it  dwindled  in  1841  to  8f),300,  and  in  1842  to  21,900  only.  The  cause  for  this 
remarkable  shrinkage  was,  firstly,  the  want  of  labour,  which  became  felt  as  soon 

>  Out  of  60,794  inliabitants  of  Now  South  Wales,  there  were  in  the  year  1833  uo  fewer  than  16, 151 
couvJRts,  and  in  1836,  27,831. 


Australia  and' 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  269 


as  the  sending  over  of  criminals  was  discontinued,  and,  next,  the  general  industrial 
depression  which  rapidly  spread  over  the  whole  country.  This  was  produced  by 
the  fall  in  the  prices  of  all  pro\-isions,  which  was  intimately  connected  with  the 
reduced  requirements  of  the  prison  authorities ;  by  the  discontinuance  of  the  main- 
tenance subsidy  hitherto  contributed  by  England  ;  and,  lastly,  by  the  circumstance 
that  though  prices  sank,  the  wages  of  labourers  did  not  fall  in  tlie  same  ratio. 
Then  there  was  the  fact  that  precious  metals  were  not  yet  obtained  in  the  country 
itself,  and  that,  with  the  great  falling  off  in  the  sales  of  land,  the  government  coffers 
were  soon  at  a  low  ebb.  In  order  to  replenish  them,  measures  were  taken  to  collect 
the  numerous  outstanding  quit-rents,  and  this  again  caused  new  difficulties  among 
the  settlers.  Nor  were  matters  improved  when  a  new  law  was  promulgated  in 
1842  which  fixed  the  minimum  price  for  an  acre  at  a  pound  sterling.  The  sales 
of  land  fell  off  still  more.  In  1843  4,800  acres,  and  in  1844  only  4,200,  were  sold. 
It  was  only  when  the  crisis  ended  that  these  figures  improved  once  more  to  7,200 
acres  in  1845,  and  7,000  acres  in  1846. 

The  change  for  the  better  coincides  with  the  fall  of  the  ministry  of  Peel  on 
June  26,  1846.  The  new  colonial  secretary,  Earl  Grey,  at  once  returned  to  the  old 
paths  and  allowed  the  concession  of  pasturage  rights  for  fourteen  years,  with  the 
right  of  pre-emption.  At  the  same  time  the  regulations  as  to  the  recovery  of  the 
quit-rent  were  considerably  modified.  The  land  legislation  in  the  succeeding  year 
went  stUl  farther  in  this  direction,  since  on  March  9,  1847,  the  governor  of  New 
South  Wales  received  authority  to  let  in  the  uncolonised  districts  tracts  of  16,000 
or  32,000  acres  for  eight  or  fourteen  years.  Each  lessee  received  with  his  contract 
the  right  to  acquire  640  acres  at  the  fixed  price  of  £640  sterling  as  a  homestead, 
and  to  have  the  lease  renewed  after  the  expiration  of  the  fomteen  years  for  a 
further  term  of  five  years.  The  rent  was  based  on  the  number  of  the  head  of 
stock ;  a  run  which  was  large  enough  for  4,000  sheep  was  to  cost  £10  sterling. 
The  lease  at  the  same  time  gave  the  lessee  the  right  of  pre-emption.  The  land 
question  in  New  South  "Wales  thus  obtained  its  definite  settlement  for  a  decade 
and  a  half.  The  new  regulations  did  not,  indeed,  meet  with  universal  assent ;  on 
the  contrary,  in  consequence  of  the  renewed  outbreak  of  wild  speculation  in  land, 
and  the  loss  suffered  by  the  already  permanently  settled  districts,  violent  demon- 
strations were  made  in  these  latter.  The  government,  however,  had  neither  incli- 
nation nor  time  to  destroy  the  work  so  laboriously  brought  to  a  close  and  to  begin 
again ;  so  the  cries  for  alteration  died  away  unheard. 

The  cause  of  this  policy  of  the  mother  country  lay  in  the  difficulty  of  finding 
room  for  her  criminals  now  that  transportation  to  New  South  ^^'ales  was  abolished. 
Van  Diemen's  Land  was  soon  overcrowded,  but  the  plan  of  founding  a  new  convict 
settlement  in  North  Australia  was  shown  to  be  impracticable.  At  the  same  time 
the  thought  of  once  more  stocking  with  con\'icts  the  districts  of  East  Australia, 
which  had  been  so  capable  of  receiving  them  for  more  than  half  a  century,  forced 
itself  forward;  and  all  the  more  so  as  the  colony  of  Port  Phillip  (since  1851  "Vic- 
toria"), which  had  arisen  meanwhile  in  the  south,  cried  out  loudly  for  cheap 
labour,  and  in  New  South  Wales  there  were  still  many  landowners  who  earnestly 
desired  to  see  the  restoration  of  the  old  condition  of  things,  with  its  abundance  of 
workers.  Both  encouraged  the  home  government  (1848)  to  resume  the  old  policy. 
The  act  of  1840  was  repealed,  and  the  institution  of  new  penal  colonies  was 
contemplated. 


270  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [Chapter ill 

These  plans  were  not  carried  out.  In  the  first  place,  there  was  already  too 
general  and  too  deep-rooted  a  belief  in  the  ruinous  results  uf  transportation  to  New 
South  Wales;  and,  secondly,  the  opposition  of  the  free  lahuurers,  wlio  had  now 
become  numerous,  to  the  threatened  competition  was  so  vigorous  and  persistent 
that  the  oldest  of  the  Australian  colonies,  at  any  rate,  remamed  spared  for  the 
future  from  the  unwelcome  gift.  Only  two  shiploads  of  convicts  were  sent  over 
in  1849.  The  one  sliip  was  allowed  to  land  her  freight  at  Sydney,  when  the  con- 
victs were  at  once  secretly  hired  by  private  persons  and  sent  up  country ;  the 
other,  which  tried  to  land  at  Melbourne,  had  to  return  with  all  on  board.  The 
vigorous  opposition  of  the  people  did  not  prove  inefTective  in  the  seijuel.  In  1851 
New  South  Wales,  which  between  1788  and  1S39  had  received  not  less  than 
59,788  convicts,  finally  ceased  to  be  considered  as  a  sphere  for  transportation.  The 
prospects  for  Victoria  were  hardly  less  favourable;  and  in  1853  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  which  since  1803  had  received  the  enormous  number  of  67,655  convicts 
from  the  mother  country,  and  at  that  time  sheltered  20,000  of  the  worst  criminals, 
gained  exemption  for  the  future  from  any  further  influx.  After  1853  only  Western 
Australia  was  still  employed  as  a  transportation  district;  and  since  South  Australia 
from  the  first  had  been  constituted  on  a  different  principle,  the  institution  did 
not  last  much  longer.  It  was  abolished  there  also  in  1SG8,  after  some  10,000  con- 
victs had  been  brought  into  the  country  between  1849  and  1868.  Since  that  time 
Australia  has  been  allowed  to  possess  a  population  uniformly  composed  of  free 
colonists. 

B.  The  Growth  and  Development  of  the  Daughter  Colonies  down 

TO   THE    MIDDLE   OF   THE   NINETEENTH    CeNTUUY 

(a)  I7ie  Effect  on  Colonisation  produced  hy  the  Wider  Exploration  of  the  Con- 
tinent. —  The  internal  development  of  New  South  Wales,  which  was  shown 
conspicuously  during  the  forties  and  fifties  by  the  treatment  of  the  land  (question 
and  the  transportation  question,  was  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  widening  of 
the  sphere  of  colonisation.  But  while  the  land  question  chiefly  hinged  on  the 
distribution  of  the  districts  which  lay  roughly  within  the  boundaries  of  modern 
New  South  Whales,  this  territorial  ex]iansion  went  far  beyond  such  limits.  In  the  first 
enthusiasm  of  early  colonisation,  attempts  were  made  to  cover  the  whole  continent 
at  once ;  but  when  the  deficiency  of  their  powers  was  recognised  the  settlers  were 
content  to  occupy  some  few  districts,  which  were  very  unequally  distributed  along 
the  coast  of  the  continent ;  for  while  they  were  numerous  in  the  southeast  and  east, 
the  distant   west  lay  isolated,  and  the  north  was  entirely  uncolonised. 

This  peculiar  distribution  is  very  closely  connected  with  the  history  of  the  rise 
of  the  different  daughter  colonies  of  New  South  Wales ;  this  again  was  strongly  in- 
fluenced by  the  course  of  the  geographical  exploration  of  Australia.  As  a  general 
rule  exploration  came  first,  and  colonisation  followed.  This  order  of  things  was 
only  reversed  in  the  founding  of  Western  Australia;  there  colonisation  began  in 
one  part  which  had  long  been  known ;  but  the  exploration  of  the  liinterland  was 
the  concern  of  later  decades. 

The  successful  expedition  of  Wentworth,  T'la.xland,  and  Lawson,  in  the  year 
1812,  across  the  Blue  Mountains  into  the  interior  (p.  261),  had  fired  the  zeal  for 
exploration.    The  years  1817  and  1818  saw  the  discovery  by  J.  (~)xley  of  the  exten- 


^ruf""]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  271 

sive  grazing  grounds  known  as  the  Liverpool  Plains.  In  1824,  two  young  colonists, 
Hamilton  Hume  and  WiUiam  Hovell,  were  the  first  to  reach  the  vicinity  of  Gee- 
long,  near  modem  Melbourne,  from  Sydney,  having  traversed  the  whole  southeast 
of  the  continent,  past  the  sources  of  the  Murrumbidgee  and  the  Mun-ay.  At  the 
same  time  Allan  Cunningham,  the  botanist,  continued  the  explorations  of  Oxley  in 
the  north  as  far  as  the  Darling  Downs  (1827).  Finally  in  the  years  1828  and 
1829,  came  the  important  journeys  of  Charles  Sturt  in  tlie  district  watered  by  the 
Darling  and  Murray  liivers  ;  these  journeys  not  only  threw  new  light  on  the  river 
system  of  the  country,  but  also  guided  the  colonial  expansion  of  Australia  into 
other  paths.  In  this  respect  particularly  all  these  travels  were  ricli  in  results. 
The  first  successful  founding  of  Port  Phillip  is  the  direct  consequence  of  the  jour- 
ney of  Hume  and  HoveU.  Various  sheep  farmers  of  the  interior  followed  Allan 
Cunningham's  tracks,  and  thus  laid  the  real  foundation  of  the  later  Queensland. 
The  favourable  report  by  Sturt  on  the  district  between  the  lower  Murray  and  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Vincent  was  entirely  responsible  for  the  colonisation  of  South  Australia. 
The  travels  of  later  j-ears  did  not,  with  one  exception,  produce  any  political  results, 
when  once  the  foundation  of  the  new  States  had  been  laid.  GeograjiliicaUy  they 
are  not,  for  the  most  part,  inferior  to  the  earlier  essays  in  exploration,  and  cer- 
tainly brought  more  definite  information  as  to  the  inihistrial  value  or  worthlessness 
of  the  soil  than  the  first  rapid  journeys.  This  applies,  particularly,  to  the  expedi- 
tions which  took  as  their  object  the  accurate  investigation  of  the  river  system  of 
the  Darluig-Murray,  the  travels,  that  is  to  say,  of  Major  Thomas  Livingstone 
Mitchell,  who  succeeded  in  accomplishing  his  survey  after  six  years  of  strenuous 
effort ;  it  also  applies  to  the  discovery  of  the  interior  of  Victoria  ("  Australia  Felix  ") 
by  the  same  traveller,  and  not  less  to  the  enterprises  of  the  brave  Edward  John 
Eyre  (born  1815,  died  January,  1902)  on  the  soil  of  inland  South  Australia,  in 
the  low-lying  lake  region,  and  on  the  terribly  barren  south  coast  as  far  as  King 
George's  Soimd  (1839-1841). 

Finally  similar  results  were  achieved  by  numerous  exploring  parties  in  the 
heart  of  Western  Australia.  The  majority  of  these  travellers  could  not  bring  back 
very  pleasant  reports.  Apart  from  Victoria,  all  accounts  of  the  industrial  value 
of  the  country  were  discouraging  or  absolutely  deterrent.  The  northeast  alone 
formed  a  striking  exception ;  there  later  travels  accomplished  results  which,  to 
some  degree,  are  comparable  to  those  of  the  first  explorers.  It  was  the  journeys  of 
Ludwig  Leichhardt  which  can  claim  this  marvellous  effect,  and  Queensland  and 
North  Australia  are  the  regions  which  owe  their  real  discovery  and  opening  up  to 
a  German.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  Leichhardt's  splendid  expedition  from 
Darling  Downs  to  Port  Essington  (1844-1846)  increased  the  possible  area  of 
colonisation  by  about  a  million  square  miles,  or  one-third  of  the  whole  continent. 
The  colonists  only  required  to  follow  the  steps  of  the  explorer,  in  order  to  come 
into  possession  of  an  almost  incalculable  expanse  of  profitable  laud. 

A  peculiar  feature  of  all  Australian  exploration  before  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  was  its  restriction  to  the  edge  of  the  continent;  the  centre 
was  not  reached.  The  explanation  is  found  in  the  novelty  of  the  sphere  of  work. 
Until  the  broad  strip  of  tenitory  along  the  edge  was  thoroughly  explored  in  most 
of  its  parts,  there  was  no  motive  to  attack  the  real  heart  of  the  country.  Even 
when,  in  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  centre  was  chosen  as  a  goal, 
the  want  of  any  tangible  attraction  greatly  checked  the  course  of  exploration. 


2T2  HISTC^RV    OF    THK    WORT.T^         [chapfer m 

(b)  The  Colonial  History  of  Tasmania  {Van  Dicmen's  Land).  —  Of  the  six 
colonies  which  compose  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia,  only  three,  Tasmania, 
Victoria,  and  Queensland,  are  ott'shoots  from  New  South  Wales ;  South  Australia 
and  Western  Australia  (like  New  Zealand  also)  were,  on  the  contrary,  founded  by 
direct  colonisation  from  England.  Considering  the  enormous  dilliculties  with 
which  New  South  Wales  had  jiermanently  to  contend,  this  circumstance  is  not  sur- 
prising. In  the  case  of  Western  Australia,  tlie  mere  distance  from  the  east  coast 
of  the  continent  was  sutlicient  to  restrain  native  enterprise.  But  South  Australia 
was,  in  its  origin,  so  hazardous  an  experiment,  that  the  government  in  Sydney  did 
well  to  play  the  part  of  an  vinconcerned  spectator.  In  other  resjiects  even  there, 
east  of  the  Great  Australian  1  light,  the  question  of  distance  was  not  devoid  of  im- 
portance. It  is,  at  least,  no  accident  that  the  three  daughter  colonies  lie  in  one 
zone  with  their  mother  colony ;  that  Van  Diemen's  Land,  an  island  comparatively 
far  away  from  Sydney,  was  colonised  as  the  first  otlshoot,  to  tlie  complete  neglect 
of  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  mainland ;  and  that  even  the  first  steps  toward 
founding  Victoria  were  not  taken  from  Sydney,  but  from  ^'an  Diemen's  Land. 
Seldom  has  the  natural  advantage  which  attaches  to  the  position  of  an  island 
facing  a  wide  stretch  of  opposite  coast  been  so  clearly  shown  as  here. 

The  fii-st  step  of  the  Australian  mother  colony  towards  the  establishment  of 
independent  offshoots  was  the  founding  of  the  penal  colony  of  Van  Diemen's 
Land  in  the  year  1803.  The  cause  of  this  settlement  was  primarily  the  fear  of 
French  schemes  of  annexation,  which  more  than  once  had  given  rise  to  the  erection 
of  military  posts  on  the  coast  of  Australia.  In  the  next  place,  the  English  govern- 
ment did  not  think  it  advisable  to  concentrate  too  large  a  number  of  criminals  in 
any  one  place ;  a  small  convict  settlement  on  Norfolk  Island  had  already  been 
founded  under  the  influence  of  this  idea,  but  had  not  proved  successful.  Van 
Diemen's  Land  seemed,  both  in  point  of  size  and  of  remoteness  from  the  continent, 
a  more  desirable  place  than  Norfolk  Island  for  the  confinement  of  dangerous  crimi- 
nals. To  carry  out  these  intentions.  Governor  King  sent  Lieutenant  Bowen  with  a 
detachment  of  soldiers  and  some  convicts  to  Van  Diemen's  Land  in  June,  1803.  A 
settlement  called  Kestdown,  a  name  later  corrupted  into  Eisdon,  was  founded  on 
the  left  shm-e  of  the  estuary  of  the  Derwent. 

About  this  same  time  the  plan  had  been  formed  in  England  of  colonising  the 
shores  of  the  recently  discovered  Port  Phillip  on  the  southeast  corner  of  the  main- 
land. The  execution  of  tlie  plan  was  intrusted  to  Colonel  Collins,  a  man  who  had 
gone  to  Port  Jackson  as  a  judge  in  the  first  convict  sliip,  had  been  advocate-gen- 
eral of  New  South  Wales  for  a  long  time,  and  happened  then  to  be  in  London. 
The  expedition,  consisting  of  two  ships  witli  four  hundred  convicts  and  the  neces- 
sarj-  warders,  landed  on  the  south  side  of  Port  Pliillip,  near  the  site  of  the  modern 
Sorrento.  Small  excursions  into  the  countiy  soon  showed  it  to  be  bare  and  inhos- 
pitable, and  as  Collins  also,  after  prolonged  search,  found  no  water,  he  abandoned 
the  district  on  January  27,  1804,  in  order  to  take  his  people  over  to  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  a  course  which  Governor  King  sanctioned  at  his  request.  He  sailed  directly 
for  the  estuary  of  the  Derwent,  broke  up  the  cA)lony  of  Bowen  there,  and  founded 
a  new  joint  settlement  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Welling- 
ton. He  called  the  place,  in  honour  of  Lord  Hobart,  the  colonial  minister  of  the 
day,  Hobart  Town,  a  name  abbreviated  in  18S1  to  Hobart.  The  north  of  the  island 
was  also  occupied.     Simultaneously  with  Collins's  exjjedition,  and  again,  owing  to 


Aus,,.wrana-^  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  273 

the  fear  of  a  French  occupation,  Colonel  Paterson  conducted  another  troop  of  con- 
victs from  Sydney  to  Van  Diemen's  Land,  where,  on  the  west  shore  of  Port  Dal- 
rymple,  Yorktown  was  immediately  founded.  Its  first  inhabitants  could  not  make 
themselves  at  home  there,  and  in  1806  they  were  taken  further  into  the  interior 
and  settled  in  a  locality  called  Launceston,  after  King's  native  town  in  Cornwall. 

The  occupation  of  this  new  field  for  colonisation  from  opposite  sides  had  greatly 
hastened  the  exploration  of  the  island,  and,  with  it,  the  knowledge  of  its  economic 
advantages ;  but  the  first  steps  had  been  taken  without  the  orders  of  the  home 
government  and  by  no  means  to  its  satisfaction.  The  permanent  shortage  in  pro- 
visions, which  had  shown  itself  in  the  early  days  of  colonisation  in  New  South 
Wales  and  Norfolk  Island,  soon  was  felt  in  the  newly  planted  colony.  The  cause 
was  primarily  the  strict  embargo  on  the  landing  of  any  except  convict  ships ;  and 
next  the  complete  economic  dependence  on  New  South  Wales.  Under  ordinary 
conditions  this  would  not  have  led  to  inconvenience ;  but  when,  as  happened  in 
the  year  1806,  owing  to  the  great  floods  of  the  river  Hawkesbury,  supplies  ran 
short  in  the  mother  colony,  the  position  of  all  the  settlers  could  not  but  be  the 
more  precarious,  since  about  that  time  (1807)  the  number  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Van  Diemen's  Land  was  increased  by  the  entire  population  of  Norfolk  Island  — 
a  settlement  which  had  always  proved  somewhat  of  a  failure.  The  conditions 
of  life  in  Van  Diemen's  Land  under  these  circumstances  did  not  for  the  moment 
appear  hopeful.  For  a  long  time  the  government  was  forced  to  leave  it  to  every 
convict  to  find  his  own  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  Since  the  flesh  of  the  kangaroo 
was  known  to  be  a  suitable  article  of  food,  the  convicts  at  once  scattered  over  the 
whole  interior.  This  was  advantageous  for  the  exploration  of  the  country,  but  not 
calculated  to  produce  law  and  order  among  the  colonists,  and  still  less  to  main- 
tain good  relations  with  the  aborigines  (cf.  p.  247).  The  process  of  extermination 
■was  cruel  and  pitiless ;  but  it  had  at  any  rate  the  merit  of  being  brief  and  vigorous, 
for  the  whole  white  population  went  against  the  black  fellows  like  one  man.  The 
convict  killed  them  from  sheer  lust  of  blood,  the  settler  chased  them  on  the  plea 
of  self-defence,  and  the  government  tried  to  catch  them  from  the  wish  to  acquire 
territory.  The  effect  of  these  combined  efforts  was  thoroughly  comjilete;  the 
famous  "black  war"  of  1830,  with  the  costly  "drive"  of  Governor  Arthur 
(p.  248),  came  almost  too  late. 

The  mutual  relations  of  the  whites  were  not  so  simply  settled.  The  aggressor 
here  was  the  convict  only,  while  the  mass  of  the  settlers  and  the  government  were 
the  injured  party.  Unecjual  as  it  was,  this  struggle  delayed  the  political  and  eco- 
nomic development  by  fully  two  decades.  To  many  a  convict,  who  had  been  given 
leave  for  a  kangaroo  hunt,  but  especially  to  the  numerous  prisoners  who  had  es- 
caped from  the  gaols,  it  did  not  occm-  to  return  from  their  rovings  in  the  interior 
to  the  yoke  of  servitude.  They  soon  acquired  a  taste  for  the  free  life  of  the  bush, 
formed  themselves  into  bands,  which  lived  by  plundering  the  white  settlers,  and 
with  this  comfortable  vocation,  which  was  disastrous  to  the  prosperity  of  the  colony, 
laid  the  foundation  for  that  wild  bushranging  which  up  to  1830  was  such  a  curse 
to  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  spread  later  to  the  mainland  (cf.  p.  263).  Both  clas.ses 
of  fugitives  had  cause  enough  for  this  renunciation  of  human  society.  It  had 
always  been  the  custom  throughout  Australia  to  hand  over  the  convicts  to  the 
settlers  as  labourers,  a  proceeding  that,  in  the  case  of  the  rougher  part  of  the 
settlers,  did  not  always  lead  to  humane  treatment ;  merciless  flogging  for  the  slight- 

VOL  11  —  18 


274  HISTC^RV    OI-    TIIF    WORLD         [n,.,j.fer jii 

est  offence  was  the  mildest  penalty.  Nevertheless  those  who  were  suffering  under 
the  yoke  of  a  private  individual  might  call  themselves  lucky  iu  comparison  with 
the  other  unfortunates,  who  were  kept  in  the  penal  establishments  erected  by  gov- 
ernment, of  which  Macquarie  Harbour,  set  up  in  lS21,and  I'lirt  Arthur,  which  was 
added  in  1832,  were  tlie  most  notorious  in  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Many  of  the  in- 
mates preferred  to  put  an  end  to  their  existence ;  others  broke  prison  only  to  die 
in  the  trackless  woods.  The  few  who  eventually  succeeded  in  escaping  had  every 
motive  for  showing  no  consideration  to  the  free  settlers  of  every  kind.  Kobbery, 
arson,  and  murder  were  the  distinguishing  features  of  colonial  life  in  Van  Diemen's 
Land.  The  energetic  Governor  Arthur  at  last  succeeded,  by  a  rajiid  campaign,  in 
checking  the  evil  for  a  time  at  least  (1825-1826).  Twenty  years  later,  under 
Governor  Wilmot,  it  revived  with  all  the  greater  force. 

Considering  all  the  misery  which  the  bushrangers  brought  upon  the  island,  it 
was  fortunate  that  the  outrages  by  which  they  thoroughly  intimidated  the  settlers 
were  mostly  confined  to  the  interior;  the  south  and  north  coasts  remamed,  on  the 
whole,  free  from  such  calamities,  and  were  therefore  able  to  develop  steadily  but 
slowly.  Collins  himself,  who  died  at  Hobart  Town  in  1810,  did  not  live  to  see 
much  of  this  progress.  He  had  laid  the  foundations  for  it  when  he  began  to  con- 
struct (in  1807)  the  marvellous  road  from  Launceston  to  Hobart  Town,  but,  under 
the  prevailing  conditions,  it  had  not  Iain  in  his  power  to  develop  it  farther.  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Davey,  his  successor,  only  arrived  at  Hobart  Town  at  the  beginning 
of  1813.  In  the  interval.  Governor  Macquarie  (p.  260)  had  paid  his  tirst  visit 
(November,  1811),  which  was  an  important  event  for  Van  Diemen's  Laud,  since 
Macquarie  with  characteristic  energy  flooded  the  island  with  an  infinity  of  new 
schemes,  urged  the  construction  of  roads,  public  buildings,  even  whole  towns,  and, 
what  was  most  essential,  succeeded  in  awakening  the  public  spirit  of  the  better 
classes.  Now,  for  the  first  time,  a  systematic  organisation  was  noticeable,  which 
soon  showed  itself  in  the  proclamation  of  Hobart  Town  as  the  capital  of  the  countr}- 
in  the  year  1812.  Davey's  term  of  office,  which  lasted  until  1817,  hardly  cairied 
out  the  extensive  plans  of  Macquarie.  Jeuks  says  of  him :  "  Davey  seems  to  have 
treated  his  office  more  or  less  as  a  joke.  He  was  totally  without  ceremony  and 
would  drink  and  jest  with  any  one."  Bushranging  alone  was  an  eyesore  to  him, 
and  tlie  wi.sh  to  suppress  it  finally  led  him  to  exercise  his  office.  His  first  act  was 
to  place  the  whole  island  under  martial  law;  but  besides  this  he  forbade  any  in- 
habitant to  leave  his  house  at  night  without  permission.  If,  under  this  regime, 
there  was  any  progress  at  all  it  was  entirely  due  to  private  persons.  In  1815  the 
colony  was  already  m  a  ])osition  to  export  wheat,  and  in  the  following  year  salted 
meat,  to  Sydney.  In  1816,  the  first  newspaper  was  started  in  Hobart  Town.  When 
Davey  left,  the  white  population  counted  quite  three  thousand  souls,  and  an  equally 
large  number  of  acres  were  luider  cultivation.  .  But  there  was  not  yet  any  cattle 
breeding  or  sheep  farming.  These  industries  were  introduced  in  the  .succeeding 
years.  Davey's  place  was  filled  by  William  Sorell,  an  able  man,  whose  chief  con- 
cern was  not  to  place  free  and  respectable  immigrants  amongst  a  population  com- 
posed of  convicts ;  he  next  turned  his  attention  to  the  economic  development  of 
the  island  as  well  as  to  the  suppression  of  bushranging.  He,  like  Davey,  was  un- 
able to  achieve  great  results  in  that  field ;  on  the  other  hand,  he  had  attracted 
settlers  in  large  masses,  thanks  to  the  favourable  terms  which  he  oflered.  Not  only 
did  the  government  grant  free  allotments  of  land,  but  it  also  supplied  food  for  six 


Avsfralia  atid 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  275 

mouths,  lent  the  entire  stock  of  cattle  required  at  the  outset  as  well  as  the  first 
seed  corn,  and,  besides  this,  guaranteed  a  minimum  price  for  the  entire  produce  in 
grain  and  meat.  When,  in  1821,  Governor  Macquarie  set  foot  for  the  second  and 
last  time  on  the  soil  of  Van  Diemeu's  Land  after  an  interval  of  ten  years,  the  white 
population  amounted  to  7,400  souls,  who  had  14,000  acres  under  cultivation  and 
180,000  sheep  with  35,000  cattle  on  their  pasturages.  The  introduction  of  syste- 
matic sheep  farmmg  coincided  indeed  with  Sorell's  governorship,  but  the  credit 
belongs  to  the  Colonel  Patersou  so  frequently  mentioned  in  these  pages,  who 
induced  the  experienced  sheep  breeder,  MacArthur  (p.  257),  to  send  him  over  a 
shipload  of  his  famous  flock.  An  attempt,  made  in  1819,  to  put  wool  on  the 
English  market  failed  lamentably;  in  1822,  however,  794  bales  were  exported  and 
gladly  received  by  the  market.  At  the  present  time  the  wool  trade  has  long  been 
recognised  as  the  mainstay  of  the  colony.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that  under 
these  circumstances  the  colonists  regretted  the  departure  of  the  governor,  who  was 
also  personally  popular.  When  he  was  recalled  in  1823,  the  home  government 
was  actually  petitioned  to  appoint  him  for  a  second  term. 

Sorell's  successor,  Arthur  (1823-1836),  did  not  do  so  well,  m  spite  of  a  long 
administration  and  great  services.  His  personal  character  was  partly  to  blame  for 
this ;  partly,  also,  his  stiff  official  bearing  toward  the  free  settlers.  Arthur's  en- 
trance on  office  was  connected  with  important  changes  in  the  constitutional  posi- 
tion of  Van  Diemen's  Land.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  white  population  during  the 
last  few  years  had  made  the  want  of  an  independent  government  widely  felt.  Not 
only  were  all  questions  touching  the  common  interests  dependent  upon  Sydney, 
but  even  the  matters  of  daily  occurrence  were  decided  there.  Weeks  were  always 
lost  in  this  way,  and  even  though  Macquarie  tried  to  check  this  evil  by  conferring 
larger  powers  on  the  lieutenant-governor,  the  position  was  bound  to  become  intoler- 
able. This  view  was  held  in  London;  the  same  act  of  parliament,  in  1823,  which 
limited  the  powers  of  the  governor  of  New  South  Wales,  entirely  severed  Van 
Diemen's  Land  from  the  parent  colony.  It  was  declared  an  independent  colony, 
received  its  own  law  courts,  as  well  as  a  special  executive  assembly,  and,  in  short, 
was  put  on  the  same  footing  as  New  South  Wales.  Colonel  Arthur  was  appointed 
the  first  governor. 

In  spite  of  the  flourishing  condition  of  the  island,  there  was  no  lack  of  scope 
for  his  work ;  on  the  contrary,  his  twelve  years'  tenure  of  office  was  the  most 
eventful  in  the  whole  history  of  Van  Diemen's  Land.  The  settlement  of  the 
convict  question  which  met  him  at  the  outset  demanded  all  his  energies.  Soon 
after  his  arrival  a  band  of  more  than  one  hundred  criminals  had  escaped  from  Port 
Macquarie  and  pillaged  the  island.  The  strengthened  military  force  proved 
sufficient  to  check  their  excesses ;  and  one  hundred  and  three  of  the  culprits  were 
executed  by  the  orders  of  the  governor.  Clemency  towards  criminals  was  not 
a  characteristic  of  Arthur,  although  he  thought  his  island  was  only  intended  for 
them,  an  opinion  which  Macquarie  in  his  day  had  held  about  Australia.  Arthur 
regarded  the  free  settlers  as  a  necessary  evU.  The  outcome  of  this  biased  attitude 
was  an  unremitting,  if  not  exactly  paternal,  solicitude  for  the  prisoners.  When 
in  1832  Macquarie  Harbour  on  the  west  coast  had  to  be  given  up  on  account  of 
the  excessive  density  of  the  population,  he  established  a  new  settlement  at  Port 
Arthur  on  the  southeast,  where  the  prison  system  was  raised  to  a  veritable  science. 

The  second  task  of  Arthur  was  the  native  (iuestion  (cf.  p.  248).     Notwith- 


276  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [rz-.y-^,- /// 

standing  all  the  unrest  which  the  struggles  with  the  convicts  as  well  as  with  the 
aborigines  produced  in  the  island,  they  were  not  serious  enough  to  check  the 
growth  of  the  colony  in  any  sensible  degree ;  there  was  a  surprising  increase 
during  Arthur's  term  of  office  both  in  tlie  population  and  the  area  of  cultivated 
land.  At  his  arrival  the  population  had  amounted  to  something  over  ten  tliousand 
souls;  when  he  left  in  1836,  this  total  was  quadrupled,  and  the  area  of  cultivation 
had  similarly  increased.  The  number  of  sheep  then  reached  nearly  a  million ; 
and  the  exports,  which  in  1823  had  amounted  to  approximately  X2r>,000  sterling, 
had  risen  to  over  £500,000.  In  order  to  open  up  the  industries  of  the  islantl 
on  a  large  scale,  the  Van  Diemen's  Land  Company  had  been  formed  in  England, 
which  obtained  a  concession  first  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  acres,  and  then 
of  one  hundred  thousand  more.  It  exercised  an  influence  on  the  development 
of  the  colony  up  to  quite  recent  times.  For  educational  purposes  there  were 
twenty-nine  schools,  while  religious  needs  were  provided  for  by  eighteen  churches. 
Peace  was  at  last  concluded  between  the  government  and  the  newspaper  press, 
with  which  Arthur  for  years  had  waged  as  bitter  a  war  as  Sir  Ivalph  Darling  in 
Australia  (see  p.  263) ;  after  1828  complete  freedom  of  the  press  prevailed.  On 
the  whole  Arthur  and  the  colony  could  be  satisfied  with  the  results. 

The  subsequent  fortunes  of  Van  Diemen's  Laud  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  second 
period  in  Australian  development,  which  commenced  in  the  same  way  and  about 
the  same  time  for  all  the  colonies,  can  be  given  in  a  few  lines.  Arthur's  successor 
was  Sir  John  Franklin  (1S36-1S4.>),  who  had  already  gained  renown  by  his 
exploration  of  the  North  Polar  regions.  Fitted  by  his  whole  disposition  for 
scientific  pursuits,  he  was  the  less  competent  to  face  the  numerous  ditliculties  of 
his  responsible  position,  since  the  decline  of  Australian  industries  began  in  his 
time.  Yet  he  too  did  good  service  to  the  island.  Tlie  organi.-^ation  of  the  educa- 
tional system  was  entirely  his  work.  He  was  further  the  founder  of  the  Tasmanian 
Society,  now  known  as  the  Royal  Society  of  Tasmania ;  he  enabled  William  Jackson 
Hooker  to  complete  his  work  on  the  flora  of  Tasmania,  and  finally  initiated  the 
study  of  the  geology  and  natural  history  of  the  island  by  encouraging  numerous 
travellers.     His  administration  was  the  scientific  era  in  Van  Diemen's  Land. 

The  brief  administration  of  his  successor,  Sir  Eardley  Wilraot  (1843-1846),  was 
occupied  with  the  struggle  between  the  colonists  and  the  English  government 
about  the  abolition  of  transportation.  Van  Diemen's  Land  had  always  enjoyed 
the  dubious  advantage  of  l)eiDg  provided  with  large  masses  of  criminals  in  pro- 
portion to  its  area.  The  detrimental  effects  of  penal  colonisation  in  its  moral  and 
economic  bearings  liad  therefore  been  most  noticealile  there,  and  in  1S35  lliere 
commenced  a  systematic  agitation  of  which  the  object  was  to  prevent  convdcts 
from  being  landed  on  the  island  for  the  future.  This  agitation  did  not  completely 
stop  even  in  the  succeeding  years,  and  when  at  the  begiiming  of  the  "  forties  "  the 
prisoners  of  Moreton  Bay  were  taken  across  to  the  island,  it  immediately  flared  up 
again  brightly.  Fuel  was  added  to  the  flame  when,  under  Wilmot's  government, 
two  thousand  prisoners  were  lirought  over  from  Norfolk  Island,  which  after  1825 
had  once  more  become  a  penal  settlement,  and  when  it  was  seen  tliat  new  batches 
were  constantly  arriving  from  England.  Up  to  1844  the  number  of  criminals 
sent  to  Van  Diemen's  Land  amounted  to  forty  thousand.  The  most  worthless 
of  these  were  the  Norfolk  Islanders,  many  of  whom  escaped  to  the  bush,  wliere 
they  combined  in  marauding  gangs  of  from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred  men,  and 


Australia  and' 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD  277 

waged  a  guerilla  warfare  on  every  one.  They  burnt  the  houses,  killed  the  inhabi- 
tants, drove  away  the  cattle,  and  re\-ived  the  worst  features  of  the  old  bushranging. 
This  was  the  climax.  The  agitation  against  the  system  of  penal  colonisation 
became  general.  A  great  league  against  it  was  founded,  and  in  the  government  of 
Sir  William  Denison,  who  had  succeeded  Wilmot  in  1846,  after  several  years  of 
efifort,  transportation  to  Van  Diemen's  Land  was  finally  abolished  in  1853.  This 
reform  was  accompanied  by  a  change  in  the  name  of  the  colony,  which  has  since 
then  been  known  as  Tasmania. 

(c)  Port  Phillip  {Victoria).  — "The  colony  of  Victoria  might,  with  some  justice, 
be  spoken  of  as  a  granddaughter  rather  than  a  daughter  of  New  South  Wales " 
(Jenks).  It  was  finally  founded  by  settlers  from  Van  Diemen's  Land ;  it  was  purely 
Australian  only  in  the  period  before  it  was  definitely  colonised.  This  begins  with 
ihe  attempt  of  Colonel  Collins,  with  which  we  are  already  familiar  (p.  272),  to 
establish  a  penal  settlement  on  the  shores  of  Port  Phillip  in  1803.  The  plan 
failed,  with  the  result  that  no  one  for  more  than  twenty  years  troubled  about  a 
country  which  was  considered  "unproductive  and  unpromising."  In  1825  the 
attempt  was  renewed  in  consequence  of  the  favourable  reports  of  Hume  and 
HoveU,  and  also  with  the  object  of  forestalling  the  French.  The  penal  sta- 
tion of  Dumaresq  was  founded  on  Westernport  which  was  mistaken  for  Port 
Phillip ;  no  water,  however,  could  be  found,  and  the  settlement  was  discontinued  in 
1828.  This  concludes  the  preliminary  stage  in  the  history  of  the  colony.  The 
real  founding  of  Port  PhiUip,  as  modern  Victoria  was  called  until  1851,  was  due 
to  private  enterprise.  The  few  fishermen  and  sailors  who  in  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  led  a  half-savage  existence  on  the  eastern  parts  of  the  south 
coast  of  Australia,  were  joined  in  1834  by  a  family  named  Henty,  which  settled  in 
Portland  Bay.  The  members  of  it  had  already  taken  part  in  the  unlucky  enter- 
prise in  Western  Australia  (cf.  p.  280),  had  afterwards  hoped  to  find  free  land 
in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  now,  since  they  were  at  the  end  of  their  resources, 
ventured  on  a  bold  plunge  into  the  imknown.  The  special  permission  to  settle 
for  which  they  applied  was  at  first  refused  by  the  authorities,  but  subsequently 
granted,  in  consideration  of  the  still  dreaded  encroachment  of  the  French. 

Henty's  success  prompted  further  enterprise,  which  was  once  more  directed 
toward  Port  Phillip,  —  the  true  nucleus  of  the  modern  colony  of  Victoria,  —  and 
has  been  for  this  reason  regarded  by  many  as  the  actual  starting  point  of  this  State. 
The  leader  of  this  attempt  was  John  Batman,  a  wealthy  sheep  farmer  of  Van 
Diemen's  Land.  He  started  in  May,  1835,  with  several  companions  for  the  south 
coast  of  Australia,  inspected  the  country,  and  "bought"  on  June  6,  1835,  for  a 
couple  of  dozen  axes,  knives  and  scissors,  some  blankets,  thirty  mirrors,  and  two 
hundred  handkerchiefs,  with  the  stipulation  of  a  yearly  payment  of  about  j£200 
sterling  in  goods,  two  vast  territories  comprising  together  sis  hundred  thousand 
acres,  an  area  more  than  the  size  of  Cambridgeshire.  The  consequence  was  the 
founding  of  an  association  of  various  settlers  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  the  Port 
Phillip  Association,  and  the  planting  of  the  first  settlement  in  Geelong.  The 
contract  of  sale  was  sent  to  England  ;  the  government  naturally  termed  it  worth- 
less. If  the  country  was  English,  the  natives  had  no  right  to  alienate  the  land 
without  the  governor's  sanction ;  if  it  was  not  English,  the  association  had  no 
claim  on  the  protection  of  England.     The  association,  realising  in  the  end  that  it 


278  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [(?/m;.^v  y// 

had  no  case,  was  content  with  twenty  thousand  acres,  worth  then  some  X 7,500. 
In  1S36  it  was  dissolved. 

In  England  tliere  was  at  first  little  inclination  to  allow  a  new  colony  to  be 
founded ;  the  cost  of  administration  promised  to  be  formidable,  and  the  recently 
planned  settlement  in  the  adjoining  South  Australia  would  be  thus  unnecessarily 
exposed  to  the  danger  of  a  keen  competition.  Circumstances  were,  however,  stronger 
than  the  will  of  the  government.  Even  on  August  26,  1835,  Governor  Boiuke  of 
New  South  AVales  had  prohibited  the  occupation  of  land  round  Port  Phillip  with- 
out his  permission ;  but  only  a  year  later,  in  September,  1836,  he  and  the  English 
government  saw  themselves  compelled  by  an  unexpectedly  large  iuilux  of  immi- 
grants to  open  the  country  to  colonisation.  After  this  concession,  development 
was  rapid.  The  administration  had  in  1835  started  with  a  single  government  otti- 
cial,  a  Captain  Lonsdale.  In  the  following  year  it  was  enlarged  by  a  regular  jiolice 
force,  with  whom  tliree  land  surveyors  were  associated.  In  1837  Sir  Robert  Pourke 
himself  laid  the  foundation  of  Melbourne  and  Williamstown,  and  in  1842  the 
former  received  a  nmnicipal  government.  In  June,  1836,  there  were  calculated  to 
be  one  hundred  and  seveuty-seven  colonists  with  twenty -six  thousand  sheep ;  two 
years  later  both  figures  were  tripled  or  quadrupled.  At  the  same  time  the  exports 
of  the  young  colony  amounted  to  £12,000  sterling,  while  the  imports  reached 
£115,000.  As  in  New  South  Wales,  the  crown  lands  were  sold  by  public  auction, 
except  for  the  period  1840-1842,  wlien  the  plan  of  allotment  at  a  fixed  price  was  tried. 
Owing  to  the  strong  tide  of  immigration,  by  the  end  of  1841  no  fewer  than  205,748 
acres  had  been  transferred  to  fixed  proprietors,  and  in  return  £394,300  had  been 
paid  to  the  land  fund,  from  which  .source  the  expenses  of  government  were  de- 
frayed. This  large  sum  illustrates  tlie  superabundance  of  money  in  the  country 
at  the  time.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  workmen,  wages  of  ten  shillings  a  day  and 
upward  were  not  considered  high.  An  ox  cost  from  £12  to  £15,  a  horse  £100  or 
more,  a  sheep  up  to  £3.  Champagne,  so  Alfred  Zimmerman  tells  us,  was  drunk  iti 
such  quantities  that  the  streets  coidd  have  been  paved  for  miles  with  the  bottles. 

The  inevitable  reaction  followed.  The  over-production  of  corn  and  cattle, 
which  very  soon  appeared,  led  in  every  department  to  a  collapse  of  prices,  ending  in 
a  regular  bankruptcy.  Wages  rapidly  sank  ;  the  price  of  an  ox  was  hardly  as  many 
shillings  as  it  had  fetched  pounds  in  the  past,  and  hundreds  of  businesses  suspended 
payment.  The  crisis  was  violent  but  short ;  it  was  ended  by  the  middle  of  the 
"  forties."  Since  that  time,  apart  from  the  gold  fever  which  set  in  a  little  later  and 
the  declaration  of  the  independence  of  the  colony,  no  event  of  great  importance 
has  disturbed  the  development  of  Port  PhUlip.  It  made  continuous  but  rapid 
progress.  In  1840  Mellxmrne  was  declared  a  free  port;  in  1843  the  trade  of  the 
colony  amounted  to  £341,000  ;  in  1848  it  had  reached  £1,049,000.  The  proceeds 
of  the  sales  of  land  increased  in  proportion.  Of  the  £250,000  which  composed 
the  whole  revenue  of  the  colony  in  the  year  1850,  more  than  half  came  from  that 
source  alone.     The  outgoings  were  thirty  per  cent  less  than  the  incomings. 

It  is  pleasant  to  record  that  good  relations  existed  from  the  first  between  the 
colonists  and  natives.  This  is  partly  traceable  to  the  sensible  behaviour  of  the 
early  settlers ;  it  is  partly  due  to  the  services  of  William  Buckley,  whose  romantic 
adventures  are  well  known.  He  had  been  a  convict,  and  had  escaped  from  CoUins's 
expedition  in  1804.  He  then  lived  thirty-two  years  among  the  natives,  and  now 
was  the  mediator  between  the  two  races.     We  hardly  hear  of  an}-  outrages,  fights 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  279 


•with  the  blacks,  or  similar  occurrences,  in  the  history  of  Port  Phillip,  The  settlers 
could  extend  their  sheep  runs  farther  and  farther  into  the  interior  without  moles- 
tation. In  1849  Port  Pliillip  owned  more  tlian  a  million  sheep;  the  export  of  wool 
amounted  to  nearly  tlvirteen  million  pounds. 

This  splendid  growth  brought  up  as  early  as  1842  the  question  of  tlie  political 
severance  of  the  colony  from  New  South  Wales.  Nevertheless,  a  whole  series  of 
representations  to  the  English  government  on  tlie  subject  produced  no  effect.  The 
colonists  then,  in  July,  1848,  resolved  on  a  step  as  bold  as  it  was  original.  Six 
representatives  should  have  been  elected  to  the  legislative  council  which  sat  at 
Sydney.  The  candidates  were  requested  to  withdraw  theii-  application.s,  and  the 
English  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies.  Earl  Grey,  was  chosen  as  their  solitary 
representative.  The  scheme  was,  of  course,  apparent.  At  the  subsequent  election 
in  October,  the  government  insisted  on  the  nomination  of  proper  deputies.  But 
the  object  of  the  colonists  was  so  far  attained  that  the  separation  of  the  two 
colonies  was  now  seriouslj-  considered  in  England.  The  board  of  trade  took  up 
the  question,  the  ministry  gave  way,  and  in  the  Constitution  Act  of  18.50  the  set- 
tlement (numbering  seventy-seven  thousand  souls)  was  raised  to  an  independent 
colony  under  the  name  of  Victoria.  The  news  of  this  decision  readied  Melbourne 
in  November,  1850  ;  but  it  was  not  until  July  1, 1851,  that  the  new  order  of  things 
came  into  force. 

(d)  Queensland.  —  The  expedition,  which  had  been  made  by  Oxley  (p.  270) 
along  the  east  coast  north  of  Sydney  had  prompted  several  attempts  at  colonisation. 
Settlements  had  been  founded  at  Port  Essington,  on  Melville  Island,  and  at  other 
points,  but  no  results  had  been  obtained.  When,  then,  a  little  later  the  mainten- 
ance of  the  convicts  in  Van  Diemen's  Land  began  to  cause  difficulties,  the  expedient 
was  adopted  of  founding  a  penal  station  on  Moreton  Bay.  Tliis  lasted  until  1840, 
and  has,  under  the  name  of  Brisbane,  remained  to  the  present  day  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  later  Queensland.  But  it  must  not  be  regarded  as  the  true  nucleus  of 
the  colony.  In  the  first  place,  the  presence  of  the  penal  station  deterred  all  free  set- 
tlers from  going  there ;  and  next,  the  land  in  its  neighbourhood  was  not  offered  for 
■sale.  Queensland  thus,  at  least  for  its  first  beginnings,  showed  a  unique  develop- 
ment from  the  standpoint  of  political  geography.  It  developed  from  the  interior 
toward  the  coast. 

Queensland's  real  origin  is  traceable  to  the  squatters  (p.  265)  who  followed  the 
track  of  Allan  Cunningham  (p.  270)  from  New  South  Wales  to  the  north.  They 
continually  drove  their  flocks  on  further  from  the  Liverpool  Plains  to  the  New  Eng- 
land district  and  the  Darling  Downs.  These  districts  were  even  then  the  best  pas- 
ture groimds  in  the  world,  but  suffered  much  from  want  of  access  to  the  sea,  since 
owing  to  the  intervening  chain  of  mountains  the  long  ddtour  by  New  South  Wales 
had  to  be  taken  before  the  value  of  the  products  could  be  realised.  Even  the  dis- 
covery of  a  difficult  moimtain  path  to  Moreton  Bay  was  of  no  use,  since  the  authori- 
ties absolutely  prohibited  the  squatters  from  any  communications  with  the  place. 
A  change  was  first  made  in  1839  after  the  abolition  of  the  penal  station.  Prac- 
ticable roads  were  now  constructed  over  the  mountains,  public  sale  of  land  was 
introduced  in  1842,  and  the  fresh  stream  of  immigration  was  diverted  into  the 
newly  opened  districts.  Yet  there  was  not  at  once  a  marked  development ;  good 
land  was  abundant,  but  the  labour  to  cultivate  it  was  not  forthcoming.  In  nine 
years  less  than  two  thousand  five  hundred  acres  had  been  disposed  of. 


280  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLi:)         [chapter iii 

As  was  the  case  everywhere  in  Australia,  there  was  first  an  outcry  for  convicts 
as  a  makesliift.  Men  were  not  afraid  to  receive  a  batch  of  convicts  which  was 
refused  admission  into  New  South  Wales  in  1849,  and  finally,  since  after  this 
date  no  more  convicts  were  sent  out  from  England,  they  adopted  the  two- 
edged  expedient  of  importing  Chinamen.  Queensland,  thanks  to  the  action  of 
the  mother  country  rather  than  through  her  own  foresight,  has  been  spared  from 
the  trausiwrtation  question.  The  more  ditlicult  Cliinese  question  has  never  been 
settled,  and  was  revived  in  1901,  owing  to  the  decreasing  immigration  of  white 
labourers.  On  the  whole,  those  first  coolies  were  of  no  use  to  the  sijuatters.  liacial 
aversion  made  it  ditticult  to  employ  them  at  the  same  time  with  white  hands, 
and  the  dithculty  became  an  impossibility  during  the  Chinese  war  of  1841-1842 
(p.  108).  A  rumour  spread  that  the  coolies  had  formed  a  plan  of  putting  poison 
in  the  tea  consumed  by  the  whites ;  and  no  white  hand  would  stay  on  the  same 
station  with  a  coolie. 

Thus  the  labour  question  in  Queensland  remained  for  the  moment  unanswered. 
The  discoveries  of  gold  made  in  Victoria  and  New  South  Wales  in  1851  were  only 
calculated  to  increase  the  deficiency  of  labourers  in  the  country  hitherto  considered 
devoid  of  gold.  The  wish  of  the  colonists  for  convicts  was  so  great  that  efforts  were 
soon  made  to  obtain  political  separation  from  New  South  Wales,  merely  in  order  to 
be  able  to  reintroduce  transportation.  The  first  request  was  granted  in  1859 ;  the 
northeast  corner  of  Australia  was  proclaimed  an  independent  colony  imder  the 
name  of  Queensland.  The  second  request  was  refused.  In  the  first  place,  the  gen- 
eral feeling  throughout  the  whole  of  the  rest  of  Australia  was  not  favourable  to 
the  system,  and  in  the  second  place,  Western  Australia,  a  coimtry  more  convenient 
and  invohdng  a  cheaper  voyage,  was  still  available  for  transportation. 

The  aspect  of  Queensland,  at  the  moment  when  it  received  independence,  was 
essentially  different  from  that  of  the  other  Australian  colonies  at  the  same  stage  in 
their  career.  The  entire  white  population  amounted  in  1859  to  only  thirty  thou- 
sand souls,  who  were  equally  distributed  between  the  town  and  the  country.  There 
were  some  twenty  towns,  of  wliich  Brisbane  then  contained  four  thousand  inhabi- 
tants, while  others  of  them  boasted  only  of  some  hundreds.  The  so-called  town  of 
AUora  had  only  fifty-five  inhabitants.  These  settlements  were  mere  villages,  not 
only  from  the  small  number  of  their  inhabitants  but  in  their  essential  nature ; 
they  did  not  show  a  trace  of  organised  municipal  government.  The  greater  credit 
is  thus  due  to  the  certainty  and  rapidity  with  which  all  the  authorities  adapted 
themselves  to  the  new  conditions  suddenly  burst  upon  them.  Mr.  Jenks  is  dis- 
posed to  regard  the  examjde  of  (Queensland  as  proving  the  high  capacity  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  to  adapt  himself  to  any  form  of  polity.  And  it  is  true  that  the 
Queenslanders  entered  upon  self-government  without  any  such  preliminary  train- 
ing as  all  the  other  Australian  colonies  had  enjoyed  in  their  gradual  process  of 
political  development. 

(e)  Western  Australia.  —  Western  Australia  was  founded  directlj-  from  Eng- 
land. It  is  true  that  a  number  of  convicts  had  been  sent  in  1826  from  Sydney  to 
the  west  coast  of  the  continent  in  order  to  counteract  any  French  schemes ;  but 
the  establishment  of  the  stations  of  Albany  and  Rockingham  can  hardly  be  termed 
a  colonisation  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word.  The  first  real  settlement  was  in 
1829.     In  the  previous  year  a  Captain  Stirling  had  published  a  glowing  accoimt 


Australia  and-^  HISTORY     OF    THE     WORLD  281 


Oceania 


of  the  district  at  the  mouth  of  the  Swan  Eiver,  which  induced  the  government 
to  order  Captain  Fremantle  to  hoist  the  Englisli  tiag  there.  But  further  measures 
of  the  government  failed  from  want  of  means. 

The  moving  spirit  of  the  private  enterprise  which  first  started  the  colonisation 
was  Thomas  Peel.  In  combination  with  others  he  offered  to  send  in  the  course  of  four 
years  ten  thousand  free  emigrants  to  the  Swan  Eiver,  on  condition  that,  in  return 
for  the  cost,  which  he  estimated  at  .£300,000,  an  area  of  four  million  acres  should 
be  assigned  to  him.  When  the  government  did  not  accept  this  offer,  Peel  consid- 
erably reduced  the  scale  of  his  scheme,  and  this  time  was  successful.  Under  the 
guidance  of  Captain  Stirling,  destined  to  be  the  governor  of  the  new  colony, 
to  whom  one  hundred  thousand  acres  of  land  had  been  promised,  the  first  band  of 
emigrants  sailed  from  England  in  the  spring  of  1829,  arrived  in  June  on  the  Swan 
Eiver,  and  founded  at  its  mouth  the  town  of  Fremantle,  and  higher  upstream  the 
town  of  Perth.  In  the  course  of  the  next  year  and  a  half  thirtj'-nine  emigrant 
ships,  with  1,125  colonists,  attracted  by  eulogistic  descriptions,  followed  the  first 
party  to  Western  Australia.  Fortune  did  not  smile  on  the  attempt ;  there  was 
land  enough  and  to  spare,  but  there  was  a  lack  of  workingmen,  of  roads,  and  of 
markets. 

Peel's  plan  had  been  to  cultivate  tobacco  and  cotton,  sugar  and  flax,  to  breed 
horses  for  India,  and  by  fattening  oxen  and  swine,  to  provide  the  English  fleet 
with  salted  meat.  All  this  came  to  nothing ;  the  colonists  themselves  had  hardly 
enough  to  eat,  and  the  larger  their  landed  property,  the  greater  their  helplessness 
and  distress.  Many  settlers,  and  among  them  the  Henty  family  (p.  277),  left 
the  ungrateful  soil  of  the  colony ;  others  lost  all  they  possessed ;  Peel  himself, 
who  had  settled  with  two  hundred  colonists,  is  said  to  have  lost  £50,000.  The 
founders  had,  from  the  very  beginning,  never  given  a  thought  to  the  support 
of  the  newcomers,  nor  had  any  one  troubled  about  dividing  the  land  even  roughly, 
to  say  nothing  of  a  proper  survey.  It  was  nothing  unusual  for  the  settlers  to  lie 
for  months  after  their  arrival  shelterless  on  the  shore,  exposed  without  protection 
to  the  scorching  Australian  sun,  to  sandstorms,  and  to  violent  downpours  of 
rain.  Thus  much  of  the  labour  that  had  been  expended  on  the  soil  was  wasted, 
while  the  health  of  the  people  suffered.  If  they  finally  were  in  a  position  to 
occupy  the  tract  assigned  to  them,  difficulties  of  another  sort  began.  From  the 
very  first  hour  the  relations  between  the  settlers  and  the  aborigines  were  most 
hostile ;  and  the  aid  of  a  troop  of  mounted  police  was  required  for  the  protection 
of  the  former.  Under  these  circumstances  there  could  be  no  idea  of  progress, 
in  the  sense  in  which  it  can  be  recorded  of  the  majority  of  other  Australian 
colonies  in  then-  early  days.  Everything  went  on  very  slowly,  especially  as 
immigration,  after  the  first  wave,  absolutely  came  to  a  standstill.  The  few  settlers 
left  in  the  land  certainly  did  their  utmost;  they  most  energetically  set  about 
breeding  sheep  and  horses,  laid  the  foundation  of  some  other  towns,  and  settled 
King  George's  Sound.  Development  in  the  first  six  years  did  not  go  beyond  this ; 
of  1,600,000  acres  distributed  to  the  colonists  as  such,  in  1834,  only  564  acres 
were  under  cultivation. 

Some  stimulus  was  given  to  development  by  the  Western  Australian  Association, 
founded  by  Major  Invin  m  1835,  which  was  intended  to  encourage  emigration  to 
Western  Australia  and  safeguard  its  interests  m  other  countries.  Among  its  mem- 
bers, besides  English  gentlemen,  were  included  some  residents  of  Calcutta,  who 


2S2  niST(MlV    OF    THF    WORLD         {chapter  iii 

contemplated  the  establislimeiit  of  a  health  resort  as  well  as  a  trailing  seitlemeiit. 
The  oom}>aiiy  benefited  tiie  colony  in  niauy  ways;  but  in  sjiite  of  all  aj;ilation  it 
coidd  not  alter  the  slow  course  of  the'economic  growth.  In  1S40  the  population  iiad 
only  amounted  to  twenty-three  hundred  souls;  two  years  before  the  colonists  had 
received  the  privilege  of  sending  four  members  to  the  legislative  council  (y.  2G8). 

The  year  1841  saw  the  formation  of  some  large  undertakings  to  exploit  Western 
Australia.  One  was  a  limited  company  founded  by  the  Western  Australian 
Association,  with  the  object  of  buying  up  cheaply  the  land  once  assigned  to 
Captain  Stirling,  and  then  disposing  of  it  in  small  lots.  One  pound  sterling  was 
to  be  paid  down  for  each  acre.  This  plan  never  came  into  execution.  The  other 
undertakings  of  the  same  Western  Australian  Association  promised  greater  suc- 
cess. At  the  suggestion  of  the  traveller,  George  Grey,  subsequently  distinguished 
as  a  civil  servant  (p.  285),  a  settlement  which  received  the  name  of  Australind 
was  founded  in  the  Leschenault  district  on  the  north  coast  of  Geographe  Bay, 
some  hundred  miles  south  of  Perth.  It  was  Nourishing  splendidly  when  the 
company  broke  up ;  the  small  town  still  exists. 

The  want  of  labourers,  which  became  more  urgent  fi-om  year  to  year,  drove  the 
colony  to  follow  the  example  of  Queensland.  In  1845  the  council  seriously 
contemplated  inviting  CJerman  settlers,  under  the  impression  that  the  harsh  treat- 
ment of  German  immigrants  in  the  United  States  would  make  it  easy  to  divert 
the  stream.  At  the  same  time  the  ad^•isability  of  admitting  pauper  immigrants 
was  considered.  The  most  momentous  resolution,  however,  was  the  introduction 
of  transportation.  According  to  a  resolution  of  the  council  of  1846,  a  certain 
number  of  convicts,  whose  passage  was  to  be  provided  at  the  cost  of  the  mother 
country,  were  to  be  admitted  annually,  in  order  to  be  employed  on  roadmaking 
and  other  public  works.  The  English  government  accepted  the  proposal  only  too 
willingly.  A\Tiile  it  did  nothing  at  all  to  help  the  execution  of  the  two  other 
schemes,  it  lost  no  time  in  disembarking  shipload  after  shipload  of  convicts  on  the 
welcome  new  transportation  territory,  as  Western  Australia  was  otticially  declared 
to  be  on  May  1,  1849.  After  1850  "  ticket-of-leave "  men  were  sent  out,  and 
allowed  freedom  of  movement  withiii  the  colony,  subject  to  the  obligation  of 
periodically  reporting  themselves  to  the  police. 

In  contrast  to  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land,  the  colony  of 
Western  Australia  was  greatly  assisted  b)-  the  introduction  of  penal  colonisation. 
By  AprU,  1852,  there  were  fifteen  hundred  transportees  in  the  couutrj-,  half  of 
whom  were  ticket-of-leave  men.  This  number  implied  a  large  staff  of  otlicials, 
and  a  stronger  military  force ;  it  also  necessitated  the  construction  of  large  build- 
ings, for  which  the  sum  of  £86,000  was  granted  by  England  alone.  Thus  money 
and  life  were  brought  into  the  colony.  The  old  colonists  took  heart  again,  a  new 
stream  of  free  settlers  flowed  in,  more  and  more  land  was  bought  and  cidtivated, 
and  the  land  fund  grew  in  an  encouraging  fashion.  Coal  fields  also  were  dis- 
covered, guano  beds  were  exploited,  and  sandalwood  exported ;  the  Madras  cavalry 
began  to  obtain  their  remounts  from  Western  Australia,  and  a  pearl  fishery  was 
started  in  Shark  Bay.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  wonderful  that  the 
white  population,  which  had  only  amounted  to  five  thousand  in  1850,  was  now 
trebled.  The  number  of  sheep  and  cattle,  as  well  as  the  volume  of  trade,  showed 
a  corresponding  increase. 

There  was,  however,  a  dark  side  to  this  bright  picture.     In  spite  of  the  increase 


^;^^™'j'"""^  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  283 

in  sales  of  land,  the  incomings  did  not  cover  the  expenditure.  In  order  to  make 
good  this  deficit,  an  arrangement  had  been  made  by  which  the  ticket-of-leave  men 
should  be  able  to  buy  their  liberty  at  a  price  varying  from  £7  to  £25,  according 
to  the  length  of  their  sentence.  But,  in  spite  of  the  extensive  use  which  the 
transportees,  who  in  Western  Australia  belonged  exclusively  to  the  male  sex, 
made  of  this  privilege,  the  measure  was  ineffectual ;  the  colony  was  more  than 
ever  dependent  on  liberal  subsidies  from  the  mother  country.  This  had  an  impor- 
tant effect  on  political  development,  since  this  financial  dependence,  in  connection 
with  the  transportation  which  suited  England,  was  the  chief  reason  why  Western 
Australia  was  absolutely  ignored  when  a  responsible  government  was  granted 
to  the  other  colonies.  A  third  reason  was  the  composition  of  the  inhabitants  and 
their  stage  of  civilization  in  1850.  Even  in  1859,  forty-one  per  cent  of  the  male 
population  were  actual  or  former  convicts,  and  in  most  localities  these  convicts 
outnumbered  the  free  colonists.  The  number  of  illiterate  persons,  excluding  the 
actual  convicts,  reached  37i  per  cent.  It  was  absolutely  impossible  to  place  a  com- 
munity so  constituted  on  an  independent  footing. 

Western  Australia  was  long  in  making  up  for  its  original  inferiority  to  the 
sister  colonies.  It  lost,  however,  its  character  of  a  penal  colony  quicker  than  was 
acceptable  to  the  free  and  the  emancipated  colonists,  who  were  spoilt  by  the  cheap 
price  of  labour  and  the  sums  of  money  spent  by  the  mother  country  on  transporta- 
tion. The  continuous  influx  of  escaped  criminals  soon  caused  bad  blood  in  the 
adjoining  colonies,  as  well  as  the  circumstance  that  many  convicts  from  Western 
Australia,  on  serving  their  sentence,  turned  their  steps  toward  the  east.  In  186-4, 
Victoria  raised  a  violent  protest  against  the  continuance  of  penal  colonisation  in 
the  far  west  of  the  continent,  and  demanded  measures  of  repression.  Finally,  in 
1868,  the  English  government  struck  Western  Australia  out  of  the  list  of  penal 
colonies,  after  it  had  received  in  all  9,718  transportees.  The  complete  ruin  of  the 
colony,  which  the  colonists  who  had  been  enriched  by  convict  labour  prophesied, 
did  not  occur.  But  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  development  of  Western  Aus- 
tralia was  delayed  by  the  suspension  of  transportation.  It  is  only  recentl}-  tliat 
it  has  been  able  to  meet  its  outgoings  from  its  own  resources,  and  not  until  1890 
did  it  receive  self-government  and  attain  the  same  footing  as  the  other  colonies. 
But  the  discovery  and  working  of  large  gold  fields  in  the  interior  guarantee  to  it, 
however,  a  more  successful  course  of  development. 

(/)  South  Australia.  —  The  founding  of  South  Australia,  which,  like  Western 
Australia  was  colonised  from  England,  was  really  due  to  the  favourable  accounts 
brought  back  by  the  explorer  Sturt  as  to  the  country  seen  by  him  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Murray,  and  to  the  report  of  Captain  Collet  Barker,  who  was  intrusted  with 
the  exploration  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Vincent.  In  consequence  of  this  the  South 
Australian  Land  Company,  which  mcluded,  besides  a  number  of  members  of  par- 
liament, Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield,  was  formed  in  London  in  1831.  Wakefield 
had  learnt  from  personal  experience  the  defects  of  English  prison  life  ;  he  saw  the 
only  remedy  in  a  systematically  conducted  removal  of  the  supei-fluous  English 
population,  which,  in  his  opmion,  plunged  the  masses  into  distress  and  misery  and 
assisted  crime,  to  new  scenes,  such,  for  example,  as  South  Australia,  just  then 
coming  into  notice.  According  to  his  plan,  large  uncultivated  tracts  of  land  should 
be  assigned  to  a  colonisation  company  provided  with  sufficient  means,  on  the 


284  HISTORY    Ol'    THE    WORLD         ^chapter ill 

understanding  that  it  founded  settled  conununities.  The  cDiupany  was  to  indem- 
nify itself  for  all  initial  expenditure  by  the  sale  of  land  at  fixed  prices ;  the  profits, 
above  that,  were  to  be  applied  to  the  cost  of  brmging  over  English  workmen  to 
the  colony.'  In  every  colony  there  were  to  be  neither  more  nor  less  hands  avail- 
able than  required. 

The  government  at  first  took  up  almost  the  same  attitude  toward  Wakefield's 
plans  and  the  proposals  of  the  South  Australian  I^nd  Company  as  toward  the 
founders  of  Port  Phillip  (p.  271).  There  was  a  reluctance  to  sap  existing  settle- 
ments by  establishing  new  ones ;  and,  further,  it  seemed  impolitic  to  confer  legis- 
lative rights  on  a  private  company.  On  the  other  hand,  the  influence  of  the 
Wakefield  family  was  strong,  and  possibly  this  new  system  might  prove  more 
lasting  than  those  previously  adopted.  Tlie  government  therefore,  in  18;!4,  resolved 
to  make  an  attempt  on  *\\e  lines  of  Wakefield's  plan.  The  means  for  tlie  under- 
taking were  to  be  furnished  by  the  company.  The  direction  of  land  sales  and 
emigration  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  three  commissioners  in  London ;  in  the 
colony  itself  the  government  reserved  the  right  to  nominate  a  governor  and  some 
other  officials,  while  the  rest  were  to  be  nominated  by  the  company.  It  was 
definitely  promised  that  no  convicts  should  be  transported  from  the  United  King- 
dom to  the  colony.  The  first  three  ships  sailed  from  England  in  February,  1836. 
Two  landed  in  July,  on  Kangaroo  Poland,  where  the  passengers  immediately  began 
to  establish  themselves  on  Nepeau  Bay ;  the  third  ship,  which  did  not  arrive  until 
August,  sailed  to  the  coast  of  the  mainland  and  the  banks  of  the  river  Torrens. 
The  choice  of  this  landing  place  by  Colonel  Liglit  seemed  to  most  of  the  new- 
comers as  unsuitable  as  the  choice  by  them  of  Nepean  Bay  appeared  to  him. 
In  the  next  year,  the  votes  of  the  colonists  were  finally  given  in  favour  of  the 
spot  chosen  by  Light;  and  the  building  of  a  town,  which,  at  the  wish  of  King 
William  IV,  was  called  Adelaide,  after  his  consort,  was  at  once  commenced. 

The  development  of  the  young  colony  shows  a  bright  and  a  gloomy  side.  The 
existence  of  two  sets  of  officials,  and  the  numerous  restrictions  which  were  imposed 
on  the  officials  of  the  company,  soon  led  to  such  friction  that  the  majority  of 
both  parties  had  to  be  recalled.  These  measures  exercised  little  influence  on  the 
purely  economic  development.  In  1S37  alone  more  than  60,000  acres  of  land 
were  sold,  from  which  £43,151  accrued  to  the  company.  L^p  to  the  middle  of  1839 
a  quarter  of  a  million  acres  had  been  sold,  bringing  in  £230,000.  In  1840  there 
were  10,000  settlers,  who  owned  200,000  sheep  and  15,000  head  of  cattle. 

The  rapid  and  brilliant  rise  of  South  Australia,  like  that  of  Victoria,  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  great  financial  crash.  The  frenzy  for  speculation  in  land  had  grown  to 
a  prodigious  extent ;  and,  although,  wages  reached  a  giddy  height  (skilled  workmen 
earned  up  to  fifty  shillings  a  day),  the  profits  to  be  made  by  speculation  proved  a 
greater  attraction  and  distracted  many  from  industrial  enterprise.  In  addition  to 
this,  the  second  governor  of  the  colony,  Colonel  Cawler,  allowed  himself  to  be  led 
into  constructing  large  public  buildings  and  parks,  although  the  mother  countrj* 
had  expressly  refused  to  bind  herself  to  any  contributions.  The  colony  had  very 
soon  to  deal  with  a  debt  of  £405,000.  The  South  Australian  Company  was 
equally  to  blame  with  Colonel  Gawler  for  this  turn  of  affairs.     The  head  of  the 

1  This  idea  of  an  emigration  fund  raised  by  sales  of  land  originated  with  Wakefield  and  was  the  essen- 
tial feature  of  liis  system.  It  is  dbcussed  and  warmly  praised  by  Mill  iu  the  last  chapter  of  his  "  Political 
Economy."  —  Editor. 


A'istralia  and 
Oteania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  285 


company,  Angus,  had  also  speculated  in  a  manner  quite  contrary  to  the  objects 
which  Wakefield  had  in  view.  He  invested  half  the  company's  capital  in  land, 
engaged  in  whale  fishery,  trading,  and  banking,  and  induced  the  colonists,  by 
guaranteeing  them  an  excessively  high  interest  on  deposits,  to  intrust  him  with 
their  cash.  The  commissioners  also  did  not  rightly  understand  their  duties.  The 
price  which  had  been  fixed  for  land  before  the  founding  of  the  colony  was  one 
pound  an  acre  ;  huge  tracts  had  been  disposed  of  at  that  figure.  But  instead  of 
raising  the  price  they  took  the  astonishing  step  of  reducing  it  to  twelve  shillings. 

Some  improvement  of  the  situation  was  finally  effected  by  the  appointment  of 
George  Grey  to  guide  the  colony.  His  name  will  always  be  conspicuous  in  the 
history  of  the  English  colonies,  but  it  is  also  famous  in  the  field  of  ethnography. 
On  his  return  from  his  two  journeys  through  Western  Australia  in  1837  to  1839 
he  had  prepared  a  memorandum,  showing  the  methods  by  which  the  British  pos- 
sessions in  the  South  Seas  and  in  South  Africa  should  be  administered.  When 
South  Australia  declared  itself  bankrupt  in  1841,  the  opportunity  was  offered  him 
of  putting  his  theory  into  practice.  By  his  appointment  to  be  governor  in  Ade- 
laide the  administration  of  the  colonies  practically  was  transferred  to  the  English 
government. 

Grey  found  a  heavy  task  awaiting  him.  The  treasury  was  empty ;  a  host  of 
officials  had  eaten  up  the  revenues  of  the  colony,  and  the  burden  of  debt  was 
crushing,  notwithstanding  that  some  of  the  hills  drawn  by  Gawler  upon  the  home 
government,  which  had  been  dishonoured  on  presentation,  were  ultimately  paid  by 
the  English  parliament.  Grey's  first  step  was  to  discontinue  all  building  not 
imperatively  urgent,  to  dismiss  superfluous  officials  and  to  lower  the  salaries  of  the 
rest.  An  improvement  was  soon  apparent.  In  1841,  out  of  299,077  acres  sold, 
only  2,503  had  been  under  cultivation ;  at  the  end  of  1842  there  were  more  than 
20,000  cultivated,  and  that  with  an  increase  in  the  population  from  14,600  to 
17,000  souls.  Unfortunately  for  the  colony  the  mother  country  was  not  willing 
to  take  over  the  rest  of  the  old  burden  of  debt.  Grey  was  neither  able  nor  willing 
simply  to  break  with  the  existing  financial  methods ;  he  issued  bills  drawn  on  the 
home  government,  but  only  a  small  part  of  them  were  paid.  This  caused  ill-feel- 
ing in  South  Australia,  where  the  financial  crisis  reached  its  height  in  1843. 
Meanwhile  the  situation  grew  more  tolerable,  as  rich  veins  of  copper  were  dis- 
covered and  worked.  From  that  time.  South  Australia  has  developed  regularly 
with  a  few  trifling  fluctuations,  easily  explicable  from  the  youth  of  the  under- 
taking. The  population  amounted  in  i848  to  38,600  whites,  against  3,700  natives ; 
the  trade,  in  1839  only  £427,000,  reached  in  1849  the  sum  of  £888,000,  of  wliich 
£504,000  came  from  exports.  Even  the  incomings  grew  on  a  corresponding  scale ; 
after  1845  they  not  only  covered  the  outgoings,  but  furnished  a  considerable 
surplus. 

The  term  of  office  of  George  Grey,  so  fraught  with  blessmgs  for  South  Aus- 
tralia, ended  in  1845.  It  was  his  fortune  always  to  be  placed  in  a  position  where 
a  keen  sight  and  a  tight  grip  were  necessary ;  for  he  was  then  removed  to  New 
Zealand.  The  history  of  his  unimportant  successors  is  featureless  except  for  the 
efforts  of  the  colonists  to  win  political  self-government.  When  the  colony  was 
founded,  the  English  government  had  intended  to  give  it  a  constitution  so  soon  as 
the  number  of  mhabitants  reached  fifty  thousand.  In  1842,  when  the  system  of 
commissioners  was  abolished,  a  council  of  eight  members,  four  of  whom  were  offi- 


286  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter  in 

cials,  and  four  colonists  selected  by  the  {jovernur,  was  placed  under  the  governor. 
In  spite  of  the  growing  prosperity  of  South  Australia,  some  years  had  yet  to  elapse 
before  the  home  government  would  make  any  further  concession,  although  the  in- 
terests of  the  colonists  were  insufficiently  represented  by  the  new  institution.  It 
then  happened  that  in  1849  the  population,  contrary  to  expectation,  amounted  to 
tifty-two  thousand.  The  government  kept  faith,  and,  in  1850  South  Australia 
became  a  recognised  colony.  On  August  20,  ISul,  a  council  of  twenty-four  mem- 
bers met  for  the  tirat  time ;  of  these,  two-thirds  were  elected  by  the  colonists,  eight 
(but  of  these  only  four  might  be  officials)  were  nominated  by  the  governor. 

C.  The  Colonies  in  the  Second  Half  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 

(«)  Tlie  Bestowal  of  Self-government.  —  The  favourable  and  rapid  development 
of  the  younger  Australian  colonies  in  the  second  half  of  the  "  forties  "  had  fostered, 
among  those  English  statesmen  who  were  interested  in  the  colonies,  the  idea  that 
the  same  measure  of  self-government  should  be  granted  them  that  New  South 
Wales  had  enjoyed  since  1842.  Van  Diemen's  Land  and  Port  Phillip,  which 
were  in  a  position  to  meet  their  outgoings  entirely  from  their  own  resources,  had 
the  foremost  claim  to  the  independent  control  of  their  revenues;  but  South 
Australia  also  was  rapidly  appruacliing  this  same  consummation.  Western  Aus- 
tralia alone  lagged  behind.  In  1847  these  ideas  took  some  tangible  shape.  Earl 
Grey,  then  secretary  of  state  for  war  and  the  colonies,  openly  expressed  to  the 
governor  of  New  South  Wales  his  intention  of  granting  to  the  young  colonies 
the  constitution  of  1842  ;  in  fact  he  wished  to  take  a  further  step,  and  to  establish 
in  all  Australian  colonies,  by  the  side  of  the  legislative  council,  an  upper  house, 
whose  members  should  be  drawn  from  the  town  communities.  Since  a  vigorous 
protest  against  the  last  two  heads  of  the  plan  was  raised  in  Australia,  he  abandoned 
them,  but  put  the  matter  before  the  committee  of  the  pri\y  council  for  trade  and 
foreign  plantations.  As  the  result  of  their  deliberations  tlie  committee  recom- 
mended the  introduction  of  a  constitution,  modelled  on  that  of  New  South 
Wales,  for  Van  Diemen's  Land,  South  Australia,  and  Port  Philliii,  which  latter  was 
to  be  separated  from  New  South  Wales.  The  elaboration  of  details  was  to  be  en- 
trusted to  the  various  parliaments ;  but  the  committee  expressed  their  expectation 
that  the  customs  duties  and  excise  would  at  first  re([uire  to  be  administered  by  the 
British  parliament.  At  the  same  time  the  committee  advised  the  introduction 
of  a  uniform  tariff  for  all  the  colonies.  The  bill  which  was  drafted  in  accordance 
with  the  suggestions  of  the  committee  became  law  on  August  5,  1850,  under  the 
title,  "  An  Act  for  the  better  government  of  her  Majesty's  Australian  Colonies." 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  South  Australia,  and  Victoria  (hitherto  Port  Phillip)  received 
the  constitution  recommended  by  the  committee ;  Western  Australia  had  the 
prospect  of  obtaining  it  so  soon  as  it  was  able  to  defray  the  costs  of  its  civil 
administration.  Every  pro])rietor  of  land  of  the  value  of  XlOO,  who  was  at  least 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  had  the  franchise,  as  had  every  one  who  occupied  a  house 
or  rented  a  farm  of  the  annual  value  of  £10.  The  customs  and  excise  were 
settled  on  the  understanding  that  the  colonial  governments  decided  their  amount ; 
but  no  difl'erential  duties  were  to  be  imposed.  At  the  same  time  goods  intended 
for  the  use  of  English  troops  were  not  dutiable,  and  existing  commercial  contracts 
were  not  to  be  prejudiced. 


Australiu  and 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  28/ 


The  first  step  toward  the  federation  of  the  Australian  colonies,  which  has  just 
been  completed  (see  p.  296),  was  taken  by  Eaii  Grey,  when,  after  the  introduction 
of  the  new  constitution,  he  nominated  the  governor  of  New  South  Wales  to  be 
governor-general  of  the  four  colonies,  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  Tasmania,  and 
South  Australia.  Grey  had  only  wished  to  give  visible  expression  to  the  idea  of 
identity  of  interests ;  but,  since  he  compelled  the  heads  of  the  last  three  colonies 
to  consult  not  only  the  colonial  office,  but  also  the  governor-general,  that  is  to 
say,  the  governor  of  New  Soutli  Wales,  he  reduced  the  position  of  those  three  to 
that  of  a  vice-governor.  The  independent  spirit  and  the  mutual  jealousy  of  the 
colonies  augured  no  permanence  to  such  an  arrangement.  The  Victorians  showed 
their  contempt  for  the  dignity  of  the  governor-general  by  voting  their  own  governor 
a  salary  of  X 7,000,  or  £2,000  more  than  was  received  by  his  superior.  In  1855  a 
governor  was  at  the  head  of  every  colony,  anil  although  at  Sydney  the  governor  up 
to  1861  bore  the  additional  title  of  governor-general,  it  did  not  carry  with  it  any 
real  power. 

With  the  act  of  August  5,  1850,  the  chief  step  toward  the  alteration  of  the 
constitution  of  the  Australian  colonies  was  taken ;  but  it  did  not  signify  any  final 
settlement.  It  is  true  that  the  receipts  from  the  customs  were  guaranteed  to  the 
colonies,  but  they  were  still  collected  by  officials  nominated  from  England.  Again, 
the  profits  from  the  sale  of  the  crown  lands  were  not  entirely  at  the  disposal  of 
the  Australians,  since  half  was  applied  by  the  mother  country  to  the  encouragement 
of  emigration.  Finally,  the  nomination  of  the  higher  officials  rested  completelj'  with 
the  home  government.  A  general  agitation  against  the  retention  of  these  powers  was 
raised  directly  after  the  introduction  of  the  new  constitution.  Absolute  self-govern- 
ment, without  any  restrictions,  was  demanded,  and  the  English  government  did  not 
delay  to  concede  this  clamorous  demand.  The  moving  cause  of  this  concession  was 
by  no  means  mere  philanthropy,  but  in  the  first  place  the  fear  of  entirely  alienating 
the  mass  of  the  Australian  population  by  a  refusal  of  these  proposals.  Prom  the 
very  first  this  population  had  been  undisciplined  and  deterred  by  nothing ;  and  now, 
since  in  consequence  of  the  discoveries  of  gold,  the  stream  of  morally  undesirable 
immigrants  had  been  enormously  swollen,  it  had  developed  more  unpleasant 
characteristics,  of  which  the  disputes  in  the  camps  with  the  authorities  gave  daily 
fresh  proof.  Another  reason  was  that  the  Crimean  War  had  complicated  the 
European  situation  and  left  the  mother  country  little  time  for  the  discussion 
of  colonial  affairs.  The  result  was  that  in  April,  1851,  the  entire  management  of 
the  customs  was  put  into  the  hands  of  the  colonies ;  in  the  following  year  the 
application  of  the  proceeds  of  the  diggers'  licenses  was  entrusted  to  them,  and  at 
the  same  time  it  was  left  to  their  discretion  to  bring  before  the  English  government 
their  further  wishes  as  to  the  completion  of  the  constitution.  At  the  end  of  1854, 
the  colonies  submitted  their  propositions  to  the  government.  Those  of  South 
Australia  and  Tasmania  received  the  royal  assent  at  once,  while  those  of  Victoria 
and  New  South  Wales  were  reserved  to  be  confirmed  by  act  of  parliament,  on  the 
groimd  that  they  involved  concessions  which  the  crown  by  itself  was  powerless  to 
make.  The  confirmation  of  parliament  was  grafted,  after  some  slight  amendments 
had  been  made,  in  the  year  1855. 

The  contents  of  the  new  constitutions  may  be  briefly  recapitulated  as  follows. 
The  most  essential  innovation,  which  is  common  to  all  four  colonies,  is  the  transition 
from  the  single-chamber  system  to  the  dual-chamber  system.     By  the  side  of  the 


2SS  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  \_<-hn,,ter in 

former  legislative  council,  wliii'h  is  henceforth  the  tirst  chamber  or  upiver  house, 
comes  in  each  case  an  assembly,  or  lower  house.  In  New  South  Wales  ilie  former 
consisted  of  twenty-one  members  nominated  by  the  crown  for  life,  while  the  lower 
house,  accoixling  io  the  scheme,  numbered  fifty-four  representatives,  wlio  were 
chosen  from  the  well-to-do  classes  of  electors  possessing  a  certain  income.  At  the 
present  day  the  number  of  members  of  the  upper  house  is  unlimited,  while  that  of 
the  lower  house  amounts  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five ;  these  are  elected  for 
three  years.  The  council  of  Victoria  comprised,  after  the  law  of  IS'io,  thirty  (at 
the  present  day  forty-eight)  members;  the  assembly,  seventy-five  (now  ninety- 
five)  ;  both  houses  are  elective  in  this  colony.  The  members  hold  otiice  for  six 
and  three  years.  In  South  Australia  tlie  council  nominated  by  the  crown  consisted 
of  twelve;  the  assembly,  elected  by  votes,  comprised  thirty -six  members;  but  in 
1S.J6  voting  was  introduced  for  the  upper  house  also,  and  the  number  of  its  mem- 
bers was  fixed  at  eighteen.  The  number  in  the  upper  house  later  was  raised  to 
twenty-four  (for  twelve  years),  and  in  the  lower  liouse  to  fifty-four  members 
(elected  for  three  yeai's),  who  were  well  paid.  lu  1902,  however,  from  motives  of 
economy,  the  number  of  representatives  was  lowered  to  eighteen  and  forty-two. 
In  Tasmania,  finally,  the  council  has  always  numbered  eighteen,  and  the  assembly 
thirty-seven  representatives,  who  are  all  elected. 

Tn  each  colony  there  is  a  governor,  nominated  by  the  crown,  but  paid  by  the 
colony.  The  usual  terra  of  office  is  sLx  years,  aud  the  salary  varies  from  i;  3,500  in 
Tasmania,  to  £7,000  in  New  South  Wales.  The  governor  exercises  the  royal 
prerogative  of  mercy  in  his  colony ;  convokes,  prorogues,  and  dissolves  the  legis- 
lature ;  controls  the  patronage  of  the  public  services,  and  forms  the  colonial 
cabinet.  His  position  with  regard  to  the  legislature  and  the  cabinet  is  that  of  a 
constitutional  sovereign.  But  his  power  is  also  limited  by  the  instructions  which 
he  receives  from  the  colonial  office.  His  assent  is  necessary  to  all  colonial 
legislation ;  but  a  bill  which  has  received  liis  assent,  though  it  is  then  provisionally 
enforced  as  law,  may  be  disallowed  by  the  colonial  office.  It  would  not  be  jiossilde 
to  discuss  within  the  limits  of  our  space  the  question  as  to  the  real  influence 
which  the  governor  exercises  in  virtue  of  these  legal  powers.  But  one  or  two  of  the 
recent  appointments  to  Australian  governorships  have  been  of  a  nature  to  sug- 
gest that  the  home  government  regards  the  governor  in  the  light  of  an  ornamen- 
tal appendage ;  and  that,  if  differences  of  opinion  arise  between  an  Australian 
colony  and  the  mother  country,  the  governor's  part  in  arranging  a  settlement  will  be 
insignificant.     The  telegraph  has  given  a  wonderful  impetus  to  centralisation. 

The  constitutional  position  of  the  colonies  and  their  inhabitants  toward  the 
mother  country,  is  peculiar.  The  parliaments,  according  to  the  form  proposed  by 
themselves,  are  called  "  Parliaments  of  the  King,"  in  whose  name  they  pass  their 
laws  binding  the  Australian  subjects  of  his  Britannic  Majesty.  The  colonists  in 
fact  enjoy  to  the  fullest  extent  all  the  riglits  and  privileges  of  a  British  citizen 
without  paying  one  penny  to  England,  which  only  expresses  her  suzerainty  by  the 
'  fact  that  English  law  holds  good  in  Australia,  so  far  as  it  has  not  been  superseded 
by  local  legislation. 

The  highest  executive  officials  are  the  i^iinisters,  whose  number  varies  from  six 
in  Tasmania  to  nine  in  New  South  Wales.  Since  they  are  always  chosen  from 
the  parliamentary  majorities  they  change  very  quickly ;  between  1856  and  1876, 
iji  A'ictoria  eighteen,  in  New  South  Wales  seventeen,  in  South  Australia  twentj- 


Australia  and' 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  289 


nine  different  ministers  have  been  at  the  head  of  affairs.  On  the  other  hand  there 
is  this  compensatory  advantage,  that  members  of  the  most  varied  professions  obtain 
posts  as  ministers,  and  then  often  display  great  ability  in  the  admiuistration  of 
affau's. 

(b)  The  Discoveries  of  Gold.  —  The  solution  of  the  constitutional  question  would 
certainly  not  have  been  so  quickly  reached,  had  not  aU  the  conditions  in  Australia 
at  the  beginning  of  the  "  fifties  "  been  suddenly  and  radically  altered  by  the  dis- 
covery of  rich  gold  fields  m  various  districts.  Gold  had  been  already  found  during 
the  construction  of  the  road  over  the  Blue  Mountains  (1814 ;  see  page  261).  The 
government  had  hushed  up  the  discovery  from  fear  that  it  would  be  unable  to 
control  the  excitement  which  would  assuredly  be  caused  by  its  publication. 
Various  rumours  of  gold  mines  had  cropped  up  later,  but  they  had  not  foimd  much 
credence.  It  was  only  when  the  opening  of  the  Californian  gold  mines  in  1848 
had  attracted  the  attention  of  the  world  and  had  caused  a  regular  migration  of 
gold  diggers  to  those  parts,  that  serious  attention  was  paid  to  the  precious  metal 
in  Australia.  An  Australian  blacksmith,  Hargraves,  who  had  spent  some  years  in 
California,  carefully  examined  the  mountains  near  Bathurst,  in  February,  1851, 
and  on  the  12th  of  that  month  he  found  quantities  of  alluvial  gold  in  Lewes  Pond 
Creek.  This  discovery  did  not  remain  a  secret  as  the  former  had.  The  whole 
continent  rang  with  the  news,  and  by  May  dense  crowds  of  colonists  were  flocking 
to  the  place.  A  few  weeks  later  gold  was  also  found  near  Ballarat  in  Victoria ; . 
then  in  October  also  near  Mount  Alexander,  north  of  Melbourne.  A  few  mouths 
later  the  veins  of  gold  at  Bendigo  to  the  south  were  also  discovered.  In  Queens- 
land, gold  was  not  found  until  1858,  and  in  Western  Australia  not  untU.  1886— 
1887. 

The  effect  of  these  discoveries  upon  the  world  was  indescribable.  In  the  first 
place  the  whole  population  of  Australia  caught  the  gold  fever.  Every  man  who 
could  work  or  move,  whether  labourer,  seaman,  or  clerk,  rushed  to  the  gold  wash- 
ings. The  old  settlements  were  so  emptied  of  their  inhabitants  that  Melbourne 
for  a  long  time  had  only  one  policeman  available.  South  Australia  produced  the 
impression  of  a  country  inhabited  merely  by  women  and  children.  The  situation 
was  the  same  in  Tasmania  and  even  in  New  Zealand.  Afterward,  when  the  news 
of  the  discoveries  reached  America  and  the  Old  World,  a  new  wave  of  immigrants 
flooded  the  country,  and  the  whole  overflow  of  the  poi)ulation  streamed  to  the 
gold  fields.  Under  these  circumstances  the  population  of  Australia  rapidly  in- 
creased. In  Victoria,  whei-e  the  influx  was  the  greatest,  the  population  had  num- 
bered 70,000  souls  in  July,  1851 ;  nine  months  later  that  number  was  living  on  the 
gold  fields  alone,  and  in  1861  the  whole  population  of  the  colony  amounted  to 
541,800  souls.  New  South  Wales  then  reckoned  .358,200  inhabitants;  South 
Australia  126,800 ;  Tasmania  90,200 ;  Queensland  had  34,800,  and  Western  Aus- 
tralia 15,600.  This  rise  in  the  figures  of  the  popidation  was  encouraging  to  the 
economic  development  of  the  colonies,  but  it  put  the  government  which  was  sud- 
derdy  confronted  with  these  occurrences  in  a  very  "difficult  position.  The  exodus 
of  civil  servants  from  their  recently  created  posts  was  so  imiversal  that  the 
administration  threatened  to  come  to  a  standstill.  Salaries  were  doubled,  but  to 
no  purpose;  the  attraction  of  the  gold  fields  was  too  potent.  The  governor  of 
Victoria  found  himself  finally  compelled  to  apply  to  England  for  a  regiment  of 

VOL.  11  —  19 


200  HISTORY'    OV    THE    WORLD         [choj,t,T  nf 

soldici-s,  who  could  uot  run  away  wiih<iui  being  liable  to  a  court-martial.  The 
governiueut  otSces  were  at  the  same  time  tilled  by  two  huudred  pensioned  prison 
wardere,  brought  over  from  England.  The  government  was  .soon  faced  by  another 
class  of  dirticulties  arising  from  its  legal  position  toward  the  new  branch  of  indus- 
try. According  to  the  view  of  the  legal  advisers  of  the  government  all  niuies  of 
precious  metals,  whether  on  crown  land  or  private  property,  belonged  to  the  crown. 
They  advised  the  governors,  therefore,  to  proliibit  guld  mining  absolutely,  in  order 
not  to  disturb  llie  peaceful  development  of  the  colonies.  Under  the  prevailing 
conditions  this  counsel  was  as  superfluous  as  it  was  foolish,  since  the  means  at  the 
disposal  of  the  authorities  were  absolutely  insufficient  to  enforce  it.  Sir  Cliarles 
Fitzroy,  the  governor  of  New  South  Wales,  contented  himself  with  issuing  a  jiro- 
clamatiou,  as  soon  as  the  first  find  of  gold  was  publicly  announced,  which  only 
permitted  gold  mining  on  crown  land  on  payment  of  a  fixed  i)rospectiug  tax  of 
thirty  shillings  a  month ;  and  on  the  discovery  of  rock  gold  claimed  for  the  gov- 
ernment ten  per  cent  of  the  proceeds  of  working  the  quartz. 

This  order  naturally  met  witli  little  response  from  the  gold  diggers,  however 
much  in  other  respects  it  was  calculated  to  aid  the  development  of  the  colony  by 
increasing  the  public  resources.  It  is  true  that  they  agreed  to  it  in  New  South 
Wales,  where  the  political  situation  had  not  l)een  so  violently  disturbed,  but  not 
so  in  Victoria,  where  the  governor  had  also  adopted  the  enactment  of  Sydney. 
For  one  thing,  the  government  was  not  so  firmly  established  there  as  in  the  mother 
colony ;  and  Victoria  had  also  received  a  very  high  percentage  of  the  roughest  and 
most  lawless  people  as  new  members  of  the  population.  Not  every  one  of  them 
was  so  fortunate  as  to  find  gold ;  they  could  not  pay  the  high  fee,  and  began  to  agi- 
tate, first,  against  the  amount  of  the  impost,  secondly,  against  the  institution  itself. 
Tlie  ill-feeling  was  soon  universal,  not  only  in  the  gold  fields,  but  also  in  the  old 
settlements  and  towns.  The  prevalent  idea  was  that  the  application  of  the  large 
sums  derived  from  the  licenses  and  imposts  merely  to  the  payment  of  the  costs  of 
the  administration  did.  not  meet  the  interests  of  the  population,  and  tliat  the  sys- 
tem .should  be  changed.  A  reduction  of  the  ta.x.  did  not  satisfy  anybody ;  on  the 
contrary,  disturbances  in  the  camps  became  more  and  more  frequent.  A  murder 
had  been  committed  in  October,  1854,  in  Eureka  camp  near  Ballarat.  The  feeble 
police  force  made  some  blunders  in  following  up  the  case,  and  consequently  dis- 
turbances broke  out  among  the  gold  diggers,  which  were  soon  aimed  at  the  hated 
prospecting  license ;  and  finally,  when  the  governor  had  sent  all  the  troops  at  his 
disposal  into  the  riotous  district,  a  regular  battle  was  fouglit  on  December  3d 
between  thirty  gold  diggers  and  a  body  of  soldiers.  Out  of  the  one  liuudrcd  and 
twenty  rioters  who  were  captured,  the  ringleaders  were  sent  to  Melbourne  to  be 
tried,  but  there  was  no  court  to  be  found  which,  in  spite  of  the  overwhelming  evi- 
dence of  guilt,  would  pronounce  a  verdict  against  them. 

The  tax  question  was  only  settled  in  lS5o.  A  gold  digger's  license,  costing 
one  pound  for  the  year,  was  substituted  for  the  montUy  prospecting  tax,  wliich  was 
abolished.  In  order  to  cover  the  loss  of  revenue  to  the  colonial  exchetjuer,  an 
export  duty  of  half  a  crown  on  every  ounce  of  gold  was  imposed.  This  wi.se  meas- 
ure laid  the  imposts  primarily  on  the  successful  gold  digger,  a  policy  which  secured 
a  good  reception  for  the  law  and  satisfied  all  jiarties.  Before  the  end  of  the  year 
the  governor  of  Victoria  was  able  to  report  to  London  that  quiet  prevailed  in  every 
camp. 


tZL"""^]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  291 

(c)  Tlie  Development  of  Australia  to  the  Present  Time.  —  (a)  The  Economic 
Growth.  —  The  discovery  of  the  astonishing  wealth  in  Australia  in  gold  did  not 
indeed  cause  complete  self-government  to  be  given  to  the  colonies,  but  it  immensely 
quickened  the  course  of  proceedings.  The  general  situation  was  so  changed  with 
the  commencement  of  working  the  mines  that  the  fullest  measure  of  independence 
was  a  vital  question  for  the  local  governments.  The  act  of  1855  testifies  to  the 
political  discernment  of  the  English  government.  The  interval  between  1850 
and  1855  was  a  period  of  transition.  The  large  administrative  organism  created 
in  1850  had  to  become  acquainted  with  its  work,  a  process  which  the  phenomena 
attendant  on  the  gold  fever  rendered  far  from  easy.  The  population,  the  body  of 
old  settlers  as  much  as  the  mass  of  recently  arrived  and  arri\ang  newcomers,  was 
faced  by  new  problems ;  the  old  centres  of  population  were  deserted,  whUe  towns 
sprang  up  like  mushrooms  on  the  gold  fields.  This  shifted  in  the  first  place  the 
economic  centre  of  gravity  of  the  colonies,  and,  after  the  franchise  had  been  given 
to  the  alien  gold  diggers  in  1855,  the  political  centre  of  gravity  was  equally 
affected. 

The  old  land  question   now  once   more   became   prominent.     With  all   the 
wealth   of   Australia   in   gold  (the   average   yearly  output   from   1851    to   1901 
amounted  to  £9,00U,G00  sterling)  it  was  inevitable  that  among  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  gold  diggers  thousands  shoidd  be  unsuccessful.     Few  matters  caused  the 
authorities  of  those  days  more  anxiety  than  the  task  of  making  satisfactory  pro- 
vision for  the  crowds  of  the  unemployed.      Macquarie  had  formerly  considered 
that  increased  facilities  of  communication  were  the  necessary  preliminary  to  all 
economic  development,  and  the  new  colonial  governments  acted  in  the  same  spirit. 
In  1855  the  railroad  from  Sydney  to  Paramatta  was  opened,  and  extensive  roads 
and  lines  of  telegraph  were  soon  constructed.     Jenks  points  with  pride  to  the  fact 
that  England,  between  the  years  1788  and  1821,  gave  the  sum  of  £10,000,000  to 
advance  economic  interests  of  New  South  Wales  and  Tasmania.     That  is  a  large 
sum,  well  calculated  to   keep  alive  in  the  Australian  of   to-day  the  feeling  of 
attachment   to   the   mother   country.      But  what  is  it  in  comparison  with  the 
£100,000,000,  which  Australia  spent  on  similar  purposes  in  the  shorter  period 
from  1855  to  1880!     Those  ten  millions  had  come  from  the  pockets  of  the  English 
taxpayers ;   these  hundred  millions  could  not   have  been  provided   bj-  the  Aus- 
tralians.    As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  were  mostly  obtained  by  government  loans, 
which  were  raised  in  London.     They  have,  on  the  one  hand,  formed  the  founda- 
tion  for    the   enormous  amount  of   the   puldic  debt  in  the  Australian  colonies 
(£187,000,000  in  the  year  1900,  or  £50  sterling  per  head  of  a  population  of 
3,750,000   persons) ;    on  the  other  hand,  the  unfailing  willingness  of  the  Eng- 
lish money  market  to  place  its  ample  resources  at  the  service  of  the  Australian 
colonies  has  largely  contributed  to  strengthen  the  feeling  of  kinship.     The  exten- 
sive grant  of   electoral  powers  by  the  constitution  of  1855  soon  set  the  land 
question   rolling.      The   suffrage  especially  benefited   the   small  settlers,  whose 
numbers,  always  larger  than  those  of  the  great  landowners  or  squatters,  had  been 
enormously  swelled   by  the  new  influx.     Adroitly  availing  themselves  of   this 
welcome  increase  of  power,  they  proceeded  to  revive  the  old  antagonism  between 
the  interests  of  the  stock  breeders  and  the  agriculturists,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
decision  in  their  favour.     The  result  in  New  South  Wales  in  1861  was  a  land 
law  which  regulated  the  division  of  crown  lands  according  to  a  new  point  of 


292  HISTORY    OF     VUK    WORLD         \r/,.,j.,,r  ni 

view;  other  colonies  followed  this  example.  The  small  settlers  were  benefited 
everywhere,  wliile  the  privileges  of  the  large  estates  were  curtailed ;  the  former, 
for  example,  received  iu  New  South  Wales  the  right  to  select  for  tliemselves 
homesteads  and  farms  of  a  definite  small  size  on  the  still  unsurveyed  pasture 
grounds.  The  economic  struggle,  whicli  was  waged  so  vigorously  by  both  parties 
half  a  century  ago,  under  the  elfect  of  the  new  stimulus  given  by  the  discovery  of 
gold,  has  continued  to  the  present  day,  with  less  viuleuce,  perhaps,  but  with  mure 
obstinacy;  and  the  large  landed  proprietors  are  still  the  object  of  attack.  It  is 
true,  they  offer  a  bold  resistance,  but  the  small  farmer  ("  selector  "  or  "  cockatoo 
farmer"  )  during  tlie  last  few  decades,  has  steadily  secured  new  advantages,  which 
are  not  always  confined  to  a  cliange  in  the  letter  of  the  law.  Since  1890  the 
tendency  to  encourage  the  small  man  is  so  great  that,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring 
land,  advances  are  made  to  him  at  a  low  rate  of  interest  which  are  refused  to 
others. 

The  advance  in  the  population  of  Australia  in  the  last  half  century  is  of  great 
interest.  We  have  already  called  attention  (p.  289)  to  the  enormous  growth 
directly  produced  by  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  southeastern  colonies,  when  we 
gave  the  number  of  the  inliabitants  in  1861.  The  rate  of  increase  in  the  follow- 
ing years  is,  as  might  be  expected,  not  so  rapid ;  but,  apart  .from  the  last  twenty 
years,  it  has  attained  a  height  whicli,  in  view  of  the  great  American  competition, 
is  quite  astounding.  In  1861  the  mainland  and  Tasmania  contained  between 
them  1,167,695  white  inhabitants;  on  January  1,  1900,  the  number  had  increased 
to  3,756,894 ;  in  barely  four  decades,  therefore,  it  has  been  more  than  tripled.  The 
chief  share  in  this  increase  is  due  to  the  immigration,  wliich  has  been  particularly 
large  from  Great  Britain.  Between  1853  and  1S90,  1,374,422  persons  emigrated 
from  the  British  Isles,  half  of  wliom  were  assisted  by  money  grants  from  the 
respective  colonies.  This  emigration  has  naturally  diminished  in  consequence  of 
the  great  industrial  depression  at  the  beginning  of  the  "  nineties."  In  fact,  in 
Victoria  and  South  Australia  the  tendency  has  been  toward  emigration,  so  tliat 
the  increase  of  the  popidation  there  is  only  due  to  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths. 

This  excess  of  births  is  lessening  from  year  to  year ;  partly  because  of  the  bad 
times  for  trades  and  industries,  which  disastrously  affect  the  number  of  marriages, 
but  partly  also  from  a  cause  involving  more  serious  issues  for  tlie  future  of  the 
continent,  which  makes  the  Australian  statesmen  regard  this  future  with  serious 
apprehension.  This  is  the  physical  and  mental  degeneration  of  the  white  race 
on  the  soil  of  Australia  (p.  243).  Its  causes  are  looked  for  in  the  pernicious 
effects  of  the  climate  and  of  the  purely  Englisli  diet,  consisting  of  animal  food, 
which  is  unsuitable  to  a  hot  country.  However  this  may  be,  the  original  physique 
of  the  settler  has  altered  for  the  worse;  even  the  national  morality  has  become 
less  strict.  Divorces  are  common  occurrences,  and  the  size  of  families  is  much 
reduced. 

Immigration  received  a  severe  setback  in  1890,  when  most  of  the  colonies  dis- 
continued the  practice  of  aiding  any  British  subjects  desirous  of  emigrating.  This 
measure  reflects  the  internal  political  condition  of  the  colonies,  in  so  far  as  it 
clearly  sliows  the  great  influence  of  the  labour  party,  which  turned  the  scale  almost 
everywhere.  It  had,  as  may  well  be  imagined,  a  strong  interest  in  keeping  up 
high  wages,  and  strained  every  nerve  to  check  immigration.  With  this  object  it 
also  considerably  restricted  or  entirely  stojiped  the  immigration  of  coloured  set- 


^rnt""""]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  293 

tiers.  The  International  Congress  of  Workmen  held  at  Brisbane,  in  May,  1899, 
and  attended  by  delegates  from  Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South 
Australia,  actually  resolved  on  the  exclusion  of  all  foreigners  from  Australia. 

The  continent  was  once  plunged  into  great  danger  by  this  unduly  pronounced 
confidence  of  its  labour  party.  Toward  the  end  of  the  "eighties"  the  (dd  antago- 
nism between  the  small  farmer  and  the  large  landed  proprietor,  between  work  and 
capital,  became  so  acute  that  it  only  needed  a  trifling  pretext  to  make  the  former 
light  skirmishing  blaze  into  a  serious  battle.  The  battle  itself  was  only  a  trial  of 
strength.  The  conditions  of  existence  in  Australia  have  always  been  better  than 
in  any  other  civilized  country,  both  as  regards  the  height  of  wages,  the  cheapness  of 
food  and  land,  and  the  length  of  the  working  hours.  The  workmen  then  wished 
for  a  greater  share  in  the  regulation  of  labour ;  when  the  employers  opposed  this 
claim  with  all  their  power,  the  struggle  broke  out  in  1890.  The  pretext  for  the 
opening  of  the  campaign  was  the  refusal  of  a  shipowner  to  reinstate  a  discharged 
workman.  This  led  immediately  to  a  strike  on  the  part  of  the  dock  labourers ;  and 
other  trades  followed  suit.  The  plan  of  the  leaders  of  the  agitation  was  to  cripple 
all  the  industries  of  the  entire  continent  by  a  general  strike ;  an  imposing  idea, 
but  it  proved  impracticable.  Most  of  the  workmen  had  been  well  organised  pre- 
viously, but  the  em^jloyers  soon  put  themselves  in  an  equally  favourable  position 
by  combining  into  large  bodies ;  in  addition  to  this,  the  non-organised  workmen 
were  not  under  any  compulsion  to  strike.  After  many  isolated  strikes  capital  was 
victorious  along  the  whole  line. 

Partly  as  a  result  of  the  industrial  fluctuations,  partly  in  consequence  of  a  move- 
ment which  seems  characteristic  of  agricultural  and  pastoral  colonies,  an  acute 
financial  Crisis  spread  over  the  whole  continent  in  the  year  1893.  Just  as,  half  a 
century  before,  in  New  South  Wales,  South  Australia,  and  Victoria,  foolish  specu- 
lation in  estates  and  land  had  brought  the  young  colonies  to  the  verge  of  ruin 
(p.  264),  so  now  a  correspondingly  exaggerated  and  abnormal  industrial  develop- 
ment and  a  wild  speculation  in  land  and  shares  brought  the  whole  continent  into  a 
dangerous  position.  Even  the  most  securely  founded  undertakings  began  to  totter. 
At  the  present  day,  although  only  a  short  interval  has  elapsed,  there  are  few  traces 
visible  of  this  crisis  in  the  antipodes.  Australia  resembles  the  United  States  of 
America,  in  so  far  as  it  possesses  an  enormous  wealth  of  natural  resources  in  pro- 
portion to  its  population.  An  efficient  remedy  for  industrial  depression  is  supplied 
not  only  by  the  gold  and  the  other  valuable  minerals,  but  also  by  the  fertility  of 
much  of  its  soil  and  the  admirable  climate ;  the  startling  rapidity  with  which  its 
exports  of  meat  and  fruit  have  doubled  and  redoubled  is  the  best  proof  of  this. 

The  main  industries  of  Australia  have  always  been  stock  breeding,  mining,  and 
agriculture;  manufactures  are  in  comparison  unimportant.  The  growth  of  stock 
breeding  is  irregidar,  but  encouraging  on  the  whole.  In  spite  of  the  greatly  dimin- 
ished number  of  cattle  and  sheep  in  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland,  owing  to 
the  long-continued  droughts  of  the  last  few  years,  Australia  and  Tasmania  contain 
nearly  100,000,000  head  of  stock  (cattle,  sheep,  horses,  and  pigs).  The  export  of 
wool  amounts  to  more  than  a  million  bales,  and  the  export  of  preserved  meat,  butter, 
and  cheese  brings  many  million  pounds  aimually  into  the  country. 

The  improvement  in  agriculture  is  less  marked.  The  greatest  hindrances  to 
this  are  the  extreme  dryness  of  climate,  which  has  already  been  often  mentioned, 
and  then  the  periodical  recurrence  of  extraordinary  drouglits.     Of  the  1,900,000,000 


294  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         \_ci,n,.t.r  iii 

acres  which  Australia  aud  Tasmania  eoniaiii.  about  112,0ii0,000  at  the  jtresent  day 
have  beeu  sokl  aud  700,000,000  rented,  while  approximately  1,100,000,000  acres  are 
as  yet  unused,  or  will  remain  permanently  useless.  It  is  a  striking  proof  of  the 
proportionate  size  of  the  various  industries  that  of  these  812,000,000  acres  of 
serviceable  land  barely  7,500,000  are  available  for  agriculture ;  all  the  rest  of  that 
vast  amount  is  at  present  only  good  for  stock  rearing.  This  immense  disproport  iun 
has  often  caused  anxiety  to  the  Australians,  and  it  is  not  without  good  reason  that 
facilities  have  been  given  to  the  poorer  classes  to  acquire  lautl  anywhere.  In  view 
of  the  recurring  droughts  and  what  is  technically  termed  the  extensive  system  of 
cultivation,  successful  eftbrts  have  been  made  to  regulate  the  water  supply  by 
artesian  wells,  irrigation  canals,  and  dams.  The  adoption  of  rational  methods  of 
field  farming  and  rotation  of  crops  is  more  and  more  felt  to  be  as  much  a  necessity 
for  Australia  as  for  North  America.  The  same  remark  applies  generally  to  the 
long-neglected  science,  forestry. 

The  most  important  industry  next  to  stock  breeding  is  mining,  notwithstanding 
that  it  has  now  beeu  carried  on  for  fifty  years,  and  that  the  system  of  working  has 
been  careless.  It  is  true  that,  in  the  old  gold-mining  centres  of  Victoria,  New 
South  Wales,  and  Queensland,  the  easy  process  of  gold  washing  has  long  been 
impossible ;  on  the  contrary,  the  auriferous  ore  must  be  brought  up  from  a  great 
depth.  But  these  colonies  are  still  productive,  although  since  1S99  they  have  been 
nearly  overtaken  by  Western  Australia.  The  output  of  gold  from  the  latter  colony 
amounted  in  that  year  to  £6,250,000  sterling,  while  that  of  the  other  three  together 
was  £8,250,000.  Tiie  total  yield  of  gold  from  Australia  and  Tasmania  reached  in 
round  figures  £15,000,000  sterling.  The  growth  in  the  output  of  other  minerals  is 
less  striking,  but  of  an  importance  for  the  prosperity  of  the  colonies  whicl*  must  not 
be  underestimated.  Copper,  in  consequence  of  the  increased  demand  due  to  the  spread 
of  electrotechnics,  has  been  mined  on  a  steadily  growing  scale;  and  the  same 
remark  applies  to  silver  and  tin.  The  wealth  of  Australia  in  coal  has  proved  an 
important  factor  in  the  development  of  the  railway  system,  as  also  of  the  mines 
and  manufactures,  which  latter  are  still  in  tlieir  infancy.  The  coal  not  only 
supplies  the  home  demand,  but  is  already  exported  to  South  and  West  Asia  and  to 
America.  The  iron  industrj'  alone  in  Australia  has  not  yet  shown  a  corresponding 
progress,  notwithstanding  the  enormous  extent  of  the  deposits  of  iron  ore,  which 
might  profitably  be  worked. 

(/S)  Educational  Progress.  —  In  the  second  stage  of  their  development  the 
Australian  colonies  followed  the  policy  of  raising  money  on  loans  with  such  con- 
sistency and  success  that  few  countries  have  now  a  larger  debt  in  projwrtion  to 
their  population.  This  has  been  of  great  benefit  to  the  culture  of  the  people.  The 
large  sums  which  flowed  into  the  country  from  these  loans  placed  the  government 
in  a  position  to  do  more  than  meet  material  requirements  and  to  attend  to  the 
spiritual  and  intellectual  welfare  of  their  subjects. 

The  numerous  religious  sects  receive  no  assistance  from  the  government,  but 
each  provides  for  the  needs  of  its  own  members.  On  the  other  hand,  the  organi.^a- 
tion  and  improvement  of  primar}-  education  has  long  filled  a  large  space  in  tiie 
programmes  of  the  governments.  Before  1880  there  were  two  classes  of  schools. 
The  "  national  schools "  were  immediately  subject  to  State  control ;  there  were 
also  voluntarj'  schools  (these  were  particularly  numerous  in  New  South  Wales), 


^m'"™']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  295 

which  were  conducted  by  four  deuominations,  the  Church  of  England,  the  Presby- 
terians, the  Wesleyans,  and  the  Kouiau  Catholics,  but  received  support  from 
the  State.  In  1880  the  schools  became  undenominational  and,  in  their  elementary 
branches,  compulsory.  The  school  fees  were  at  first  only  remitted  to  poor  persons, 
but  later  they  were  abolished  altogether  (in  Victoria  this  reform  had  been  passed 
in  1872). 

The  organisation  of  higher  education  has  moved  more  slowly ;  the  present  state 
of  affairs  is,  however,  satisfactory.  There  are  a  large  number  of  grammar  schools, 
collegiate  schools,  and  colleges  which,  like  the  voluntary  schools  of  the  past,  are 
in  the  hands  of  private  individuals  or  religious  societies.  Of  late  years  the  State 
has  founded  similar  institutions.  There  are  at  present  three  Australian  universi- 
ties, at  Sydney,  Melbourne,  and  Adelaide.  In  Tasmania  one  was  founded  at 
Hobart  in  1892,  but  for  the  time  being  it  is  merely  an  examining  body.  The 
degrees  granted  by  the  universities  are  recognised  as  equal  to  those  obtained  in 
English  universities,  and  are  open  to  women.  Lastly,  the  learned  societies  in  the 
capitals,  which  in  organisation  and  titles  are  closely  modelled  on  corresponding 
English  l)odies,  are  connected  with  the  universities,  and  promote  the  exploration  of 
the  country  and  scientific  studies  generally. 

The  press  shows  a  less  encouraging  development.  The  number  of  its  organs  is 
considerable,  —  they  amount  to  a  thousand,  if  periodicals  are  included,  —  but  on  the 
whole  they  do  not  stand  high.  External  questions  are  treated  superficially,  with- 
out any  grasp  of  the  economic  and  political  situation  ;  home  affairs  on  the  contrary 
are  discussed  in  great  detail. 

(7)  Hie  Militanj  Podtion.  —  The  Australian  colonies  have  on  the  whole 
always  maintained  good  relations  with  the  mother  country  (cf.  p.  243).  Even  in 
tlie  antipodes  there  is  a  complete  feeling  of  s3-mpathy  and  imion  between  the 
settler  and  his  kinsfolk  in  England.  Nevertheless  there  have  been  occasional 
disputes,  quarrels,  and  misimderstandiugs.  Victoria,  for  example,  keenly  resented 
the  interference  of  England  in  the  home  affairs  of  the  colony  in  1869,  consequent 
on  an  appeal  of  the  Eoj-al  Colonial  Institute  to  all  the  colonies  to  attend  a 
conference  for  the  purpose  of  putting  the  relations  between  the  mother  country  and 
the  colonies  on  a  satisfactory  footing.  The  language  of  Victoria  was  then  very 
confident  and  menacing ;  yet  it  did  not  prevent  the  rich  colony  from  continuing  to 
enjoy  the  protection  of  the  troops  paid  for  by  the  mother  countr}',  although,  as 
long  before  as  1862,  the  English  parliament  had  advised  that  all  colonies  should, 
on  receiving  self-government,  be  left  to  defend  their  own  hearths  and  homes.  It 
was  not  until  1870  that  England  withdrew  her  troops,  not  only  from  Victoria,  but 
from  the  whole  of  Australia,  which  now  first  realised  how  helplessly  it  lay  exposed 
to  an  attack  fi-om  outside,  and  how  expensive  it  would  be  to  provide  its  own 
system  of  defence. 

The  formation  of  a  colonial  army  and  navy,  in  the  first  place  doubtless  fi-om 
financial  reasons,  was  slow  in  coming.  It  began,  and  this  is  a  point  worth  noticing, 
at  the  moment  when  the  internal  political  developflient  of  the  older  colonies  ended, 
and  when  the  first  attempt  was  made  to  expand  beyond  the  borders  of  the  con- 
tinent. In  addition  to  the  French,  who  are  still  as  feared  as  they  were  a  century 
ago,  the  Germans  by  their  efforts  at  colonisation  have  caused  considerable  anxiety 
to  the  Australians,  and  have  awakened  the  feeling  of  the  necessity  for  military 


296  HISTORY    OF    'II  IK    WORLD         [Chapter  in 

preparations.  At  the  present  day  every  culony  has  its  own  small  staiulinj;  army, 
and  some  thousands  of  militia  and  volunteers.  This  force  has  not  }'et  had  any  op- 
|>ortuuity  of  active  serWce  in  its  own  country  or  in  the  PaciKc.  On  the  other 
hand  New  South  AVales  in  1885  sent  six  hundred  men  to  help  tlie  mother  country 
in  the  Sudan  War  (VoL  111,  p.  561),  and  several  thousand  men  of  the  Australian 
militia  took  part  in  the  Boer  War  in  1900.  These  local  levies,  insiiruificant  in 
number  and  deficient  in  military  iHscipliue,  could  not  co[^e  with  a  vigorous  attack 
from  a  foreign  enemy.  Australia,  in  this  respect  Hnds  herself  in  the  same  position 
as  the  United  Slates  of  America,  which  latter,  liowever,  have  the  protection  of  a 
strong  navy  available.  The  great  continent  ui  the  Pacific,  poorer  in  money  and 
men,  has  not  yet  obiamed  a  fleet  of  eii'ective  fighting  power.  It  is  true  that  each 
of  the  separate  colonies  possesses  one  or  two  warsliips ;  but  these,  from  want  of 
any  combination  in  numbers  or  tactics,  produce  the  impression  of  a  military  play- 
thing rather  than  of  a  fighting  implement  of  serious  value,  and  are  insutlicient  to 
defend  the  vast  extent  of  coast  line.  Conscious  of  this  defect,  though  ultimately 
at  the  suggestion  of  England,  Australia  made  an  agreement  in  1887  with  the 
mother  country,  in  virtue  of  which  the  latter  formed  for  the  colonies  the  "  Austra- 
lian Auxiliary  Sijuadron."  This  fleet,  which  consists  of  five  twin-screw  cruisers 
and  two  gunboats,  is  supplied,  manned,  and  commanded  by  England,  but  kept  up 
by  the  colonies.  They  pay  for  it  Xl2fi,000  annually,  besides  five  per  cent  interest 
on  the  cost  of  the  floating  material.  The  agreement  came  into  force  in  1891,  when 
the  squadron  appeared  in  the  Pacific,  Sydney  being  its  headijuartens.  At  the  same 
time  England  maintains  a  special  squadron  in  Australian  waters,  the  cost  of  which, 
as  Moritz  Schanz  remarks,  constitutes  the  only  expense  whicli  Australia  imposes 
upon  the  British  exchequer. 

In  order  to  strengthen  the  defence  of  the  coast,  but  also  to  complete  tlie  line  of 
British  naval  and  military  outposts  round  the  world,  a  number  of  the  Australian 
seaports  have  been  fortified  or  made  into  naval  harbours;  thus,  Brisbane,  Sydney, 
Melbourne,  Adelaide,  Launceston,  and  Hobart. 

(8)  TTie  Comjiletwii  of  the  Iiiternal  Dcvelopvient  and  the  first  Oversea  Expaiision. 
—  The  grant  of  full  self-government  to  the  Australian  colonies  in  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  the  separation  of  Victoria  as  an  independent  colony  from 
New  South  Wales,  did  not  complete  tlie  organisation  and  the  external  enlargement 
of  this  colonial  system.  Since  gold  had  been  found  in  large  (piautities  in  the 
district  of  Moreton  Bay  in  1858,  at  the  petition  of  the  inhabitants  this  also  was 
separated  from  New  South  Wales  and,  under  tlie  name  of  Queensland,  was  provided 
with  the  same  self-government  as  the  elder  sister  colonies.  The  legislative 
council  contains  forty-one  members  nominated  by  the  crown,  the  assembly 
seventy-two  members  elected  for  three  j-ears.  Seven  ministers  are  associated  with 
the  governor,  who  is  nominated  by  the  crown. 

The  growth  of  Queensland  has  been  as  steady  as  that  of  most  of  the  other 
colonies.  The  year  1866  brought  drouglit  and  great  mortality  among  the  cattle, 
involving  the  ruin  of  many  businesses  and  jirivate  individuals  ;  tlie  financial  crisis 
also,  at  the  beginning  of  the  "  nineties,"  struck  the  colony  with  great  force.  But 
in  spite  of  these  blows  the  population  has  grown  comparati\ely  rapidly  and  pros- 
perity has  increased.  The  numV)er  of  inhabitants,  which  in  1861  hardlj-  amounted 
to  35,000,  had   reached  147,000  in  1873;   on  January  1,  1900,  it  amounted  to 


Ausfrolui  and 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  297 


512,604  souls.  This  growth,  which  is  principally  due  to  large  immigration,  has 
been  much  helped  by  the  policy  adopted  since  1871  of  subsidising  the  immigrants. 
The  rich  gold  tields,  of  which  some  twenty-five  are  being  worked  at  the  present 
day,  attracted  large  multitudes.  The  immense  size  of  Queensland,  stretching 
through  eighteen  degrees  of  latitude,  and  the  consequent  variety  of  industries  (in 
the  sparsely  peopled  north  all  the  tropical  products  are  gi-own,  while  in  the 
densely  inhabited  south  the  crops  of  the  temperate  zone  are  cultivated)  led  some 
years  ago  to  the  idea  of  its  division  into  two  provinces  with  separate  governments, 
but  a  common  central  administration.  The  twenty-tirst  degree  of  southern  lati- 
tude was  suggested  as  the  boundaiy  line. 

Western  Australia  was  the  last  of  the  Australian  colonies  to  receive  self- 
government.  The  system  of  transportation  was  in  force  there  until  the  year  1868. 
Its  discontinuance  did  not  alter  the  relations  to  the  mother  coimtry.  The  year 
1870  saw  the  introduction  of  a  legislative  council  composed  of  membere  partly 
nominated,  partly  elected  ;  but  it  was  not  imtil  October  21, 1890,  that  the  previous 
crown  colony  joined  the  ranks  of  the  other  colonies  on  equal  terms.  Its  council 
contains  twenty-four  members,  the  assembly  forty-four,  all  of  whom  are  elected. 
The  development  of  Western  Australia  has  only  quite  lately  been  more  rapid, 
since  large  gold  fields  of  gi-eat  extent  were  discovered  in  1887.  The  population, 
numbering  in  1881  barely  thirty  thousand  souls,  has  increased,  almost  entirely 
through  immigration,  to  nearly  two  hundred  thousand.  The  internal  development 
of  the  colonies  was  early  accompanied  by  the  efTort  to  spread  the  power  of  Aus- 
tralia beyond  the  limits  of  the  continent.  This  was  noticeable  as  far  back  as  1869 
in  the  opening  of  the  Fiji  question  (vide  p.  310) ;  but  no  real  oversea  expansion 
took  place  before  1883.  Notwithstanding  the  position  of  New  Guinea  in  the 
immediate  \-icinity  of  Australia,  neither  the  colonies  nor  England  itself  had  ever 
showed  any  inclination  to  acquire  teiTitory  there.  It  was  only  about  the  middle 
of  the  "  seventies,"  when  rumours  of  Germany's  intentions  on  the  immense  island 
were  rife,  that  the  Australians  remembered  its  proximity,  and  Xew  South  Wales 
suggested  offhand  the  incorporation  of  that  part  of  New  Guinea  which  was  not 
subject  to  Dutch  suzerainty.  England  assented,  on  the  stipulation  that  the  Aus- 
tralians bore  the  cost  of  administration  ;  that  they  refused.  The  question,  however, 
was  still  discussed  in  Australia,  and  when  the  Germans  really  threatened  to  take 
steps,  the  premier  of  Queensland,  on  his  own  responsibility,  declared  that  he  had 
taken  possession  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  island  in  March,  1883.  England 
then  shrimk  from  placing  the  destiny  of  so  large  a  territory  in  the  hands  of  the 
small  population  of  Queensland,  although  the  Australian  Colonial  Conference  in 
December  was  in  favour  of  the  acquisition.  MeanwliUe  Germany  actually  took 
possession  of  the  north  of  the  island,  and  England  was  obliged  to  content  herself, 
on  November  6,  1884,  with  the  southeast  alone.  At  the  present  day  British  Xew 
Guinea  is  an  English  crown  colony,  and  Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  and 
Victoria  contribute  a  fixed  sum  yearly  toward  the  cost  of  administration ;  its  ad- 
ministrator communicates  with  the  English  colonial  office  through  the  agency  of 
the  governor  of  Queensland. 

Regarded  from  the  Australian  standpoint,  this  first  step  toward  an  international 
policy  marks  a  failure.  The  colonies  have  always  felt  it  to  be  so  ;  to  the  present 
day  the  tone  of  their  press  is,  on  the  whole,  anti-German.  They  have  not  attempted 
any  further  practical  realisation  of  their  colonising  dreams.     British  New  Guinea 


298  HISTORY    OF    THF.    WORLD         \_ciu,pter  iii 

may  be  considered  an  aiijianage  of  Queensland;  far  distant  Pitcairn,  Lord  Howe 
Island,  and,  since  1S96,  Norfolk  Island  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  New  South 
Wales ;  that  is  the  entire  transmarine  territory.  All  the  more  strongly  during  the 
last  two  decades  have  signs  been  shown  of  an  effort  to  influence  in  favour  of  Aus- 
tralia that  part  of  the  British  foreign  policy  which  touches  the  very  extended  sphere 
of  Australian  interests ;  thus  in  the  Samoa  question  (p.  324).  England  could  not 
meet  the  wishes  of  Germany  and  the  United  States  of  America,  simply  because 
Australian  interests  would  presumably  be  prejudiced  by  so  doing.  The  cry  for  a 
"  gieater  Australia  "  is  already  ringing  in  men's  ears. 

(e)  The  Steps  toward  Federation.  —  The  idea  of  a  political  union  of  all  the 
Australian  colonies  is  as  old  as  the  efforts  for  expansion.  As  far  back  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  "  fifties  "  a  universal  Australian  jiarliament  was  proposed  in  order  to 
settle  the  question  of  tariffs ;  the  house  of  lords,  however,  rejected  the  bill.  There 
was,  besides,  in  Australia  itself,  both  then  and  later,  little  feeling  in  favour  of  such 
federation.  It  was  only  in  1871,  after  the  establishment  of  a  wllverciii  in  Canada, 
that  the  idea  of  such  a  union  found  strong  support  in  Australia.  There  was,  how- 
ever, a  difficult)'  in  the  way.  The  most  practical  step  toward  tariff  federation 
would  be  that  individual  colonies  should  come  to  agreements  for  reciprocal  reduc- 
tion of  the  duties  on  goods  imported  from  one  to  the  other.  The  colonial  otlice 
has  always  upheld  the  principle  that  one  part  of  the  empire  should  not  be  allowed 
to  differentiate  between  the  rest  in  its  tariff  regulations.  It  was,  therefore,  inti- 
mated that  no  partial  customs  union  would  be  sanctioned  by  the  mother  country  ; 
but  that  a  scheme  for  a  customs  union  of  all  the  colonies  would  be  favourably  con- 
sidered. This  was  an  intelligible  point  of  view  ;  but  it  may  be  criticised  as  showing 
a  want  of  faith  in  the  future. 

At  length,  in  1873,  under  the  first  ministry  of  W.  E.  Gladstone,  the  colonies 
obtained  their  point,  that  the  prohibition  against  differentiated  tariffs  should  be  re- 
moved. From  that  date  the  several  colonies  were  free  to  give  each  other  s])ecially 
favourable  tariffs,  or  to  isolate  themselves.  Uniformity  of  tariffs  was  obligatory 
when  dealing  with  England  or  foreign  States.  This  measure  was  hardly  more  than 
a  step  toward  the  desired  goal.  Greater  imanimity  among  the  individual  colonies 
was  necessary  before  that  goal  could  be  reached.  It  was  utit  until  1884,  after  the 
encroachment  of  Germany  upon  the  Australian  sphere  of  interests,  thai  a  further 
step  was  taken.  This  time  it  was  decided  to  form  a  "  federal  council,"  which 
should  discuss  the  common  interests  of  Australia,  without  interfering  in  the  affairs 
of  the  several  colonies.  But  although  the  majority  of  the  colonies  were  represented, 
and  the  council  actually  held  some  sittings,  no  results  ensued. 

At  the  instance  of  Sir  Henry  Parkes,  the  prime  minister  of  New  South  Wales, 
a  conference  met  in  1890  and  1891,  first  in  !\Ielbourne,  then  in  Sydney,  at  which  the 
five  Australian  -colonies,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand,  were  represented  by  their 
premiers.  After  long  discussions,  a  "  bill  to  constitute  the  Commonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia" was  finally  drafted;  and  after  the  colonial  representatives  had  met  for  sev- 
eral successive  year.s,  it  was  adopted,  though  not  without  considerable  alterations,  by 
six  out  of  the  seven  colonie.s,  received  the  royal  assent  on  July  9, 1900,  and  came  into 
force  on  January  1, 1901.  The  name  of  the  new  federation  is  the  "  Commonwealth 
of  Australia,"  It  comprises  at  present  all  the  Australian  colonies  and  Tasmania ; 
New  Zealand  has  not  yet  joined  it.     According  to  the  constitution  promulgated  on 


^;«;t'''"'"']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  299 

September  17,  1900,  the  legislative  power  rests  with  a  government  which  consists 
of  a  governor-general,  representing  the  crown,  a  senate,  and  a  house  of  representa- 
tives. The  senate  consists  of  six  members  for  each  State ;  the  house  of  represen- 
tatives contains  at  present  one  member  to  every  tifty  thousand  inhabitants,  with  a 
minimum  of  live  members  for  each  State,  so  that  according  to  the  last  census  New 
South  Wales  has  twenty-six  seats,  Victoria  twenty-three,  Queensland  nine,  South 
Australia  seven,  Tasmania  and  Western  Australia,  five  seats  each.  The  senate  is 
elected  for  six  years,  the  house  of  representatives  for  three  years ;  but  the  latter 
may  be  at  any  time  dissolved  by  the  governor-general.  The  legislative  powers  of  the 
federal  government  extend  to  customs  duties  and  excise,  public  expenditure,  trade 
and  quarantine,  military  and  naval  defence,  beside  the  settlement  of  disputes  between 
masters  and  workmen.  There  is  one  power  which  calls  for  special  notice ;  it  is  that  of 
settling  the  relations  between  the  commonwealth  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  The 
Pacific  question  is  the  one  question  of  foreign  policy  by  which  the  Australian  col- 
onists feel  that  their  interests  are  immediately  touched.  They  are  likely,  therefore, 
to  put  a  high  value  on  this  power,  while  at  the  same  time  the  crown  is  amply  pro- 
tected against  its  abuse.  For  every  law  passed  by  the  commonwealth  requires  the 
assent  of  the  crown,  and  can  be  rejected,  within  a  year  of  its  acceptance  by  the 
Australian  parliament,  by  the  governor-general  as  representing  the  crown.  The 
highest  court  of  justice  is  the  high  court  of  Australia ;  appeals  from  this  can  be 
made  to  a  court  of  appeal  attached  to  the  privy  council,  in  which  Canada,  South 
Africa,  and  India,  are  each  represented  by  one  judge.  The  Earl  of  Hopetoun  was 
appointed  first  governor-general,  but  he  resigned  his  office  in  May,  1902. 

Since  the  new  federal  government  has  come  into  force,  Australia  has  entered 
on  a  completely  new  stage  of  its  chequered  development.  The  founding  of  the 
commonwealth  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  step  in  the  history  of  the  con- 
tinent. Even  the  subjects  of  his  Britannic  Majesty,  who  do  not  see  any  danger  to 
the  integrity  of  the  empire  in  the  federation  of  the  colonies,  cannot  deny  that  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  commonwealth  will  henceforth  strike  out  wider  and  distinctly 
more  independent  paths.  The  great  importance  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  for  the  history 
of  mankind,  especially  in  the  future,  is  beyond  question  (cf.  Vol.  I,  p.  598).  Aus- 
tralia is  faced  by  a  historical  future ;  if  it  even  onlj^  half  realises  the  part  it  has  to 
play,  it  will  take  a  more  energetic  part  in  the  Pacific  than  it  has  taken  during  the 
last  decades.  The  first  indication  of  this  new  departure  may  be  found  in  the  pro- 
posal made  by  the  premiers,  that  the  federal  government  should  undertake  the 
administration  of  British  New  Guinea.  For  a  long  time  certainly,  the  policy  of 
Greater  Australia  wiU  be  a  British  policy  ;  yet  it  is  a  question  whether  the  change 
of  geographical  and  economic  conditions,  such  as  will  be  effected  by  the  completion 
of  the  Central  American  canal,  will  not  be  strong  enough  to  shake  the  ancient 
loyalty,  and  to  show  to  the  policy  of  the  new  commonwealth  paths  which  lie  far 
from  the  old  direction  and  away  from  the  interests  of  the  mother  country. 

6.     OCEANIA  AS  PAET   OF   THE  INHABITED   WOELD 
A.    The  Position,  Size,  axd  Distributiox  of  the  Islands 

From  a  geographical  point  of  \'iew  Oceania  is  a  unique  feature  of  the  surface 
of  the  globe.     In  the  first  place  it  is  of  enormous  size.     From  the  Pelew  Islands 


300  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chaj^te,- ni 

in  the  west  to  Easter  Island,  or  Sala  y  Gomez,  in  the  east  it  stretches  over  120 
ilej^ees  <.)f  longitude,  that  is  to  say.  over  fully  a  third  of  the  circumference  of 
the  earth,  and  from  Hawaii  in  the  north  to  New  Zealand  in  the  south  it  covers 
SO  degrees  of  latitude ;  it  resembles,  therefore,  in  this  respect  the  giant  continent 
of  Asia,  while  with  its  entire  area  of  27,000,000  square  miles  it  is  nearly  half  as 
large  again. 

The  distribution  of  the  "  world  of  islands  "  within  this  enormous  space  is  most 
uneven.  Speaking  generally,  the  islands  are  less  densely  clustered  and  smaller  in 
size  as  one  goes  from  west  to  east.  Alelanesia  indeed  does  not  include  many  large 
islands,  but  it  includes  New  Guinea,  a  country  whicli  is  not  only  twice  as  large  as 
all  the  other  islands  of  Oceania  put  together  (320,000  square  mUes  to  177,000 
S(juare  miles),  but  represents  the  largest  insular  formation  on  the  globe.  The 
Bismarck  archipelago  and  the  Solomon  group  contain  islands  which  in  size 
far  exceed  all  the  Micronesian  and  most  of  the  Polynesian  islands ;  New  Cale- 
donia alone  is  in  area  twice  as  large  as  all  the  Polynesian  islands  put  together, 
if  Hawaii  is  omitted  (7,000  square  miles  to  4,000  square  miles).  New  Zealand, 
finally,  which  in  its  formation  cannot  be  separated  from  the  island  belt  of  Melane- 
sia, has  almost  exactly  ten  times  the  area  of  the  whole  Polynesian  realm  of  islands 
including  Hawaii  (_106,000  square  miles  to  11,000  square  miles).  Melanesia,  as 
a  glance  at  the  map  will  show,  forms  the  inner  of  the  two  great  belts  of  island 
groups,  which  curve  in  a  thin  line  round  the  continent  of  Australia,  while  the 
outer  belt  contains  all  Micronesia  and  West  Polynesia.  But  between  the  island 
clusters  of  Melanesia,  in  spite  of  their  considerable  area  and  their  dense  grouping 
on  a  narrow  periphery,  stretch  broad  expanses  of  sea.  How  thinly  scattered,  tlien, 
miLSt  be  tlie  islets  of  Micronesia  and  Polynesia  with  their  insignificant  area,  over 
the  vast  waters  of  the  ocean  ! 

This  isolation  is  the  main  feature  in  their  distribution.  Our  maps  of  the 
Pacific  are  always  on  a  very  small  scale  and  cannot  bring  out  this  peculiarity.  The 
Caroline  Islands,  to  give  an  instance,  do  not  indeed  ajijiear  on  them  as  a  dense 
cluster,  but  still  show  clearly  how  close  their  interconnection  is.  Including  the 
Pelews  they  comprise  forty-nine  islands  and  atolls,  whose  total  area  is  six  hun- 
dred square  miles ;  or,  to  give  an  English  parallel,  almost  ]>recisely  the  area  of 
Monmouthshire.  Tliis  is  certainly  not  much  in  itself,  and  how  infinitely  small 
it  appears  when  distributed  over  the  expanse  of  sea  which  is  framed  by  the 
archipelago.  Stretcliing  over  thirty-two  degrees  of  longitude  and  nine  degrees  of 
latitude  it  almost  precisely  covers  the  same  area  as  tlie  Mediterranean,  namely  one 
hundred  thousand  square  miles.  We  are  therefore  dealing  with  magnitudes  which 
practically  allow  of  no  comparison,  and  all  the  more  so,  since  of  tliose  six  hundred 
square  miles  five  islands,  which,  it  may  be  remarked,  are  the  only  ones  of  non- 
coralline  formation,  contain  more  than  two-thirds.  The  small  remainder  is  distrib- 
uted over  forty-four  atolls,  hardly  rising  aliove  the  level  of  tlie  sea,  which  with 
their  average  size  of  one  square  mile  literally  disappear  in  that  vast  waste  of  waters. 
The  case  is  the  same  with  the  majority  of  the  Micronesian  and  Polynesian  archi- 
pelagoes. Even  if  the  distribution  is  not  so  thin  as  that  of  the  Caroline  Islands, 
still  the  insignificance  of  the  land  surface  in  comparison  with  the  sea  is;  shown  by 
the  fact  that  the  Spaniards  in  the  sixteenth  century  cruised  for  tens  of  years 
up  and  down  the  south  seas  without  sighting  more  than  a  few  islands,  and 
those  only  which  formed  part  of  the  densest  clusters. 


Australia  ami 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  301 


This  distribution  of  its  homes  over  so  vast  a  region  has  been  of  the  greatest 
importance  for  the  population  of  Oceania.  In  the  first  place,  it  could  onl)'  reach 
its  ultimate  home  by  navigation;  and,  besides  that,  it  was  impossible  to  form 
and  maintain  any  relations  with  neighbours  by  any  other  means  of  communi- 
cation. One  result  of  this  was  that  the  natives  in  general  had  attained  a  high 
degree  of  skill  in  seamanship  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans; 
another  that  they  showed  a  marvellous  disregard  of  distances  and  a  mobility 
most  unusual  among  primitive  races.  Not  one  among  all  the  peoples  of  the 
earth  can  compare  with  the  Oceanians  in  all  these  respects.  The  clumsy 
Melanesians,  it  is  true,  remain  in  the  background ;  but  where  can  we  find  ships 
to  compare  in  grace  and  seaworthiness  with  those  of  Polynesia  or  Micronesia  ? 
or  voyages  so  extended  as  those  of  the  Pacific  races  ?  and  what  pirimitive  people 
can  point  to  colonisation  so  wide  and  so  effective  as  the  Polynesian  ?  And 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  tliat  all  these  astounding  performances  were  executed 
by  races  who  knew  nothing  of  iron  until  quite  recent  times,  and  were  restricted  to 
stone,  wood,  and  shells. 

B.    The  Configuration  of  the  Islands 

The  configuration  of  the  islands  in  the  South  Sea  has  exercised  as  great 
an  influence  on  the  racial  life  as  the  geographical  distribution  and  the  size. 
According  to  the  degree  of  their  visibility  from  the  open  sea  the  realm  of  islands 
is  divided  into  high  (mainly  volcanic)  and  low  (or  coral)  islands.  There  is 
no  sharp  local  differentiation  of  the  two  groups  within  the  vast  region.  Some 
archipelagoes  indeed,  such  as  the  Tuamotu,  Gilbert,  and  Marshall  islands,  are 
purely  coral  constructions;  others  again,  like  all  the  remaining  gi-oups  of  East 
and  West  Polynesia,  are  high  islands.  But,  generally  speaking,  the  fact  remains 
that  coralline  formations,  whether  fringing  reefs  or  barrier  reefs,  are  the  constant 
feature  of  the  high  islands.  This  is  also  the  case  with  the  five  high  islands  of  the 
Carolines. 

This  peculiar  arrangement,  as  well  as  the  configuration  of  the  islands,  has  in 
various  points  greatly  influenced  the  Oceanians  and  their  historical  evolution. 
In  the  first  place  the  labour  of  the  coral  insects  always  increases  the  size  of 
.  the  land.  This  is  most  clearly  seen  in  the  atolls ;  the  reef-building  capacity 
of  those  insects  has  produced  the  whole  extent  of  those  dwelling  places  for  man. 
The  activity  of  the  corals,  though  less  in  itself,  is  more  varied  in  its  effect  in  the 
case  of  the  high  islands  surrounded  by  reefs.  First,  the  beach  is  widened  and  thus 
the  entire  economic  position  of  the  islanders  is  improved.  The  fertile  delta  of  tlie 
Kewa  on  Vita  Levu,  as  well  as  the  strips  of  shore  from  half  a  mile  to  two  miles 
broad  which  border  the  Tahiti  islands,  lie  on  old  reefs.  These  themselves  are, 
wherever  they  occur,  the  best  fishing  grounds;  besides  this,  they  always  form 
excellent  harbours  and  channels,  —  a  most  important  point  for  seafarers  like  the 
Oceanians.  The  seamanship  and  bold  navigation  of  this  racial  group  has  thus  been 
markedly  affected  by  the  acti\-ity  of  diminutive  molluscs. 

The  great  poverty  of  the  islands  as  a  whole  has  been  an  important  factor  in 
their  history.  From  a  distance  they  appear  like  earthly  Paradises,  but  on  lauding 
the  traveller  finds  that  even  the  most  picturesque  of  them  offers  little  to  man. 
Barely  one  per  cent  of  the  surface  of  the  coral  islands  is  productive;  in  the 


302  HISTCM^V    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter in 

majority  of  the  larger  volcanic  islands,  the  fertile  soil  does  not  amount  to  more 
than  a  quarter,  or  according  to  some  authorities  not  more  than  an  eighth,  of  the 
entire  surface.  There  is  also  often  an  entire  lack  of  fresh  water.  Under  such 
circumstances  the  possibility  of  settlement  is  confined  within  narrow  limits ;  if  the 
population  exceeds  a  definite  figure,  there  is  imminent  risk  of  death  from  starva- 
tion or  thirst.  The  South  Sua  Islanders  are  therefore,  in  the  first  place,  prone  to 
wander ;  in  the  second  place  they  adopt  the  cruel  custom  of  infanticide,  in  order  to 
check  the  growth  of  the  population. 

A  third  result  of  tlie  poverty  of  the  islands,  and  one  which  is  important  for  the 
geographical  aspect  of  the  settlements,  is  the  limitation  of  the  habitable  region 
to  the  outer  edge  of  the  islands.  This  peculiarity  is  on  the  atolls  a  necessary 
consequence  of  their  circular  shape ;  but  it  is  the  rule  also  among  the  high  islands, 
even  the  largest  of  them.  Even  in  New  Guinea  itself,  that  immense  island,  with 
its  enormous  superficial  development,  the  coast  districts  seem  to  be  distinctly  more 
densely  inhabited  than  the  interior.  This  is  the  most  striking  fact  about  the  dis- 
tribution of  animal  and  vegetable  life  in  Oceania.  The  land  is  poor,  the  sea,  the 
only  means  of  communication,  is  rich  in  every  form  of  life. 

C.    The  Climate  of  Oceania 

The  povertj-  of  this  world  of  islands  is  partly  connected  with  the  nature  of  the 
soil  and  the  enormous  distances,  which  most  organisms  cannot  cross,  but  partly 
also  with  the  climate.  If  we  leave  out  of  consideration  New  Zealand,  which 
extends  into  temperate  latitudes,  Oceania  possesses  a  tropical  climate  tempered  by 
the  surrounding  ocean.  The  temperatures  are  not  excessive  even  for  Europeans. 
But  uniformity  is  tlieir  chief  feature;  the  diurnal  and  annual  range  is  limited 
to  a  few  degrees  Celsius. 

The  diflerences  in  the  rainfall  are  more  marked.  Although  generally  ample, 
in  places  amounting  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  or  three  hundred  inches  in  tlie  year, 
it  is  almost  completely  wanting  in  parts  of  that  vast  region,  whiuh  are  so  dry  that 
extensive  guano  beds  can  be  formed.  The  contrasts  in  the  rainfall  on  the  several 
groups  and  islands  are  the  more  striking,  since  they  are  confined  to  a  smaller  space. 
These  are  nut  of  course  noticeable  on  the  flat  coral  islands,  which  scarcely  project 
a  couple  of  yards  above  the  sea;  but  the  elevation  of  the  high  islands  into  the 
moister  strata  of  the  atmosphere  presupposes  a  strong  difl'ereutiation  between 
the  weather  side  and  the  lee  side.  The  side  sheltered  from  the  wind  escapes  the 
rain.  These  two  sides  do  not  face  the  same  points  of  the  compass  throughout 
the  whole  Pacific  Ocean.  Its  western  part,  as  far  as  the  Solomons,  belongs  to  the 
region  of  the  West  Pacific  monsoon ;  the  east,  however,  is  the  definite  region  of 
the  trade-winds.  As  a  result,  in  the  east  on  the  islands  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere the  east  and  south  sides,  but  on  those  of  the  northern  hemisphere  the  east 
and  north  sides,  are  covered  with  the  most  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation,  while 
on  the  lee  side  the  true  barrenness  of  the  soil  shows  itself.  In  the  west  of  the 
ocean  the  position  of  affairs  is  almost  reversed. 

The  effects  of  this  climate  on  the  development  of  the  culture  and  history  of  the 
Oceanian  are  at  once  seen  in  the  difference  of  temperament  and  character  between 
the  wild  and  energetic,  yet  politically  capable,  Maori  on  far  distant  New  Zealand 
with  its  bracing  Alpine  air,  and  his  not  ungifted,  but  indolent  and   politically 


ilSH^f"^]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  303 

sterile  northern  kinsmen,  who  have  been  unnerved  by  the  unvaiying  uniformity  of 
temperature.  On  the  other  hand  the  steadiness  of  the  meteorological  conditions 
has  allowed  the  Oceanians  to  develop  into  the  best  seamen  among  primitive  races. 
Wliere,  as  in  Oceania,  one  can  be  certain  of  the  weather  often  for  months  in 
advance,  it  is  easier,  from  inclination  or  necessity,  to  venture  on  an  excursion  into 
the  unknown  than  iu  regions  where  the  next  hour  may  upset  all  calculations. 
The  regularity  of  the  winds  and  currents  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  (see  the  map  in 
Vol  I,  p.  567)  has  played  a  great  part  in  the  theories  that  have  been  formed  about 
the  Polynesian  migrations ;  in  fact  most  of  them  are  absolutely  based  upon  them. 
Thanks  to  geographical  exploration,  we  now  know  that  this  regularity  is  by  no 
means  so  universal  as  used  to  be  assumed,  that  on  the  contrary  in  these  regions 
also,  the  wind  veers  with  the  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure  and  the  currents 
with  the  wind.  Here  also  from  time  to  time  deviations  from  the  usually  prevailing 
direction,  that  is,  from  the  eastern  quadrants,  are  to  be  noticed.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  are  indebted  to  the  spread  of  etlinographical  investigation  for  the  know- 
ledge that  the  seamanship  of  the  Polynesians  not  only  extended  to  sailing  with  the 
wind,  but  that  an  occasional  tacking  against  it  was  not  outside  the  limit  of  their 
nautical  skill.  The  ocean  and  its  meteorology  thus  lose  some  of  their  value  as 
sources  furnishing  an  answer  to  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  Polynesians,  in 
comparison  with  anthropological  and  ethnographical  evidence ;  but  it  would  be  at 
any  rate  premature  to  disregard  them  altogether.  Even  if  skilful  use  of  the  last- 
mentioned  methods  of  inquiry  is  likely  to  solve  the  problem  of  origin,  the  other 
and  almost  equally  important  question  of  distribution  over  the  whole  ocean  can 
only  be  answered  by  giving  full  weight  to  geographical  considerations. 

D.    The  Flora  of  Oceania 

The  main  feature  of  the  flora  of  Oceania  is  its  dependence  on  the  region  of  the 
southeast  Asiatic  monsoon.  This  feature  is  very  marked  in  Melanesia ;  but  further 
toward  the  east  it  gradually  disappears,  while  the  number  of  varieties  generally 
diminishes.  Strangely  enough,  it  is  this  very  scantiness  that  has  proved  of  such 
importance  for  the  history  of  the  Oceanian.  The  Melanesian,  surrounded  by  a 
luxuriaut  wealth  of  vegetation,  dreams  away  his  existence  and  leaves  no  history ; 
his  wants  are  supplied  by  the  unfailing  store  of  the  ocean  or  the  rich  forest.  We 
first  find  a  historical  life  in  the  Fiji  archipelago,  where  nature  is  less  prodigal. 
The  inhabitant  of  Polynesia  and  Micronesia  has  not  been  so  spoilt.  Scantily 
endowed  with  fertile  soil  and  edible  plants,  he  is  confronted  by  the  wide  ocean, 
which  he  has  nevertheless  learnt  to  subdue.  Although  he  did  not  possess  a  single 
tree  which  could  furnish  him  with  seaworthy  timber,  he  became  a  craftsman, 
whose  skill  compensated  for  the  deficiencies  of  nature.  But  by  so  doing  he  had  in 
one  direction  freed  himself  from  the  constraint  of  nature,  and  nothing  could  hinder 
him  from  mastering  her  in  another.  Progress  in  technical  skiU  has  always  been 
the  first  step  toward  every  other  form  of  progress,  including  the  annihilation  of 
distance. 

Nevertheless,  the  Polynesians  would  not  have  been  able  to  extend  their  wan- 
derings so  widely,  had  not  nature,  so  niggard  in  everything  else,  given  them  further 
support  in  the  shape  of  the  cocoanut  palm.  Its  seeds,  together  with  those  of  a  few 
other  plants,  can  cross  spaces  as  vast  as  the  distances  between  the  Pacific  islands 


304  HISTC^RV    OF    TIIF    WORLD         la.aj>hr  ni 

without  losing  their  genuinative  power;  thus  these  seeds  have  been  the  first 
condition  of  the  diffusion  of  the  Polynesians  over  the  wide  realm  of  islands.  It  is 
only  recently  that  other  food  plants  have  become  more  important  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  islanders  than  the  cocoanuts. 

^^^lat  we  have  said  does  not  apply  to  New  Zealand.  Just  as  the  country 
climatically  is  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  island  world,  so  its  flora  bears  an 
essentially  different  stamp.  It  is  unusually  varied,  and  the  number  of  species  can 
be  counted  by  the  thousand.  Only  two  plants,  however,  have  proved  of  value  to 
the  aborigines ;  the  rarauhe  (Pteris  esculenta),  a  fern  with  an  edible  root,  and  the 
harakeke  or  New  Zealand  flax  (Pliorviium  teim.r).  The  value  attached  to  it 
by  the  first  Europeans  and  their  consequent  efforts  to  obtain  it  led  to  the  first 
friendly  intercourse  between  the  Maoris  and  the  whites. 

E.  The  Fauna  of  Oceania 

The  characteristic  of  the  fauna  of  Oceania  is  its  poverty  in  mammals  and  ani- 
mals of  service  to  man,  in  the  east  even  more  than  in  the  west.  Even  the  dingo 
(p.  239),  which  the  wretched  native  of  Australia  could  make  his  somewhat  dubious 
companion,  has  not  been  vouchsafed  by  nature  to  the  Oceanian.  It  is  only  in 
quite  modern  times  that  the  kindness  of  foreigners  has  supplied  the  old  deficiency 
by  the  introduction  of  European  domestic  animals.  New  Zealand  was  once  rich 
in  the  species  and  number  of  its  large  fauna.  Many  varieties  of  the  nioa  {dinornis), 
some  of  gigantic  size  (the  largest  species  measured  thirteen  feet  in  height),  roamed 
the  vast  plains.  At  the  present  day  it  is  one  of  the  long  extinct  classes,  having 
fallen  a  victim  to  the  insatiable  craving  of  the  Maori  for  flesh  food.  It  is  easy  to 
understand  that  the  small  islands  are  poor  in  animal  life,  for  with  their  scanty 
space  they  could  not  afford  the  larger  creatures  any  means  of  existence.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  poverty  of  the  fauna  of  New  Guinea  is  more  surprising ;  notwith- 
standing the  tropical  luxuriance  of  its  soil,  its  fauna  is  even  more  scanty  than  that 
of  Australia.     The  pig  alone  has  proved  valuable  to  the  population. 

The  result  of  this  limited  fauna,  as  reflected  in  an  ethnographically  important 
phenomenon,  has  been  of  much  consequence  in  the  historical  development  of  the 
races  of  Polynesia  and  Micronesia.  The  races  which  live  principall)'  on  islands 
of  very  small  size  are  at  the  present  day  either  entirely  without  bows  and  arrows 
as  weapons  or  they  retain  them  merely  as  a  survival.  Oskar  Peschel  traced  this 
back  to  the  want  of  opportunity  for  practice,  which  is  more  essential  for  the  bow 
than  for  any  other  weapon.  This  opportunity  could  never  have  been  verj'  frequent, 
even  if  the  supply  of  game  had  been  ample  at  the  time  of  the  emigration  of  the 
himters.  The  loss  of  any  weapon  which  would  kUl  at  a  distance  must  naturally 
have  appreciably  altered  the  tactics  of  the  islanders.  It  is  true  that  on  some 
groups  of  islands  fighting  at  close  (juarters,  which  all  primitive  peoples  dread,  was 
avoided  by  the  adoption  of  the  slingstone  or  the  throwing  club  in  place  of  the 
arrow ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  transition  to  hand-to-Iiand  fighting  with  spear,  axe,  or 
club  was  inevitable.  This  always  denotes  an  improvement  in  tactics,  as  is  shown 
by  llie  classic  example  of  the  Zulus  of  South  Africa,  who,  merely  from  the  method 
of  attack  in  close  order  introduced  by  Tchaka  (vide  Vol.  Ill,  p.  437)  and  the  use  of 
the  stabbing  sjiear  as  the  decisive  weapon,  won  the  foremost  place  in  the  southeast 
of  the  dark  continent.     In  Polynesia  the  new  method  of  fighting  certainly  con- 


SPECIMENS   OF   MELANESIAN   CAEVING 

Fig.  1.   Dancing  mask  from  New  Ireland;  with  enormous  wing-like  ears,  carved  in  wood  and 

brightly  painted. 

Fig.  2.    Dancing  mask  from  New  Ireland ;  helmet-shaped,  with  large  crest. 

Fig.  3.  Dancing  mask  from  New  Ireland;  unusually  realistic,  representing  a  typical  Mela- 
nesian  with  his  face  painted  red  and  white. 

Fig.  4.  Carving  from  the  Solomon  Islands  ;  head  and  arms  of  a  male  figure,  inlaid  with 
mother-of-pearl.     The  prow  ornament  of  a  boat. 

Fig.  5.  A  large  dancing  mask  from  New  Ireland,  with  wide  spreading  wings  in  the  shape  of 
fishes  instead  of  ears.  The  hair,  whitened  with  chalk  according  to  the  native  custom,  is  repre- 
sented by  yellowish  stalks  of  pith. 

Fig.  6.  Dancing  mask  from  New  Ireland,  helmet-shaped.  A  small  cock  is  seen  between  the 
teeth  of  the  face  of  the  mask,  a  second  stands  on  the  top  of  the  head. 

Fig.  7.  Carved  pole  from  New  Ireland.  On  the  top,  a  human  figure,  with  large  wing-shaped 
ears,  which  is  holding  a  bird  in  its  hands  and  pressing  it  to  its  breast ;  on  its  face  are  painted 
lizards,  two  black  and  one  white  ;  beneath,  snakes,  birds,  and  fishes. 

Fig.  8.  Carved  pole  from  New  Ireland  ;  probably  in  memory  of  a  woman  who  died  in 
childbirth. 

(Of.  F.  V.  Luschan,  "  Beitriige  zur  Vblkerkunde  der  deutschen  Schutzgebiete. "    Berlin,  1897.) 

Fig.  9.  Carving  from  New  Ireland  ;  showing  a  large  eagle,  which  grips  a  snake.  Probably 
a  symbolic  representation  of  heaven  and  earth,  to  be  compared  with  the  Indian  Gardda  with 
the  Nagas. 

Fig.  10.  Carved  and  painted  plank  from  New  Ireland;  in  the  centre  a  human  figure  between 
two  fishes.    Cf.  Fig.  2  of  the  coloured  plate  "  Specimens  of  Micronesian  Carving." 

(The  originals  of  all  the  objects  represented  on  this  plate  are  in  the  Royal  Ethnological  Museum 

at  Berlin.) 


/.unJuii.'  ir«  //tiiitmuiiii 


(PflTlly  from  F.  V.  LuBchan's  "BcitriiBe  > 


SPECIMENS  OF  MELANESlAN  CARVING 


AVui   I'ort;  llo.l.i.  thad  i  C"- 


/^> 


^nt""""]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  '         305 

tributed  to  that  bloodiness  of  the  battles  (both  among  the  natives  themselves  and 
against  the  whites),  which  distinguishes  its  history  from  that  of  all  other  primitive 
races.  The  political  consequences,  from  want  of  any  suitable  antagonist,  could 
naturally  not  be  so  important  here  as  in  South  Africa.  Nevertheless,  the  compar- 
atively rigid  organisation  of  the  majority  of  the  Polynesians  is  certainly  to  a  large 
degree  the  result  of  their  tactics. 

7.    THE   POPULATION   OF   OCEANIA 
A.  The  Anthropological  Position  of  the  Oceanians 

Ethnology  separates  the  population  of  Oceania  into  three  large  groups :  the 
Melanesians,  who  inhabit  the  inner  belt  of  coast  from  New  Gumea  to  New  Cale- 
donia and  Fiji ;  the  Microuesians,  on  the  Caroline,  Marianne,  Pelew,  Marshall,  and 
Gilbert  islands,  and  the  Polynesians,  who  inhabit  the  rest  of  the  great  world  of 
islands,  including  New  Zealand. 

The  question  of  the  racial  position,  the  connection,  and  the  origin,  of  these 
three  groups  has  occupied  scientific  inquiry  since  the  early  days  of  their  discovery, 
and  has  created  a  truly  enormous  literature,  although  no  thoroughly  satisfactory 
solution  has  hitherto  been  found.  So  far  as  the  Melanesians  are  concerned,  the 
question  is  indeed  to  be  regarded  as  settled,  since  no  one  at  the  present  day  feels 
any  doubt  of  their  connection  with  the  great  negroid  group  of  nations  (ride  Fig.  3 
of  the  accompanying  plate,  "  Melanesian  Carvings").  Even  on  the  subject  of  the 
Micronesians  there  is  a  general  consensus  of  opinion  that  they  can  no  longer  be 
contrasted  with  the  Polynesians.  They  are  seen  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Polynesians, 
and  that  branch  indeed  which,  on  account  of  the  close  proximity  of  Melanesia,  has 
received  the  largest  percentage  of  negroid. elements. 

Thus  it  is  only  the  Polynesian  question  which  awaits  its  solution.  Nothing 
supports  the  view  that  the  Polynesians  grew  up  in  their  present  homes.  Such  a 
theory  is  impossible  on  purely  geographical  gi'ounds.  We  are  left,  therefore,  witli 
immigration  from  outside.  The  claims  of  America  on  the  one  hand,  of  Indonesia 
on  the  other,  to  be  the  cradle  of  the  Polynesian  race,  have  each  their  supporters. 
Under  the  stress  of  more  modern  views  on  the  penetration  and  wanderings  of 
nations,  the  disputants  have  agieed  in  recognising  a  ph}sical  and  linguistic  connec- 
tion with  the  one  region  (Indonesia),  without,  however,  denying  ethnical  relations 
with  the  other  region  (America).  The  racial  affinity  of  the  Polynesians  with  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Malay  archipelago  is  firmly  established  on  the  strength  of 
physical  and  linguistic  resemblances.  There  is  more  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  nature  and  amount  of  the  foreign  admixture.  As  matters  stand,  a  negi'oid 
admixture  can  alone  enter  into  ttie  question.  Even  those  who  believe  in  the 
former  racial  purity  of  the  Polynesians  must  allow  such  an  admixture  in  the  case 
of  Micronesia.  As  the  result  of  numerous  modern  observations,  it  ap]iears  probable, 
however,  that  a  similar  admixture,  exists  as  far  as  Samoa  and  still  farther ;  even 
remote  Easter  Island  does  not  appear  quite  free  from  it. 

A  multitude  of  facts  supports  also  the  ethnical  connection  of  Polynesia  with 
America.  The  faith  and  religious  customs  in  both  regions  rest  as  a  whole  on  the 
same  basis  of  animism  and  ancestor  worship.  In  both  we  find  the  same  rude  cos- 
mogony, the  same  respect  for  the  tribal  symbol,  and  the  same  cycle  of  myths,  to 


300  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [ri,a,,t,r  in 

say  nothing  of  the  numerous  coincidences  in  the  character  of  material  culture 
possessed  by  them,  and  in  the  want  of  iron  common  to  both.  Ethnology,  in  face 
of  these  coincidences,  is  in  a  ditticult  pt>sition.  Few  ethnologists  still  venture  to 
think  of  any  direct  migration  from  America.  It  is  certain  that  the  Polynesians 
■were  bold  sailors,  and  often  covered  long  stretches  in  their  wanderings,  voluntary 
or  involuntary  ;  but  to  sail  over  forty  to  sixty  degrees  of  longitude  without  finding 
an  opportunity  to  put  in  anywhere  would  surely  have  been  beyond  their  powers, 
and  still  more  those  of  their  forefathers. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  most  satisfactory  assumption  is  that  of  a  large 
Mongoloid  primitive  race,  whose  branches  have  occupied  the  entire  "  East"  of  the 
inhabited  world.  East  Asia,  Oceania,  and  America.  This  theorj-  extricates  us  at 
once  from  the  difficulty  of  explaining  those  coincidences ;  but  it  does  not  directly 
solve  the  problem  of  the  great  dilVerences  in  the  civilizations  belonging  to  the 
different  branches  of  the  Mongoloid  family.  It  seems  a  bold  guess  to  explain 
it  by  absorption  of  influences  of  the  surrounding  world,  but  this  theory  offers 
possibilities. 

B.    The  Wanderings  of  the  Oceanians 

The  first  really  historical  activities  of  the  Oceanians  are  their  migrations.  At 
the  present  day  they  are  the  most  migratory  people  among  the  primitive  races 
of  the  world,  and  voyages  of  more  than  a  thousand  nautical  miles  are  nothing 
unusual.  There  are  various  incentives  to  such  expeditions,  such  as  the  wish  and 
the  necessity  of  trading  with  neighbouring  tribes,  starvation,  which  is  not  infre- 
quent on  the  poor  islands,  political  disturbances,  and  a  pronounced  love  of  roaming. 
This  last  is  the  most  prominent  feature  in  the  character  of  tlie  Malayo-Polyuesiau, 
which  has,  more  than  anything  else,  scattered  this  ethnic  group  over  a  region  of 
two  hundred  and  ten  degrees  of  longitude,  from  Madagascar  to  Easter  Island,  and 
eighty  degrees  of  latitude.  Compared  with  this,  the  other  causes  of  migration 
shrink  in  general  significance,  although  locally  they  are  often  of  primary  importance 
and  have  had  great  bearing  on  history. 

The  number  of  the  journeys  known  to  us  is  not  great ;  the  interval  since  the 
opening  up  of  the  island  world  of  Oceania  is  too  slu)rl,  and  the  region  is  too 
remote.  Yet  the  number  is  sufficient  to  bring  more  than  one  characteristic  of  the 
past  history  of  these  races  clearly  before  our  eyes. 

In  the  first  place,  the  frequent  involuntary  voyages,  when  the  seafarers  were 
driven  far  out  of  their  course,  teach  us  that  the  winds  and  currents  liave  not  set 
from  east  to  west  with  that  persistency  which  old  and  celebrated  theories  main- 
tain, and  that  therefore  no  natural  phenomena  hindered  the  Polynesian  from 
spreading  from  west  to  east ;  under  these  conditions  the  way  from  the  west  as  far 
as  distant  Easter  Island  was  not  barred.  Secondly,  the  frequency  of  these  voyages 
allows  us  to  understand  the  true  character  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  no  waste  of 
waters,  where  islands  and  archipelagoes,  like  the  oases  in  a  desert,  lie  remote  and 
solitary,  but  a  sea  full  of  life,  where  the  constant  traffic  prevents  any  one  group  of 
islands  from  being  absolutely  cut  off  from  tlie  outer  world. 

The  ocean  has  not  presented  this  feature  merely  for  the  last  few  centuries :  it 
has  been  characteristic  of  it,  since  the  day  when  the  first  keel  touched  the  shores  of 
Hawaii,  New  Zealand,  and  Easter  Island.  We  have  the  evideuce  of  the  aborigines 
themselves  for  this.     Their  rich  store  of  legends  hinges  on  these  old  wanderings, 


Australia  and' 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  307 


and  as  it  deals  more  particularly  with  the  earliest  voyages,  it  gives  us  a  wel- 
come insight  into  the  original  relations  of  the  islanders  with  one  another  and  with 
the  outside  world  ;  it  is  thought  that  the  question  of  the  original  home  of  the  Poly- 
nesians might  be  solved  in  this  way.  The  part  which  the  land  of  Hawaiki  under 
its  various  names  (Sawaii,  Hawaii,  Hapai,  Hevava,  Awaiki  and  others)  plays  in  the 
ancestral  legends  of  most  Polynesians  is  familiar  even  beyond  the  circle  of  ethno- 
logists. It  recurs  among  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand,  in  Tahiti,  Kaiatea,  Rarotouga, 
the  Marquesas,  Hawaii,  and  elsewhere.  To  see  in  it  a  definite  and  limited  locality, 
from  which  the  streams  of  emigration  flowed  at  different  times  to  the  most  varied 
directions  of  the  ocean,  appears  impracticable  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  geograph- 
ical position  of  Hawaiki  is  not  accurately  fixed  in  all  the  traditions  but  varies 
considerably ;  it  even  meets  us  as  the  land  of  ghosts,  the  western  land  where  the 
souls  sink  together  with  the  sun  into  the  lower  world. 

Nevertheless,  the  investigation  of  the  primitive  period  in  Polynesian  history  is 
benefited  in  several  instances  by  tracmg  out  the  Hawaiki  myth,  especially  if  this 
task  be  supplemented  by  a  review  of  the  anthropological,  ethnographical,  and 
geogiaphieal  evidence.  We  may  then  assume  with  great  probability  that  the  island 
of  Savaii,  which  belongs  to  the  Samoa  group,  was  the  starting  point  of  the  mi- 
gi'ation  of  the  Maoris  to  New  Zealand.  Under  the  name  of  Hawaii  it  also  forms 
the  starting  point  of  the  inhabitants  of  Raiatea  and  Tahiti.  To  this  fact,  again, 
point  the  legends  of  the  Marquesas  and  Hawaii  group,  partly  also  of  Rarotonga, 
which,  on  its  side,  as  the  "  nearer  Hawaiki  "  of  tradition,  served  tlie  Maoris  as  an 
intermediate  station  on  the  way  to  New  Zealand,  whUe  it  was  a  regular  starting 
place  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  Austral  and  Gambier  islands.  A  final  start- 
ing point  was  the  Tonga  group ;  the  inhabilants  of  Nukahiwa  in  the  Marquesas 
sent  for  their  ancestors  from  Vavau  with  breadfruit  and  sugar  cane.  Not  only  is 
the  number  of  starting  points  surprisingly  small  in  comparison  with  the  size  of 
the  territory  occupied  by  the  Polj-nesians,  but  the  original  relations  among  the 
several  groups  appear  simple  to  an  astonishing  degree.  Examined  in  the  light  of 
ethnology  and  history  this  simplicity  cannot  be  maintained.  It  is  an  ascertained 
fact  as  regards  the  ilaoris  that  their  immigration  did  not  occur  in  the  form  of  one 
single  wave  of  nations,  but  that  fresh  batches  came  from  the  north  ;  and  a  very 
late  subsequent  immigration  is  specially  recorded.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Hawaii 
islands  are  connected  with  Tahiti  by  language,  customs,  and  legendary  travels; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  place  names  show  the  enduring  recollection  of  Samoa. 
Earotonga  is  the  focus  of  the  entire  remotest  south,  while  it  was  itself  peopled 
with  settlers  almost  simultaneously  from  Samoa  and  Tahiti.  In  the  end,  Tahiti 
seems  to  have  sent  emigrants  to  Rarotonga  and  Hawaii,  also  to  the  southern  Mar- 
quesas, as  the  correspondences  in  language  and  customs  prove. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  date  of  these  migrations,  since  these  movements 
are  a  constant  feature.  Obviously,  no  reliance  can  be  placed  in  the  genealogical 
lists  of  the  several  islands,  which  vary  from  twenty  to  eighty-eight  generations 
(p.  233).  History  does  not  carry. us  very  far;  ethnology  alone  tells  us  that  the 
dispersion  of  the  Polynesians  over  the  Pacific  Ocean  cannot  go  back  to  any  remote 
period,  for  they  have  not  had  the  time  to  develop  any  marked  racial  peculiarities. 
It  can  only  be  a  question  of  centuries  for  New  Zealand  and  many  other  countries ; 
in  the  case  of  Tahiti  and  perhaps  Hawaii,  the  first  settlement  may  be  assigned 
possibly  to  an  earlier  date.  But  in  no  case  need  we  go  back  more  than  a  millennium 
and  a  half. 


308  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [r/n^^v /// 

The  wanderings  extended  also  to  Melanesia,  in  the  east  of  which,  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  distances,  more  settlements  were  planted  than  in  tlie  west.  While 
Fiji  in  respect  of  social  and  political  customs  shows  almost  as  many  I'olynesian 
traits  as  its  two  neighboui-s,  Tonga  and  Samoa,  and  has  experienced  a  considerable 
infusion  of  Polynesian  blood,  we  certainly  tind  in  New  Guinea  marked  traces  of 
this  blood,  but  an  almost  total  absence  of  Polynesian  customs  and  jiolitical  insti- 
tutions. It  can  hardly  be  shown  at  the  present  day,  when  the  Western  I'aciKc 
contains  so  mixed  a  population,  in  what  proportion  migration  has  been  deliberate 
or  involuntary,  but  doubtless,  besides  the  frequent  drifiiugs  to  east  and  west,  there 
were  many  cases  of  systematic  colonisation.  We  thus  get  to  know  an  aspect  of 
the  Polynesians  which  is  not  often  represented  among  primitive  peoples.  In  Africa 
the  only  examples  are  the  Wanyamwesi  of  Central  German  East  Africa  (Vol. 
Ill,  p.  442),  who  since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  colonised  the 
whole  equatorial  east  of  the  continent,  and  advanced  their  settlements  far  into  the 
southern  Congo  basin,  and  the  Kioto  in  the  Western  Congo  State  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  472) 
of  whom  Pogge,  L.  Wolf,  and  Wissmann  tell  us  how  they  succeed  in  planting 
themselves  among  the  inland  tribes. 

In  America  we  can  only  mention  in  tliis  category  the  Caribs  (Vol.  I,  p.  186), 
who  conquered  and  colonised  large  portions  of  the  inner  half  of  the  continent  and 
the  whole  group  of  islands  in  the  waters  of  Central  America.  The  colonising 
activity  of  the  Polynesians  need  not  surj)rise  us.  They  showed  themselves  in  the 
art  of  navigation  a  worthy  branch  of  tlie  Malayan  racial  group,  and  in  politics 
and  economy  they  are  little  interior  to  the  Western  Malays.  If  the  latter  claim 
to  extend  their  wanderings  to  Madagascar  in  the  west  and  the  Philippines  in  the 
northeast,  the  Polynesians  may  cimtemplate  the  possession  of  a  territory  which 
reaches  from  the  Carolines  and  New  Guinea  in  the  west  as  far  as  Easter  Island  in 
the  east. 


8.   THE  HISTORY   OF   THE   OCEANIANS 

A.    CONJECTURKS   AS   TO    THE    PRI.MITIVE   HiSTORY    OK    THE    OCEANIANS 

Our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  Oceania  liardly  goes  beyond  the  discoveries 
of  the  island  world ;  for  the  tradition  of  Polynesia,  which  goes  considerably 
further  back  into  the  past,  does  not  distinguish  between  fact  and  fiction.  Never- 
theless, even  in  Oceania  it  is  possible  to  have  a  glimpse  of  the  i)ast.  Here,  as  iu 
Australia  (p.  245),  we  tind  remains  of  old  buildings  and  sites,  whose  nature  pre- 
supposes certain  definite  political  and  social  conditions  then  existent ;  but,  besides 
this,  we  have  adeijuate  data  in  the  information  which  the  early  explorers  give  as 
to  the  state  of  things  which  they  discovered. 

In  the  case  of  the  Polynesians  and  Micronesians,  as  in  that  of  the  Australians, 
it  admits  of  no  doubt  that  their  present  stage  iu  civilization  does  not  denote  the 
highest  point  of  their  development,  Init  that  iu  many  dejjartments  of  national  life 
a  distinct  retrogression  has  taken  place.  In  Melanesia,  on  the  other  hand,  where 
the  civilization  does  not  even  reach  the  present  stage  of  the  neighbouring  peoples 
on  the  east,  all  evidence  for  a  previous  higher  culture  is  wanting,  ilelanesia  is, 
in  this  respect,  like  a  hoHow  between  an  elevation  in  the  west,  the  Malay  civiliza- 
tion, and  a  second  somewhat  lower  elevation  in  the  east,  the  Polynesian  civili- 


i^Lt""""'!  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  309 

zatioa.  This  by  no  means  implies  that  the  culture  possessed  by  its  inhabitants 
was  in  itself  inferior  or  lacked  originality.  On  the  contrary,  as  a  glance  at  the 
plate  opposite  page  304  tells  us,  the  arts  were  highly  developed  in  Melanesia ; 
indeed  much  of  the  material  culture,  and  some  branches  of  intellectual  culture, 
surpass  anything  at  least  shown  b\-  the  jMicronesians.  It  is  only  in  political 
respects  that  the  Melanesian  is  behindhand.  The  cause  of  this  is  to  be  found 
primarily  in  the  character  of  the  negroid  race,  and  secondly  in  the  absence  of 
any  stimulus  from  outside.  Where  these  causes  are  absent,  as  in  Fiji,  even  the 
Melanesian  has  shown  himself  capable  of  political  development. 

The  decadence  of  the  Polynesian  and  Micronesian  civilization  is  shown  in  two 
ways :  first,  in  buildings  and  works  of  a  size,  mass,  and  extent,  which  preclude 
all  idea  that  they  could  have  been  erected  by  a  population  at  the  stage  in  which 
the  first  Europeans  found  them  ;  and,  secondly,  in  the  political  and  social  institu- 
tions, which  bear  every  trace  of  decay.  The  South  Sea  is  not  poor  in  remains  of 
the  first  class.  On  Pitcairn  Island,  which  has  long  been  deserted  by  all  primitive 
inhabitants,  even  now  the  stone  foundations  of  ancient  temples  are  to  be  found  ; 
on  Eapa  old  fortifications  crown  tlie  hills,  and  on  Huaheine  a  dolmen  rises  near 
a  c)'clopean  causeway.  Under  the  guano  layers  of  the  Christmas  Islands  roads 
skilfully  constructed  of  coral-rag  bear  witness  to  an  age  of  a  greater  spirit  of 
enterprise,  of  a  higher  plane  of  technical  skill,  and  of  a  more  pronounced  national 
life.  Tinian,  one  of  the  Marianne  group,  has  its  colossal  stone  pillars,  crowned 
with  capitals,  to  mark  the  dwelling  places  of  the  old  and  more  vigorous  Chamorro. 
But  all  this  is  nothing  in  comparison  with  the  ruins  of  Nanmatal  on  Ponape,  and 
the  stone  images  on  Eapanui  in  Easter  Island. 

The  decadence  in  the  political  and  social  field  is  not  generally  so  obvious  as 
that  in  technical  skill ;  but  it  is  incontestable  everywhere,  and  has  been  distinctly 
more  disastrous  to  the  national  development  of  the  islanders.  This  is  shown  by  the 
loss  of  the  old  patriarchal  society,  in  which  the  king  was  reverenced  by  the  people 
as  a  god,  where  he  was  the  natural  owner  of  all  the  laud,  and  where  the  view  pre- 
vailed that  all  was  from  him  and  all  was  for  him.  "WTien  James  Cook  and  his 
contemporaries  appeared  in  the  South  Sea,  in  many  places  hardl}-  any  trace  of  such 
a  society  remained,  while  in  others  it  was  rapidly  disappearing.  The  ancient 
djTiasties  had  either  been  entirely  put  aside  and  the  States  dissolved,  or  if  they 
still  existed,  only  a  faint  gleam  of  their  former  glory  was  reflected  on  the  ancient 
rulers.  The  old  organisation  of  the  people,  with  its  strictly  defined  grades,  had 
already  been  destroyed ;  and  a  struggle  of  the  upper  class  for  property  and  power 
had  taken  the  place  of  the  former  feudalism.  This  effort  had  been  everywhere 
crowned  with  success,  and  had  mainly  contributed  to  break  up  the  rigid  and  yet 
universally  acceptable  system.  Finally,  even  religion  entirely  lost  its  ancient 
character.  The  original  gods  were  indeed  retained;  but  their  number,  at  first 
limited,  had  been  in  the  course  of  time  indefinitely  multiplied,  since  the  gods 
springing  from  the  class  of  the  high  nobQity  were  gradually  put  on  a  level  with 
the  older  deities.  Thus  the  national  and  popular  religion  was  changed  into  a 
superstitious  worship  of  the  indi\ddual.  As  Karl  Meinicke  insists,  it  is  one  and 
the  same  thing  which  destroyed  the  State  and  the  religion  of  the  Polynesians  — 
the  degradation  of  the  old  ci\Tl  and  religious  autliorities  or  the  promotion  of  the 
formerly  lower  degrees.  But  in  any  case  the  abandonment  of  the  old  idea  of  a 
State  was  complete.     The  tokens  of  retrogi-ession  in  Oceania,  when  collected,  speak 


310  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         la.ajjtcr  in 

a  clear  language.  They  tell  us,  in  the  first  place,  that  there  must  have  been  a 
period  in  the  prehistoric  period  of  the  Soulli  Sea  Islundere  wlieu  an  overgrowth  of 
the  population  on  tlie  already  settled  islands  made  it  necessary  to  send  out  colo- 
nies ;  further  we  learn  that  the  period  of  colonisation  must  have  also  been  the 
period  of  the  higliest  development  of  culture.  Colonisation  was  only  possible  under 
the  government  of  a  rigid  political  organisation,  of  wliich  we  can  at  most  discover 
a  reflection  in  the  subsecpient  life  of  the  South  Sea  races.  We  may  not  assume 
a  growth  of  technical  knowledge  on  the  settled  islands,  such  as  was  requisite  for 
the  erection  of  large  buildings,  so  that  even  in  the  field  of  material  culture  we  can 
only  suppose  the  existence  of  an  original  and  more  univeisal  standard  of  accom- 
plishment. We  thus  find  the  phenomenon,  iuieresting  both  from  the  historical  and 
the  geographical  point  of  view,  that  the  moment  of  the  widest  dispersion  of  a  race 
denotes  the  beginning  of  its  decadence.  Tins  jihenomenou  is  not  surprising  if  we 
take  into  account  the  nature  of  the  homes  of  the  race.  It  is  easier  for  the  popula- 
tion of  small  islands  to  attain  a  higher  culture,  and  a  more  strict  political  organisa- 
tion than  to  maintain  themselves  at  the  stage  which  they  inherited  or  brought 
with  them.  The  narrow  limits  of  space  make  a  comprehensive  scheme  ea.sy  and 
possible,  but  involve  the  danger  of  a  conflict  between  opposite  parties  and  thus  the 
destruction  of  the  existing  system.  None  of  the  Polynesian  islands  escaped  this 
fate,  especially  since  the  character  of  the  people  shows  few  traits  of  conservatism. 
Quarrels  and  disputes  have  been  the  chief  and  the  favourite  occupation  of  the 
Polynesians  as  long  as  we  have  known  them.  The  decadence  is  the  greatest 
where  the  island  communities  are  the  smallest,  and  where  therefore  destructive 
influences  are  most  p)werful ;  thus  in  tlie  centre  of  the  world  of  islands  hardly 
a  trace  of  the  ancient  culture  lias  come  down  to  us.  When  the  Europeans 
appeared  on  the  scene,  marked  traces  of  this  culture  (in  one  place  a  vigorous 
national  life,  in  another  stupendous  monuments)  were  only  extant  on  the  outer 
belt,  in  Hawaii,  New  Zealand,  and  the  remote  Easter  Island. 

The  fall  of  the  Maoris  is  the  best  illustration  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
attainments  of  civilization  can  be  lost.  At  all  times  addicted  to  violence  and 
intolerant  of  united  effort,  they  split  up  the  larger  States  of  their  twin  islands 
into  numerous  mutually  hostile  and  aggressive  communities,  from  which  every 
notion  of  a  national  unity  and  its  etl'ect  in  maintaining  a  civilization  has  disap- 
peared. At  the  same  time  the  originally  vigorous  racial  character  lost  more  and 
more  in  moral  restraint,  and  became  more  savage  and  cruel.  The  downfall  of  the 
ancient  religion  finally  accompanied  this  change.  The  old  gods  lost  their  per- 
sonality, and  were  transformed  into-  a  multitude  of  forest  and  sea  demons, 
unparalleled  for  extravagance  and  grotesqueness  of  form.  The  representations  1 
and  2,  4  and  5,  7  and  8  on  the  plate  at  ]iage  '332,  give  a  good  idea  of  them.  Art 
and  technical  skill  did  not  escape.  As  early  as  Cook's  time,  it  was  no  longer  pos- 
sible to  produce  carvings  of  the  older  kind  {ride  Figs.  1,  4,  and  5  in  the  same 
plate). 

B.   The  History  of  the  Melanesians 

(a)    General  Remarks.  —  Melanesia,  apart  from  Fiji,  has  no  history  properly 
socalled.     We  are  acquainted  merely  with  the  treatment  which  the  iidiabitants 
have  received  at  the  hands  of  foreigners.     The  chief  cause  of  this  ])hen()menon,  ^ 
which  recalls  the  passivity  of  the  Australians,  is  the  slight  political  capacity  of  the 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  311 


negroid  race.  A  second  cause  is  that  isolation  from  the  outside  world  which  can 
be  partly  attributed  to  the  dreaded  fierceness  of  the  Melanesians.  The  more  enter- 
prising Pol3nesians  have  never  shown  any  great  inclination  to  attempt  colonisation 
on  a  large  scale  in  Central  and  Western  Melanesia,  nor  have  the  whites  entered  on 
the  task  of  opening  up  these  islands  with  the  zeal  which  they  have  sho\vn  in  the 
rest  of  Oceania  since  the  days  of  Cook.  Exploration  and  missionary  activity  are 
tardy  and  timid  in  these  parts,  and  European  colonisation  is  still  later  in  coming. 
Notwithstanding  this  late  beginning  of  serious  encroachments  from  outside,  the 
Melanesians  came  early  into  hostile  contact  with  the  whites.  Out  of  the  long  roll 
of  explorers,  from  J.  Le  Maire  and  W.  Schouten  (1616)  on,  past  W.  Dampier  (1700) 
and  J.  Roggeveen  (1722)  to  L.  A.  de  Bougainville  and  de  SurvUle  (1768),  there  is 
hardly  one  who  had  not  been  guilty  of  the  greatest  cruelties  to  the  natives.  Even 
Cook,  in  1774,  ordered  the  natives  of  Enomaugo  to  be  shot  down  with  cannon  for 
some  trifling  misconduct.  But  the  nineteenth  century  has  behaved  still  more  out- 
rageously to  these  islands.  Their  wealtli  in  sandalwood  soon  attracted  numerous 
traders,  English  and  American  in  particular,  but  also  Polynesians.  All  these  per- 
sons, who  merely  sought  their  own  advantage,  behaved  like  savages.  They  plun- 
dered peaceable  tribes,  and  forced  them  to  work  as  slaves  on  other  islands ;  they 
cut  down  the  valuable  trees,  and  thus  caused  disputes  with  their  owners,  which 
generally  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  latter. 

Extortions  and  unprovoked  bombardment  of  villages  were  matters  of  daUy 
occurrence.  The  traders  captured  a  chief,  and  only  released  him  at  a  ransom  of 
a  shipload  of  sandalwood ;  and  once  when  the  inhabitants  of  Fate  in  the  New 
Hebrides  fled  from  the  crew  of  an  English  ship  and  a  body  of  Tongan  allies  into 
a  cave  with  wives  and  children,  their  opponents  lighted  a  fire  at  the  entrance  and 
suffocated  all  the  fugitives. 

The  consequences  of  this  treatment  of  the  natives  were  soon  seen.  The  warlike 
and  able-bodied  Melanesians  returned  blow  for  blow,  and  avenged  the  outrages 
committed  by  the  whites  upon  their  fellows  when  and  where  they  could.  Who- 
ever was  imprudent  enough  to  land  upon  their  coasts  was  murdered.  It  thus  comes 
about  that  the  histor}'  of  the  exploration  of  Melanesia  down  to  the  present  day  has 
been  wi-itten  in  blood.  Even  missions  (cf.  below,  p.  340)  have  met  with  greater 
initial  difficulties  here,  and  found  a  harder  task  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
South  Sea. 

The  long  duration  of  racial  struggles  has  produced  the  result  that  the  national 
characteristics  of  Melanesia  are  no  longer  in  their  primitive  integrity.  New 
Guinea,  where  little  more  than  the  fringe  of  the  island  has  been  explored,  has, 
indeed,  suffered  little,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  Bismarck  archipelago  and  the 
Solomons  have  hitherto  successfully  repulsed  any  serious  attack  on  their  modes  of 
life  and  thought  or  their  material  possessions.  The  state  of  things  is  less  favour- 
able in  the  more  easterly  archipelagoes,  Santa  Cruz,  New  Hebrides,  New  Caledonia, 
and  Fiji.  Here,  imdoubtedly,  the  stronger  infusion  of  Polynesian  blood  has  weak- 
ened the  powers  of  resistance  of  the  population  ;  while  these  groups  have  also  been 
longest  exposed  to  the  brunt  of  the  attacks  of  the  whites.  The  result,  as  is  always 
the  case  where  the  barbarian  comes  into  touch  with  civilization,  has  been  a  decline 
in  the  numbers,  physique,  and  morals  of  the  native  population.  This  is  most 
marked  in  New  Caledonia,  where  the  natives,  under  the  influence  of  the  French 
system  of  transportation,  have  sunk  from  a  warlike  and  honour-loving  nation. 


:n2  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         lc/,aj>t.r  iir 

eudowed  with  hi^jh  intellectual  gifts,  into  a  rajif^ed  uujVi.  It  is  ditlicult  to  form 
an  idea  of  the  numerical  shrinkage,  since  the  older  accounts  are  mere  estimates. 
Nevertheless,  the  inliabitauts  of  the  New  Hebrides  and  Santa  Cruz  have  undoubt- 
edly much  dimiuished  iu  numbers,  a  change  which  in  Fiji  can  be  proved  by  actual 
statistics. 

(b)  Fiji.  —  The  great  political  capacity,  judging  by  a  Melanesian  standard,  of 
the  Fiji  (or  Viti)  Islanders,  can  be  traced  to  the  strong  admixture  of  Polynesian 
elements  and  the  position  of  the  arcliijielago,  which  lies  advanced  towartl  the  east. 
Their  history  begins  with  those  feuds  which  have  played  a  part  in  all  the  Polyne- 
sian Islands  for  centuries.  In  these  wars,  unimportant  enough  in  themselves,  the 
l^uropeans  interfered  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  without  any 
political  intentions  at  first.  In  1804  twenty-seven  convicts,  escaped  from  Norfolk 
Island,  took  sides  sometimes  with  one,  sometimes  with  another  chief ;  but  the  crew 
of  the  slaver  "Eliza,"  which  was  wrecked  on  the  clilFs  of  Nairi  in  1808,  had  a  still 
more  decisive  share  in  the  course  of  events,  since  they  possessed  muskets.  Their 
choice  fell  on  the  chief,  Naulivau  of  Mbau,  who  thus  was  enabled  to  overthrow 
the  head  of  the  "  State  "  of  Vcrata  in  Eastern  Viti  Levu.  His  successors  remauied 
in  possession  of  the  supreme  power  until  1874.  After  a  reign  full  of  niililary  suc- 
cesses, whicli  won  him  the  surname  "  Vuiii  Valu,"  or  "root  of  war,"  Naulivau  died 
in  the  year  1829.  He  was  followed  by  his  brother,  Tauoa,  one  of  the  most  ferocious 
cannibals  wliom  Fiji  ever  knew. 

Under  his  son,  Seru,  better  known  by  llie  name  of  Kakobau  or  Tliakombau 
(1852-1874),  the  kingdom  founded  by  the  first  Vuni  A'alu  reached  its  greatest 
prosperity  and  extent,  comprising  almost  the  entire  ai'chipelago.  His  accession 
occurred  at  a  time  when  tlie  Fiji  archipelago  had  attracted,  iu  more  than  one 
respeot,  the  attention  of  tlie  whites.  Tlie  Wesleyau  mission  had  obtained  a  foot- 
ing here  since  183.'),  in  1844  the  Catholic  mission  also.  Principally  tlirough  the 
activity  of  the  former  the  old  feuds  had  stopped,  at  any  rate  in  the  coast  districts 
of  Viti  Levu  ;  English,  American,  and  other  white  traders  were  able  to  settle  tliere 
in  complete  security.  In  1847  the  I'nited  States  of  America,  in  order  to  cxjiress 
their  apjjreciation  of  the  newly  discovered  field,  established  a  consular  agenc}-  lliere. 
At  the  same  time  artful  aspersions  were  cast  on  the  Wesleyan  mission  in  order  to 
weaken  Engli.sh  influence.  In  1840,  wlicii  the  house  of  the  consul,  Williams,  was 
burnt,  the  natives  stole  some  of  his  property.  Williams  demanded  from  Thakuinbau 
compensation  to  the  amount  of  "  three  thousand  dollars,  twelve  and  a  half  cents." 
An  unprejudiced  witness  informs  us  this  " exact "  sum  was  not  ju.slified,  and  was 
not  paid.  In  the  next  year,  in  consequence. of  other  thefts,  it  had  mounted  to  live 
thousand  and  one  dollars  and  thirty-eight  cents.  Williams  laid  this  demand 
before  the  commanders  of  two  American  war.'jhips,  with  a  request  for  support,  but 
it  was  rejected.  In  1855,  liowever,  Captain  Houtwcll,  who  had  been  sent  U>  Fiji  for 
a  renewed  intjuiry,  ordered  Thakombau  to  pay  cajiital  and  interest  fDrtliwiih.  The 
sum  to  be  paid  was  fixed  in  a  second  letter  at  thirty  thousand  dollars,  and  tiireats 
of  force  were  held  out.  Finally,  Boutwell  sent  for  the  chief  on  board  his  ship, 
demanded  forty-tive  tliousand  dollars,  and  threatened  to  hang  him.  Thakombau 
then  signed  the  agreement. 

Complications,  also,  were  threatened  with  France.  Fourteen  years  after  the 
unsuccessful  attempt  at  settlement  of  1844,  Frencli  Catholic  missionaries  tried 


SPECIMENS   OF   MICRONESIAN   CARVING 

Fig.  1.  Beam  of  a  house,  from  the  Pelew  Islands  ;  representing  an  arec;i-palm,  by  which  a 
man  wished  to  climb  up  to  heaven,  but  fell  down  (after  Kubary). 

fig.  2.  Beam,  from  the  Pelew  Islands ;  representing  a  man  between  two  fishes  (Belone  ;  the 
name  of  the  species  is  not  certain).  Cf.  Fig.  10  of  the  coloured  plate,  "  Specimens  of  Melanesian 
Carving  "  (after  Kubary). 

Fig.  3.  Part  of  a  beam,  from  the  Pelew  Islands  ;  according  to  Kubary,  it  represents  the 
mythical  bird  culalrock,  with  the  pieces  of  money  vomited  by  him  in  Keklau. 

Fig.  4.  Beam  from  a  gable  end,  from  the  Pelew  Islands ;  with  representation  of  a  cock  with 
enormously  long  neck.     Cf.  Fig.  8  of  this  plate  (after  Kubary). 

Fig.  5.  Part  of  a  beam,  from  Yap;  with  representation  of  a  shoal  of  whales  {PhyseUr 
macrocephaliis). 

(From  the  original  in  the  Ethnological  Museum  at  Berlin.) 

Figs.  6  and  9.    Parts  of  the  decorated  beam  of  a  house  on  Yap. 

(From  the  original  in  the  Ethnological  Museum  at  Berlin.) 

Fig.  7.  Beam  from  the  Pelew  Islands  ;  showing  a  crocodile  which  was  outwitted  by  an  ape 
(after  Kubary). 

Fig.  8.  Gable  end  of  a  house  called  Aulona  on  the  Pelew  Islands,  used  for  the  isolation  of 
Ij-ing-in  women  and  similar  purposes.  On  both  gable  beam.s  a  man  with  an  excessively  long  body 
(from  Kubary). 

Fig.  10.   Carving  from  the  gable  of  a  house  on  Yap. 

Fig.  11.  Carved  inner  side  of  a  plant  from  a  house  on  Yap  ;  with  representations  of  the 
sun  (?),  fishes,  dogs,  etc.     The  drawing  must  be  looked  at  upright. 

Figs.  12  and  13.  Carving  from  the  gables  of  houses  on  Yap.  Fig.  12  represents  a  sitting 
female  figure  with  outstretched  arms  and  legs.     Fig.  13,  three  dancers. 

(The  last  three  from  the  originals  in  the  Ethnological  Museum  at  Berlin.) 


londoii  ■   »';"  lUh 


.,.  i-o<f.--  /'"■;.(,  .v..L(  .f  '^•- 


SPECIMENS  OF  MICRONESIAN  CAR 


VINO. 


(I'jr.l,  (,„,„  Kubar,'.  "HcilrtliO  mr  K.nnlni.  d"  K,.toli»" 


.A,elW>l.".  P""'  *>»»  l>  L.  Sllu.,U„  f,„„  „„ 


riginals  in  the  Elhiiolosical  Museum  at  Dcrlin.) 


^t^""^]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  313 

once  more  to  gain  a  footing  on  Viti  Le\-u.  Since  Thakombau,  who  in  1854  liad 
adopted  Christianity,  partly  from  con\'iction,  but  mostly  on  political  grounds,  felt 
the  impossibility  of  any  longer  maintaining  his  position,  especially  since  his  rela- 
tions with  Tonga  were  very  strained  at  that  time,  he  determined  to  escape  from  his 
difficulties  and  cede  his  land  to  England.  On  October  12,  1858,  he  made  a  treaty 
with  the  English  consul,  Pritchard,  to  which  all  the  chiefs  of  the  island  subse- 
quently agreed,  to  the  following  effect:  Thakombau,  who  wished  to  become  a 
British  subject  but  yet  retain  his  title  and  suzerainty,  promised  two  hundred  thou- 
sand acres  of  land  :  in  return,  England  was  to  take  over  the  American  debt.  The 
English  government,  from  the  wish  not  to  cause  unpleasantness  with  America, 
refused  the  offer.  Xow,  not  only  did  the  Americans  immediately  press  their 
claims,  but  Tonga  demanded  a  large  sum  of  money  for  the  assistance  which  it 
professed  to  have  previously  rendered.  The  monarch  in  his  difficulty  accepted  the 
proposal  of  the  Melbourne  Polynesian  Company  in  1868,  which  promised  to  satisfy 
the  claims  of  America  in  return  for  the  grant  of  the  land  offered  to  the  English 
government.  The  flourishing  condition  of  the  German  trading  firms,  which  had 
been  active  in  the  country  since  1860,  had  drawn  public  attention  to  Fiji.  On 
conclusion  of  the  treaty,  the  company  paid  the  Americans  £9,000.  In  return,  it  at 
once  received  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand  acres. 

During  these  negotiations  there  had  been  incessant  disputes  among  the  natives 
themselves ;  at  the  same  time  there  had  been  quarrels  between  them  and  the  numer- 
ous white  immigrants.  In  order  to  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  things,  Thakombau 
in  1871  formed  a  constitutional  government,  with  a  ministry  composed  of  twelve 
chiefs,  a  legislative  council,  chosen  by  the  whites,  and  a  supreme  court.  So  long 
as  the  interests  of  the  government  and  the  colonists  coincided,  this  artifice,  fre- 
quently tried  in  the  South  Sea,  was  harmless  in  results :  but  when  the  whites  were 
required  to  pay  taxes,  they  simply  ignored  the  laws.  The  public  debt  soon  grew 
to  £80,000.  Thakombau  saw  no  alternative  left  him  but  to  renew  the  offer  of  his 
land  to  Great  Britain,  but  this  time  as  a  gift.  England  at  first  refused  it  again, 
and  only  changed  her  purpose  from  the  fear  that  other  powers  (America,  or  Ger- 
many, which  was  interested  just  then  in  the  enterprise  of  the  Godeffroys  —  ride 
p.  327)  might  close  with  the  offer.  On  September  30,  1874,  England  accepted 
Thakombau's  offer,  which  had  actually  in  the  interval  been  made  to  the  German 
Empire  and  declined  by  it.  Fiji  became  a  British  crown  colony.  England  took 
over  aU  the  debts,  and  paid  Thakombau  a  yearly  allowance,  until  his  death  in 
1883.  The  sales  of  land  completed  before  the  British  annexation  were  not  at  once 
recognised,  but  gradually  tested ;  in  1885,  more  than  ten  years  later,  the  Germans 
concerned  were  compensated  with  a  small  solatium  (£10,620).  In  the  spring  of 
1902  Fiji  concluded  a  separate  federal  treaty  with  New  Zealand  (Mr.  Seddon) ;  a 
counterpart  to  the  Australian  Commonwealth. 

C.    The  History  of  the  Miceosesians 

The  small  average  size  of  the  Micronesian  Islands  has  not  prevented  the  inhab- 
itants from  developing  a  peculiar  and,  in  many  respects,  higher  culture  than  their 
kinsfolk  in  the  east  and  south  (vide  the  illustration,  "  Micronesian  Car\-ings "). 
The  several  localities  have,  indeed,  proved  too  limited  for  any  development  of 
political  importance.     The  only  events  to  be  recorded  are  the  usual  feuds  between 


314  HTSTCM^V    OF    THF.    WORLD  [a.opter  i/r 

the  hostile  vQlage  comuiuiiilit's,  iiklidiiijli.  jml^in^  by  the  ancient  buildinj;.s  and  ter- 
races ou  the  I'elews,  on  I'ouajK.'  and  the  Marianne  Islands,  the  cuuditiuns  for  a 
politically  organised  activity  must  have  been  far  more  favourable  in  earlier  times 
than  at  the  present  day.  It  is  at  present  impossible  to  determine  wliether  the 
decadence  of  the  Pelews  and  the  Carolines  is  due  to  other  reasons  than  the 
antagonism  of  conflicting  interests  produced  by  the  cramped  space. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  process  of  disintegration  on  tiie  Marianne  Islands  can 
accurately  he  traced.  All  accounts  from  the  period  anterior  to  the  beginning  of 
the  Spanish  conquest  and  conversion  sjieak  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  condition 
of  the  islands,  their  high  stiige  of  civilization,  and  large  population.  Guam  was 
compared  to  one  immense  garden,  and  in  IfifuS,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sion, contained  one  hundred  and  eighty  sjtlendid  villages.  The  total  number  of 
the  Chamon-o,  as  the  aborigines  were  called  by  the  Spaniards,  is  reckoned  vari- 
ously ;  a  favourite  estimate  is  200,000,  but  even  600,000  has  been  given ;  the  lowest 
calculation  does  not  sink  l)elow  40,000.  In  addition  to  an  advanced  agriculture, 
which  notwithstanding  i>rimitive  tot)ls  could  boast  of  cultivating  rice,  we  tiud  an 
excellently  developed  art  of  navigation,  a  knowledge  of  pottery,  a  regulated  calen- 
dar, and  so  forth.  The  Spaniards  destroyed  all  this  in  a  few  years.  According  to 
an  accurate  calculation,  in  1710,  forty-two  years  after  the  arrival  of  the  Jesuit 
father  Sanvitores,  there  were  3,5:^9  Chaniorro  stiU  left;  in  1741  there  were  1,816. 
Their  rapid  diminution  was  caused  by  the  fierce  fights  Vietween  both  parties,  which 
broke  out  so  soon  as  the  freedom-loving  inhabitants  jierceived  that  conversion  in 
the  ultimate  resort  aimed  at  subjecting  them  to  the  Spanish  yoke ;  the  wars  did 
not  stop  before  1699.  The  census  of  1741  brought  home  to  the  Spaniards  the 
magnitude  of  the  devastation  wrought  by  them.  In  order  to  make  up  for  the 
alarming  mortality  they  introduced  Tagals  from  the  Philippines.  The  number  of 
the  inhabitants  after  that  increased;  in  1783  it  amounted  to  3,231  souls;  in  1803 
to  4,303 ;  in  1815  to  5,406 ;  and  in  1850  to  more  than  9,000.  But  an  epidemic  of 
smallpox  raged  among  the  populatiim  in  1856.  It  had  only  risen  again  to  5,610  in 
1864,  and  at  the  present  day  it  reaches  to  about  double  that  figure.  The  reckless 
extermination  of  the  people  is  almost  the  least  evU.  which  the  Spaniards  perpetrated 
on  the  Chamorro ;  the  annihilation  of  the  nationality  was  still  worse.  At  the 
present  day  no  more  traces  are  left  of  the  old  culture  with  its  buildings,  its  navi- 
gation, its  agi-iculture,  and  technical  skill,  than  of  the  old  strong  and  proud  phy- 
sique of  the  inhabitants.  In  jtlace  of  a  love  of  freedom  the  miserable  half-caste 
people  of  to-day  show  a  dull  indifference,  while  lethargy  has  taken  the  place  of  in- 
dustry, and  an  unthinking  use  of  Christian  customs  is  substituted  for  a  naive 
paganism.  Next  to  the  Tasmanians  no  people  in  the  South  Sea  can  have  felt  more 
deeply  the  curse  of  contact  with  the  Europeans  than  the  Chamorro. 

D.    The  IIistohy  of  the  Polynesians 

An  account  of  the  histor}'  of  the  Polynesians  presents  difficulties,  in  .so  far  as 
every  separate  group  has  its  own  history.  It  is  the  exception  to  find  any  points  of 
connection  between  neighbouring  arcliipelagoes.  This  necessitates  the  separate 
treatment  of  the  larger  and  more  important  groups  at  any  rate,  although  certain 
broad  characteristics  recur  regularly.  Since  this  phenomenon  is  still  more  marked 
in  the  case  of  the  smaller  and  less  densely  peopled  archipelagoes,  whose  importance 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  315 

is  slight,  we  shall  therefore  abandon  the  task  of  any  detailed  description,  and  refer 
the  reader  for  their  most  interesting  features  to  the  section  on  missionar}-  work 
(p.  340). 

(a)  £ast  Polynesia.  —  Within  the  region  of  Polynesia  the  Hervey,  Tubuai, 
Society,  Tuamotu  and  Marquesas  Islands  form  a  mass  which  stands  out  apart 
from  the  other  clusters  (vide  map,  p.  -?>2).  This  purely  external  grouping  has, 
it  is  true,  no  geological  foundation,  but  justities  the  inclusion  of  the  archipelagoes 
under  the  general  title  of  East  Polynesia,  although  the  relations  of  the  groups 
among  themselves  belong  mostly  to  prehistoric  or  very  early  times. 

(a)  Tahiti.  —  The  history  of  East  Polynesia,  whether  native  or  colonial,  is 
mainly  connected  with  the  double  island  of  Tahiti  (Otaheiti).  It  is  the  only  focus 
of  an  independent  development,  and  also  the  natural  starting  point  and  centre  of 
the  Ereuch  Colonial  Empire  in  East  Polynesia.  When  Samuel  Wallis  finally  dis- 
covered the  island  on  June  19,  1767,  he  found  three  States  there,  which  were  fight- 
ing savagely  for  the  upper  hand.  The  Spaniards  took  possession  of  the  island  on 
January  1,  1775,  but  they  soon  abandoned  it  again  after  the  death  of  their  captain, 
Domingo  de  Bonechea,  on  January  26.  In  1789  the  mutineers  of  the  "Bounty" 
(p.  259)  landed  on  Tahiti ;  some  preferred  to  remain  there,  took  the  side  of  the 
king  Otu  or  Pomare,  as  he  preferred  to  call  him.^elf,  and  thus  enabled  him  to  ex- 
tend his  sovereignty  over  the  other  islands  of  the  archipelago.  The  first  English 
missionaries  landed  there  on  March  7,  1797,  and  were  destined  soon  to  play  a  large 
part  in  the  political  life  of  Tahiti.  In  1802  Pomare  carried  away  the  sacred  Oro 
(Orohho)  figure  from  the  Marae  (Moral)  at  Atahuru,  the  possession  of  which  was 
fiercely  contested.  But  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  the  image  in  the  end,  and 
died  suddenly  on  September  3,  1803,  and  his  son  Pomare  II,  born  in  1780,  was 
forced  to  fly.  He  took  up  his  abode  on  Murea  (Eimeo),  the  headquarters  of  the 
Christian  mission.  In  July,  1807,  he  crossed  with  a  number  of  Christians  over  to 
Tahiti,  surprised  his  enemies,  and  massacred  them  so  relentlessly  that  the  whole 
island  rose  against  him  and  the  missionaries,  and  drove  them  all  back  to  Hualiine 
and  Murea.  But  in  the  battle  at  Narii  (November  12,  1815)  King  Pomare  II, 
who  had  become  a  Christian  on  July  12,  1812,  completely  defeated  his  enemies; 
the  other  islands  of  the  archipelago  adopted  Christianity  in  consequence.  Pomare 
crushed  the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  gave  the  islands  at  the  end  of  1818  a  new 
and  written  constitution.  He  died  on  November  30,  1821.  Pomare's  infant  son 
died  on  January  11,  1827.  His  sister  Aimata,  a  girl  of  seventeen,  then  mounted 
the  throne  as  Pomare  IV  (or  Pomare  Wahiue  I),  while  her  aimt  Ariipaia,  as  was 
customary,  remained  regent. 

The  reign  of  Aimata  is  marked  by  an  overflowing  tide  of  calamity,  which 
soon  burst  on  Tahiti,  and  ended  in  the  loss  of  its  independence.  It  began  witli 
the  attempt  of  the  Catholic  Church,  made  in  November,  1836,  from  the  Gambler 
Islands,  to  gain  a  footing  in  the  island.  In  consequence  of  a  law  introduced 
by  the  British  preachers  of  the  gospel,  the  Erench  missionaries  were  forbidden 
to  land ;  they  therefore  appealed  to  Erance  for  aid.  On  August  27,  1838,  Captain 
Abel  Dupetit-Thouars  appeared  off  Papeete  with  the  frigate  "  Venus,"  in  order  to 
demand  satisfaction,  consisting  of  an  apology  under  the  sign  manual  of  the  queen, 
and  two  thousand  piastres  in  Spanish  money ;  the  queen  was  forced  to  comply. 


31G  HISTORY    Ol-^    THK    WORLD         \_Ch„i,t.r  III 

In  April,  1839,  Captain  C.  P.  Th.  Laplace  demanded  that  the  Catholic  Church 
should  be  granted  as  ample  privileges  as  the  Protestant,  and  that  a  building  site 
for  a  church  should  be  conceded.  And  in  September,  1842,  Dupetit-Thouars,  who 
had  returned, once  more  expressed  extravagant  "wishes"  to  the  government,  and,wlien 
they  could  not  be  granted,  proclaimed  a  French  protectorate  in  deliauce  of  the  pro- 
tests of  the  queen  and  the  English  missionaries.  When  a  Tahitian  popular  assembly, 
relying  on  the  intervention  of  the  English  Captain  Xicholas,  declared  for  England 
and  Pomare  IV  (1843),  Dupetit-Thouars  on  November  Gth  deposed  the  queen,  and 
threw  into  prison  the  English  consul,  Pritchard,  in  whose  house  she  had  taken 
refuge.  The  storm  of  indignation  roused  in  England  by  this  procedure  forced 
France  in  1844  to  reinstate  Queen  Pomare  IV;  but  the  protectorate  over  the 
island  was  retained.  It  was  only  after  a  tliree  years'  war,  waged  with  great 
fury  on  both  sides,  that  the  Tahitians  submitted  on  February  6,  1847,  and  the 
queen  returned  from  Eimeo  to  Papeete. 

Pomare  IV  died  after  a  reign  of  tifty  years,  on  September  17,  1877.  Her  son, 
Pomare  V,  abandoned  all  his  imaginary  sovereign  rights  to  France  on  June  19, 1880, 
in  return  for  an  annuity  of  £1000,  and  died  in  1891. 

The  political  development  has  not  been  favourable  in  any  way  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  national  existence.  In  Cook's  time  the  inhabitants  were  estimated  at 
120,000,  a  figure  far  too  high,  but  one  which  in  any  case  denotes  an  unusual 
density  of  population ;  in  1892  the  numbers  hardly  reached  10,000.  The 
introduction  of  disease,  immorality,  and  drunkenness  has  taught  the  Tahitians 
a  bitter  lesson  about  the  "  blessings "  of  civilization. 

(yS)  The  Bemaining  Archipelagoes.  —  The  history  of  the  island  groups  which 
cluster  round  Tahiti,  the  Society,  Tuamotu  (Paumotu),  Marcjue.sas,  and  Tubuai 
(or  Austral)  Islands,  is  not  without  some  anthropological,  political,  and  religious 
interest.  The  picture  presented  to  tlie  discoverers  was  everywhere  the  same; 
war  and  discord  prevailed,  limited  usually  to  the  separate  islands  and  groups. 
The  warlike  inhabitants  of  the  Tuamotu  island,  Auaa,  undertook  even  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  bold  expeditions  to  other  islands,  plundered 
them  and  carried  ofi'  the  inhabitants  as  captives,  until  a  stop  was  put  to  their 
proceedings  bj-  the  influence  of  Taliili. 

The  relations  between  the  natives  and  the  Europeans  in  these  parts  were  every- 
where due  to  the  instrumentality  of  the  missions.  It  would  have  been  well  if  the 
matter  had  rested  with  the  introduction  of  one  confession  only.  But  the  Pro- 
testant missionaries  were  soon  followed  on  every  group  by  Catholics  under  the 
protection  of  France.  The  inevitable  result  was  an  effort  on  the  Protestant  side 
to  keep  the  intruders  off,  and  on  the  side  of  the  French  Catholics  to  gain  a  religious 
and  political  footing.  In  all  this  the  native  was  the  scaiiegoat.  Any  infectious 
diseases  which  the  tradt-rs  had  not  introduced  were  communicated  by  the  crews 
of  men-of-war.  The  French  tricolour  now  floats  over  the  whole  large  grouj)  of 
islands,  and  the  llomish  i)ropaganda  has  succeeded,  though  not  to  the  full  extent 
desired,  in  breaking  down  tlie  undisputed  power  of  Protestantism.  European 
civilization  as  such  has  finally  diminished  tlie  number  of  inliabitauts  and  has 
put  a  mere  caricature  in  the  place  of  a  nationality  which,  despite  many  dark 
traits,  was  primitive  and  vigorous. 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  317 


(7)  Baimnui  {Easter  Island).  —  Te  Pito  te  Henua,  as  the  natives,  or  Eapanui, 
as  the  other  Polynesians  call  the  most  remote  islet  of  the  vast  island  world,  is, 
with  its  area  of  fortj'-five  square  miles,  one  of  the  smallest  high  islands  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Nevertheless  it  draws  our  attention  on  account  of  one  of  the  weightiest 
problems  of  ethnologj%  and  thus  of  the  history  of  mankind.  If  any  connection  at 
all  exists  between  Polynesians  and  Americans,  we  must  regard  Piapauui  as  the  most 
easterly  pier  in  the  bridge. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  ethnography  of  Easter  Island,  as  known  to  the  Europeans, 
which  supports  such  a  theory.  Salmon,  the  Tahitian  who  accompanied  the  German 
"  Hyena "  expedition  of  1882  under  Lieutenant-Captain  Geiseler,  and  the  Amer- 
ican "  Mohican "  expedition  of  1886,  reported  indeed  a  story  of  the  natives  of 
Eapanui,  according  to  which  they  are  supposed  to  have  come  in  a  large  boat  from 
one  of  the  Galapagos  islands  with  the  trade-wind  and  to  have  landed  at  Anakena 
in  the  north  of  the  island  ;  but  he  did  not  disguise  the  fact  that  this  tradition  was 
contrary  to  the  ideas  of  other  natives,  who  maintained  that  there  had  been  an 
immigi-ation  from  the  west.  The  architecture  of  Eapanui  is  supposed  to  show 
resemblances  to  buildings  in  Central  and  South  America;  but  the  simple  huts 
of  the  Easter  Islanders  are  not  to  be  compared  with  those  colossal  erections 
{vide  the  plates,  pp.  264  and  31-4  of  Vol.  I).  Again,  the  construction  of  the 
famous  stone  images,  some  fifteen  feet  high,  made  of  lava  (lianga^  extends 
to  comparatively  recent  periods,  when  there  can  be  no  possible  idea  of  America's 
influence ;  besides  this,  productions  of  similar  size,  although  not  of  quite  the  same 
character,  were  nothing  extraordinary  among  the  other  Oceanians,  at  least  in 
earlier  times. 

For  this  reason  the  modern  relations  between  Eapanui  and  America  are  all  the 
more  frequent.  Intercourse  with  the  whites  generally  has  indeed  only  brought 
the  islanders  miserj'  and  destruction  hitherto.  The  beginning  of  the  "  mission 
of  civilization "  is  marked  by  the  landing  of  the  Dutchman  Jacob  Eoggeween, 
on  April  6,  1722,  who  ordered  the  natives  to  be  fired  upon  without  any  reason 
whatever.  He  found  the  island  then  most  prosperous  and  densely  populated, 
an  appearance  which  it  has  long  since  lost.  The  natives  were  possibly  too  friendly 
and  yielding  to  the  whites.  In  1805  the  ship  "  Nancy  "  from  New  London,  which 
had  been  engaged  in  seal  fishery  at  JIas  a  fuera  (southwest  of  Juan  Fernandez) 
came  to  Eapanui  and  carried  away  twelve  men  and  ten  women  after  a  desperate 
fight.  The  men,  when,  three  days  after,  they  were  released  from  their  chains  on 
the  open  sea,  sprang  overboard  immediately,  in  order  to  reach  their  home  by  swim- 
ming ;  but  the  women  were  carried  to  Mas  a  fuera.  The  "  Nancy  "  is  said  to  have 
made  several  subsequent  attempts  at  robbery.  The  American  ship  "  Pindos  "  later 
carried  away  as  many  girls  as  there  were  men  on  board,  and  on  the  next  morning 
as  a  pastime  fired  at  the  natives  coUect.od  on  the  beach.  The  most  calamitous 
period  began  in  1863.  Peruvian  slave  dealers  then  established  a  depot  on  Eapanui 
in  order  to  impress  labourers  for  the  guano  works  in  Peru  from  the  surrounding 
archipelagoes ;  for  this  purpose  they  carried  away  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Eapanui.  Most  of  them  were,  however,  brought  hack  at  the  representations 
of  the  French  government ;  but  unfortunately  smallpox  was  introduced  by  them 
and  caused  great  ravages.  In  1866  Catholic  missionaries  began  their  work,  but 
they  left  the  island  after  a  few  years,  accompanied  by  some  faithful  followers,  and 
went  to  Maugarewa.     The  last  reduction  in  the  number  of  the  population  was 


318  IIISTC^RV    OF    TIIK    WORLD         [rh,,,t,r  in 

effected  by  the  deporlatiou  of  four  hundred  Easter  Iskuiders  by  a  Tahitiau  iiriu 
to  Tahiti  aud  Einieo,  where  they  were  employed  as  plautatiou  labourers. 

The  population  has  not  been  able  to  bear  such  frequent  and  heavy  drains  on 
its  vitality.  Estimated  by  Cook  at  700,  by  later  travellers  at  1.500  souls,  and 
numbering  before  1860  some  3,000,  it  has  dwindled  at  tlie  present  day  to  150, 
whose  absorption  in  the  mass  of  the  immigrant  Tahitians,  Chilians,  aud  others  is 
only  a  question  of  time.  Since  1888  Rapanui  has  been  used  by  Chili  as  a  penal 
colony. 

(8)  Pitcairn.  —  The  history  of  Pitcairn,  an  isolated  island  lying  far  to  the 
southwest  of  the  Tuamotu,  is,  during  the  period  which  we  can  survey,  detached 
from  the  framework  of  native  history ;  its  personages  are  almost  entirely  European 
immigrants.  Pitcairn  is  one  of  the  few  islands  which  were  uninliabited  when  the 
Europeans  discovered  them,  aUhnugh  numerous  remains  in  the  form  of  stone 
images,  relics  of  Marae,  stone  axes,  and  graves  with  skeletons  attest  that  the  island 
was  once  populated. 

The  modern  history  of  the  island  begins  with  the  mutiny  of  the  crew  of  the 
"  Bounty"  against  their  captain,  Bligh,  1779  (p.  259).  "\\Tiile  the  latter  steered  with 
his  eighteen  companions  in  his  open  boat  to  Batavia,  the  twenty-four  mutineers 
sailed  first  to  Tahiti.  A  part  of  them  remained  behind  there  (p.  315),  whUe  eight 
men,  under  the  leadership  of  the  helmsman  Christian,  accompanied  by  six  Tahitian 
men  and  twelve  women,  set  sail  in  January,  1790,  for  the  uninhabited  island  of 
Pitcairn.  In  order  to  prevent  any  escape  from  the  island.  Christian  burnt  the 
"  Bounty,"  whose  tall  masts  might  have  betrayed  the  refuge  of  the  mutineers.  The 
beginning  of  the  community  was  at  once  marked  by  disputes  aud  quarrels ;  the 
men  were  kUled  in  fighting,  and  in  1801,  Jolm  Adams  (formerly  Alex.  Smith, 
d.  March,  1829),  aged  thuty-sLx,  was  the  only  man  on  the  island,  with  some 
women  and  twenty  children. 

Adams,  realising  by  tlie  previous  course  of  affairs  the  danger  which  threatened 
the  little  society,  struck  out  other  paths.  By  his  care  in  educating  the  young 
generation  a  tribal  community  was  developed  which,  to  adopt  Meinicke's  ex- 
pression, united  many  of  the  good  qualities  of  the  Europeans  with  the  virtues  of 
the  Polynesians,  and  by  its  sterling  character  and  high  morality;  won  the  sympa- 
thies of  England  to  no  small  extent,  especially  since  these  colonists  regarded  them- 
selves as  Englishmen  and  spoke  English  as  familiarly  as  Tahitian.  England  has 
alwaj's  watched  over  the  welfare  of  this  little  society.  The  limited  water  supjdy 
of  the  island  having  threatened  to  prove  insufficient  for  the  growing  numbers,  the 
eighty-seven  inhabitants  then  living  were  removed  by  the  English  government  to 
Tahiti  in  1S31 ;  but  most  of  them  soon  returned  to  Pitcairn.  When,  in  1856,  in 
consequence  of  hurricanes  it  became  difficult  to  find  food  for  the  once  more  rapidly 
increasing  population,  187  of  the  194  settlers  were  removed  to  the  then  uninhab- 
ited Norfolk  Island.  The  majority  remained  there,  and  increased  and  prospered. 
In  1871  the  nuniber  had  risen  to  340  souls ;  in  1891  it  reached  738  ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  last  account,  it  now  is  900  souls.  Some,  however,  this  time  also,  could 
not  live  in  a  strange  island,  and  returned  to  Pitcairn,  where  their  number  in  1879 
had  again  risen  to  79  souls.'     Contrary  to  the  disquieting  rumours  which  the  Ger- 

>1790,  27;  1800,  29;  1825,  66;  1831,  87;  1837,  92;  1841,  114;  1856,  194;  1864,  43;  1873,  76; 
1879,  93  ;  1884,  104  ;  1898,  142  ;  1901,  126. 


A'^rauaa,ui^  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  319 

man  press  circulated  in  1896,  to  the  effect  that  Pitcairn  no  longer  supplied  the 
requirements  of  human  inhabitants,  the  population  is  thriving  at  the  present  day. 

(6)  Hawaii.  —  (a)  The  Pagan  Period.  —  The  history  of  Hawaii  begins  for  us  ^vith 
its  discovery  by  James  Cook ;  all  that  took  place  on  it  previously  bears  the  impress 
of  myth.  The  legends  mention  sixty-seven  ancestors  of  Kamehameha  I,  and  place 
therefore  the  begiiming  of  the  settlement  of  Hawaii  at  a  period  which  would 
approximately  correspond  to  the  sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  human  bones  have  been  discovered  under  old  strata  of  coral  and  lava 
streams ;  in  any  case  with  such  a  system  of  chronology  a  large  margin  of  error  must 
be  allowed  for.  Far  more  important  is  the  exceptional  evidence  for  the  solution 
of  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  Hawaiians.  A  large  mass  of  the  traditions 
point  to  the  Samoan  Sawaii  (p.  307),  as  the  chief  point  of  emigration,  without 
necessarily  excluding  accretions  from  other  groups  of  Polynesia.  The  recurrence 
of  Samoan  geographical  names  in  Hawaii  is  an  argument  in  favour  of  the  legends. 
If  we  may  judge  by  the  frequent  mention  which  they  make  of  Tahiti  and  the 
Marquesas  the  main  route  seems  to  have  led  over  these  islands. 

A.  Fornander  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that,  some  twenty  generations  after  the 
first  immigration,  about  the  eleventh  cenimy,  that  is,  a  new  wave  of  nations 
touched  Hawaii,  produced  by  a  general  movement  in  the  island  worlds  of  the 
South  Sea,  which,  again,  was  due  to  the  expulsion  of  Polynesian  immigrants  from 
the  Fiji  Islands.  Into  this  period,  therefore,  fall,  according  to  legend,  the 
journeys  of  famous  chiefs  and  priests  to  distant  isles,  rendered  possible  from  the 
greater  enterprise  of  the  ancient  races  and  the  higher  perfection  of  navigation  at 
that  time.  The  first  and  only  attempt  at  oversea  expansion  gave  way  to  a  fresh 
period  of  isolation,  which  lasts  at  least  into  the  sixteenth  century,  probably  down 
to  the  date  of  Cook's  landing.  During  this  long  period  the  Hawaiian  people  de- 
veloped all  its  peculiar  choyacteristics ;  then  it  was  that  those  numerous  States  and 
societies  were  founded,  which  were  mutually  hostile.  The  waves  of  war  surged 
high  in  the  fourteenth  century,  when  King  Kalaunuiohua  tried  for  the  first  time  to 
unite  all  the  islands  under  his  sceptre.  The  first  intercourse  with  Europeans  dates, 
according  to  James  J.  Jarves  and  Eemy,  from  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1527 
one  of  the  three  vessels  of  Don  Alvarado  de  Saavedra  is  said  to  have  been 
wrecked  on  the  cliffs  of  South  Kona,  and  in  1555,  the  Spanish  navigator  Juan 
Gaiitano  is  supposed  to  have  discovered  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  This  intercourse, 
even  if  it  is  based  on  fact  {vide  Figs.  3a  and  36  on  the  plate  facing  p.  334),  pro- 
duced no  results  on  the  external    and  internal  history  of  the  country. 

James  Cook,  on  his  landing  (1778),  found  three  States :  Hawaii  and  Maui, 
both  of  which  were  governed  by  one  ruler  (Taraiopu,  Terriobu),  since  the  ruler  of 
Hawaii  had  married  the  queen-widow  of  Maui ;  and  thirdly,  Oahu,  to  which  Kauai 
and  Nuhau  belonged.  Not  only  were  Oahu  and  Hawaii  at  war  with  each  other, 
but  all  these  States  were  riddled  with  uiternal  dissensions.  The  task  of  reducing 
this  chaos  to  order  was  reserved  for  Kamehameha  I  (Tamea-Mea ;  1789-1819), 
who  not  only  won  more  foreign  successes  than  any  other  Polynesian  ruler,  but  in 
intellectual  gifts  towered  above  the  average  of  his  race.  He  had  distinguished  him- 
self in  war  as  a  young  man,  and  national  bards  prophesied  of  him  that  he  would 
one  day  unite  the  people.  A  few  years  after  Cook's  murder  (February  14,  1779) 
he  began  to  put  into  practice  his  bold  plans,  on  Hawaii  at  first,  and  after  its  sub- 


320  HISTORY'    OF   THE    WORLD         [chaj.frr  in 

juration,  on  Maui  (1781)  uiul  the  oilier  islands.  Partly  by  liis  personal  valour, 
partly  with  an  army  disciplined  by  the  help  of  Europeans  i^to  which  after  1804  a 
fleet  of  twenty-one  ships  was  joined),  he  attained  his  object  in  1795.  After  storm- 
m<y  the  fort  "  Pali "  on  Oahu,  to  which  island  Kamehameha  is  said  to  liave  crossed 
with  16,000  men,  he  proclaimed  himself  sole  monarch  of  the  Hawaiian  Isles. 
The  two  northwest  islands,  Kauai  and  Nuhau,  then  voluntarily  submitted. 

Like  the  Zulu  king  Tchaka  and  the  Wauyamwesi  leader  Mirambo  (Vol.  Ill,  pp. 
437,  443),  Kamehameha  has  been  compared  to  great  rulers  of  the  Mediterranean 
sphere  of  civilization.  Turnbull  places  him  by  the  side  of  Philip  of  Macedon, 
and  Jarves  calls  him  the  Napoleon  of  the  South  Sea ;  to  others  he  has  suggested 
Peter  the  Great.  He  must  have  been  a  powerful  personality.  Adalbert  de 
Chamisso  was  proud  of  the  fact  that  he  had  shaken  bauds  not  only  with  General 
Marquis  de  Lafayette  and  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  but  also  with  the  great  Hawaiian. 
Kamehameha  I  was,  as  Theodor  Waitz  says,  not  merely  great  in  intellectual 
capacity,  he  was  still  greater  by  his  moral  strength  and  the  power  and  purity 
of  his  will.  If  we  take  into  account  also  his  majestic  bearing,  which  com- 
manded respect,  the  vastness  of  his  influence  is  at  once  accounted  for. 

The  course  of  Kamehanieha's  reign,  after  he  had  united  his  kingdom,  was 
.peaceful  It  was  for  the  llawaiiaus  an  era  of  revolution  in  every  Held,  llmugh 
least  so  in  that  of  social  life.  Kamehameha  made  no  changes  in  the  relations  of 
the  several  classes  of  the  people  to  each  other  and  to  the  monarch.  The  lower 
class  remained,  then  as  formerly,  in  its  strictly  dependent  and  subservient  condi- 
tion, and  he  had  further  weakened  the  power  of  the  nobility,  which  even  before  his 
time  had  been  slight.  A  new  feature  was  the  external  reputation  gained  by  polit- 
ical union,  and  the  growth  of  the  people  into  a  power  unprecedented  in  the  Pacific. 
This,  at  an  early  period  for  Oceania,  had  quickly  turned  the  attention  of  the  Euro- 
pean powers  and  of  North  America  to  the  north  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  as  is  shown 
by  the  numerous  British,  Russian,  American,  and  Frenck  expeditions.  The  changes 
in  the  domain  of  culture  and  economics  involved  more  momentous  consequences 
for  the  future  of  the  Hawaiian  people.  Only  the  higher  classes  of  the  people  were 
materially  Europeanised ;  the  masses  had  to  continue  for  some  time  in  the  old  pagan- 
ism and  the  ancient  Polynesian  semi-culture.'  Nevertheless  it  could  not  be  long  before 
the  whole  nation  was  subject  to  this  change.  Kamehameha  neither  intended  nor  sus- 
pected that  it  should  take  the  form  of  a  complete  disintegration  of  the  old  national 
life.  This  decline  was  mainly  produced  by  the  introduction  of  European  immi- 
grants, who  made  their  way  into  all  the  influential  posts,  and  produced  a  temporary 
economic  prosperit)-  by  transmarine  commercial  enterprise  and  a  policy  of  tariffs ; 
but  at  the  same  time  their  intimate  relations  with  the  natives  were  destined  to 
destroy  the  old  religion,  the  stronghold  of  Hawaiian  nationality. 

(/3)  The  Christian  Period  to  the  Extinction  of  the  line  of  Kamehdmeha.  —  As 
long  as  Kamehameha  held  the  reins  of  government  with  the  strong  hand,  tiie 
crash  was  delayed.  Kamehameha  was  all  his  life  a  firm  supporter  of  paganism, 
for  only  through  a  strict  observance  of  the  traditional  doctrines  was  it  possible  in 
those  times  of  ferment  to  retain  the  respect  of  the  people  for  the  person  and  jiower 
of  the  godlike  monarch.  His  death,  which  occurred  on  May  8,  1S19,  changed 
the  situation.  Lilioliho  (Rio-Rio),  his  son,  who  mounted  the  throne  as  Kame- 
hameha II,  immediately  sank  to  be  a  puppet  in  the  hands  of  his  nobles,  and 


irZT'""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  321 

especially  of  his  co-regent  Kaahumanu  (Kahumonna),  the  favourite  wife  of  the 
late  king,  and  his  aged  chief  counsellor,  Kaleimoku  (Karemaku),  the  "Pitt  of  the 
South  Sea."  At  their  advice  he  abolished  the  ancient  and  revered  custom  of  Taboo, 
and  compelled  women  to  share  a  large  public  banquet  and  to  eat  the  pork  which 
was  forbidden  them.  The  majorit}-  of  the  people  gladly  welcomed  this  step.  The 
minority,  who,  under  the  lead  of  Kekuaokalani,  a  cousin  of  the  king,  remained  true 
to  paganism,  were  defeated  in  the  sanguinary  battle  of  Kuamoo;  Kekuaokalani 
fell,  together  with  his  heroic  wife,  Manona.  The  destruction  of  the  old  temples 
and  images,  already  initiated,  was  carried  out  with  renewed  zeal ;  nevertheless 
idolatry  had  many  supporters  in  secret.  The  half-heartedness  of  the  reforming 
policy  was  more  unfortunate ;  the  Hawaiians  had  been  deprived  of  paganism,  but 
nothing  tangible  was  put  in  its  place. 

The  visits  of  European  and  American  squadrons  during  this  period  induced  the 
monarch  to  seek  an  alliance  with  England,  particularly  since  Russia  and  the  United 
States  had  already  shown  signs  of  establishing  themselves  permanently  in  the 
archipelago.  Kamehameha  I,  in  order  to  increase  his  dignity  at  home  by  the 
support  of  the  great  world  power,  had  made  over  his  kingdom  to  England  in  Febru- 
ary, 1794,  but  his  offer  did  not  meet  with  any  cordial  response.  In  182.3  Liholiho 
and  his  consort,  Kamamalo,  went  to  London,  in  order  in  this  way  to  anticipate  the 
wishes  of  others.  They  both  died  in  1824  in  England,  but  were  buried  in  their 
native  country.  Liholiho's  successor,  his  brother  Keaukeauouli  (Kauikeouli,  Kiu- 
kiuli),  was  only  nine  years  old  when  he  was  placed  on  the  throne  under  the  name 
of  Kamehameha  III.  The  regency  during  his  minority  was  held  by  Kaahumanu 
and  the  old  and  tried  Kaleimoku.  Both  found  work  enough  in  the  succeeding 
years.  It  is  true  that  Protestant  missionaries  had  laboured  since  1820  with  good 
results ;  but  all  their  efforts  were  stultified  by  a  faction  of  morally  and  physically 
corrupt  white  immigrants,  whose  numbers  grew  from  year  to  year.  Dnmkenness 
and  prostitution  became  so  rampant  that  no  improvement  of  the  conditions  could 
be  hoped  for  except  by  means  of  legislation.  Toward  the  end  of  the  "  twenties  "  the 
contest  of  the  Christian  missions  for  supremacy  began  on  Hawaii.  The  Protestant 
mission  was  under  the  protection  of  the  Americans :  the  Catholic  only  gained 
ground  after  numerous  threats  from  the  French  warships  imder  Dupetit-Thouars 
(p.  315).  In  the  year  1837  the  French  extorted  a  declaration  of  universal  religious 
libert)',  which  put  an  end  to  the  violent  persecutions  often  suflered  by  the  Catholic 
Cliristians. 

The  wise  Kaleimoku  died  in  1827,  and  the  death  of  the  energetic  queen-regent, 
Kaahumanu,  followed  in  1832.  Kamehameha  III  declared  himself  of  full  age  in 
1833,  when  he  chose  another  woman,  Kinau,  for  his  co-regent,  and  nominated  her 
son,  Alexander  Liholiho,  heir  to  the  throne. 

The  first  newspapers  printed  in  the  Hawaiian  language  appeared  in  1834. 
Churches  and  schools  of  every  sort  were  erected  in  large  numbers.  At  the  same 
time  the  first  sugar  plantations  were  laid  out,  and  silkworm-breeding  introduced 
on  the  part  of  the  English.  Soon  cotton-growing  was  added  as  a  new  branch  of 
industry.  In  October,  1840,  the  kingdom  received  its  first  constitution.  It  was 
drawn  up  by  the  American,  Richards,  and  presented,  as  Karl  Emil  Jung  expresses 
himself,  a  strange  mixture  of  ancient  feudalism  and  Anglo-American  forms.  The 
ministry  consisted  entirely  of  foreigners.  Richards  became  minister  of  public 
instruction ;  Wjlie,  a  Scotch  doctor,  represented  the  Foreign  Office.     The  finances 

VOL.  U  — 21 


322  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD         [Chapter Jir 

were  administered  after  1842  by  Dr.  Jiuld,  uiuler  whom  the  pulilic  revenue  increased 
from  forty-one  thousand  dollars  in  the  year  1842  to  two  hundred  and  eighty-four 
thousand  dollars  in  1852. 

In  spite  of  religious  toleration  the  disputes  between  the  Protestant  and 
Catholic  clergy  continued  until  the  year  1837.  They  were  often  exploited  by  the 
French  consul  in  order  to  put  strong  pressure  on  the  Hawaiian  government  in 
favour  of  the  Catholic  mission.  At  the  same  time  the  English  consul  took  steps 
which  seemed  to  point  to  an  annexation  of  the  islands  by  (treat  liritain.  This 
induced  the  Hawaiian  government  to  obtain  a  guarantee  of  the  independence  of 
the  kingdom  from  tlie  I'nited  States  of  America  (December,  1842),  France  (at  the 
beginning  of  1842),  and  England  (July  26,  1843).  The  action  of  Lord  I'aulet, 
commander  of  the  frigate  "  Carys,"  in  taking  possession  of  the  island  (February  25, 
1843),  on  his  own  responsibility,  was  not  recognised  by  the  IJritish  government. 

The  constitution  of  1840  was  changed  in  1852,  1864,  and  on  July  6,  1887; 
■with  every  re\ision  it  resembled  more  and  more  the  usual  European  constitutional 
forms,  especially  when  in  1864  the  old  institution  of  the  Kuhina  nui,  or  queen 
regent  was  abolished.  A  pri^'J•  council,  consisting  of  the  ministers  and  a  number 
of  members  nominated  by  the  king,  stood  next  to  the  sovereign.  The  cabinet 
contained  first  live,  and  later  four,  members ;  the  parliament  was  composed  of  a 
house  of  nobles  and  a  house  of  representatives.  The  most  important  otiices 
have  always  been  filled  with  foreigners. 

Kamehameha  III  died  in  December,  1854.  His  successor,  Alexander  Liholiho 
(Kamehameha  IV,  married  to  Queen  Emma),  then  aged  twenty,  lost  no  time  in 
placing  himself  on  better  terms  with  France,  which,  in  defiance  of  the  indepen- 
dence guaranteed  in  1843,  had  overwhelmed  the  kingdom  with  difficulties  and  had 
repeatedly  humiliated  it.  A  final  treaty  between  the  two  countries  was  effected  in 
1858.  On  the  death  of  Kameliameha  IV  in  1864,  his  elder  brother,  who  had 
something  of  Kamehameha  I  in  him,  succeeded  to  the  crown.  The  first  act  of 
Kamehameha  V  was  to  alter  the  constitution  of  1864.  In  the  next  j-ear  an  immi- 
gration bureau  was  instituted  as  a  check  on  the  constant  shrinkage  in  the  popula- 
tion ;  five  hundred  Chinese  were  first  brought  into  the  country,  to  be  followed  by 
the  first  Ja])anese  in  1868.  Finally  measures  were  taken  to  check  the  leprosy 
which  had  been  introduced  from  China  in  1853,  and  had  spread  alarmingly. 
Kamehameha  V  died  suddenly  in  1872,  the  last  of  his  family. 

(7)  The  Last  Period  of  Hawaii  as  an  Independent  State.  —  For  some  months 
Lunalilo,  a  kinsman  of  the  Kamehamehas,  lield  the  sceptre.  After  his  death,  which 
occurred  on  February  3, 1874,  Colonel  David  Kalakaua,  born  on  November  16, 1836, 
in  Honolulu,  was  elected  king.  In  spite  of  his  somewhat  frivolous  nature  he  was  a 
far-sighted  monarch  ;  he  concluded  in  1875  a  commercial  treaty  with  the  Ignited 
States  of  North  America,  which  secured  for  his  kingdom  the  most  favourable 
tariff's  and  greatly  promoted  the  prosperity  of  the  islands.  The  cultivation  of  sugar 
and  rice,  the  two  principal  exports,  increased  enormously,  and  indeed  there  was  a 
general  increase  both  in  exports  and  in  imports.  But  this  revival  of  trade  benefited 
only  the  whites.  Want  of  labourers  made  it  once  more  necessary  to  introduce 
foreigners.  In  1877  the  first  Portuguese  came  into  the  country  from  the  Azores 
(in  1884  there  were  some  10,000);  at  the  same  time  increasing  streams  of  Chmese 
and  Japanese  flooded  the  land  (in  1890  there  were  counted  15,301  and  17,360). 


Australia  and' 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  323 


The  numerical  proportion  of  these  ethnically  undesirable  Mongols  to  the  native 
population  has,  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century,  steadily  increased. 
In  mo\ing  forward  to  tlie  conquest  of  the  Pacific,  the  yellow  races  have  found 
Hawaii  the  best  point  of  attack.  The  growth  of  economic  and  political  relations 
with  America  during  the  reign  of  Kalakaua  (1874-1891)  has  been  as  rapid  and 
continuous  as  the  Mougol  immigration.  As  long  ago  as  the  winter  of  1873-1874, 
Pearl  Harbour  near  Honolulu  was  offered  by  Lunalilo  to  the  Americans  by  way  of 
compensation  for  commercial  concessions.  When  the  treaty  of  1875  required  to 
be  renewed  in  1887,  the  United  States  of  North  America  claimed  this  place  as  a 
permanent  possession  ;  further,  Hawaii  was  not  to  venture  to  conclude  treaties  with 
any  other  foreign  power  without  their  consent,  while  they  claimed  the  right  to 
land  troops  in  Hawaii  at  all  times.  The  influence  of  the  English  residents  pre- 
vented Kalakaua  from  conceding  these  humiliating  conditious.  The  refusal  of 
the  American  proposals  signitied,  from  an  economic  aspect,  the  beginning  of  a 
financial  crisis,  by  which,  in  the  opinion  of  Adolf  Marcuse,  the  Hawaiian  dynasty 
was  ruined. 

Kalakaua  died  on  January  20, 1891,  at  San  Francisco.  The  seventeen  years  of 
his  reign  had  been  outwardly  rich  in  "  progress."  He  had  a  small  standing  army 
at  his  disposition  ;  Hawaii  had  obtained  lines  of  railroads  and  steamsliips ;  palaces 
and  lighthouses  had  been  bujlt,  and  Honolulu  lighted  by  electricity.  Waterworks 
and  telegraph  lines  had  been  constructed,  and  large  stretches  of  barren  country  had 
been  made  cultivable  by  irrigation  works.  The  stage  of  European  civilization 
commenced,  it  must  be  confessed,  with  an  enormous  load  of  debt,  attributable  to 
the  frivolity  and  the  extravagance  of  the  popularly  beloved  king,  who  had  been 
married  since  1863  to  Kapiolani,  but  had  no  issue. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  sister,  Lydia  Kamakaeha  Liliuokalani,  a  woman  of 
fifty-two,  who  was  proclaimed  queen  on  January  29,  1891.  Her  short  reign  ended 
with  the  downfall  of  tlie  Hawaiian  monarchy  and  the  annexation  of  the  island  by 
the  United  States.  Under  the  dominion  of  the  new  American  tarift'  laws,  which 
secured  considerable  export  bounties  to  native  sugar  producers,  Hawaii  could  no 
longer  compete  in  the  world  market;  exports  rapidly  fell  off,  and  the  national 
prosperit}-  flagged.  The  foreign  section  of  the  population,  which  was  dependent 
chiefly  on  the  American  trade,  found  this  a  reasonable  cause  for  supporting  more 
boldly  the  idea  of  close  connection  with  the  United  States.  The  results  were  dis- 
sensions in  the  government,  an  over-rapid  change  in  the  constitution,  wliich  was 
intended  to  weaken  the  influence  of  the  foreigners,  and  a  threatened  coup  d'etat 
on  the  queen's  part.  The  end  was  the  deposition  of  the  queen  and  the  procla- 
mation of  Hawaii  as  a  republic  on  January  17,  1893. 

The  efforts  of  the  victorious  Americanists  of  Honolulu  toward  a  close  connection 
with  the  United  States  were  at  first  unsuccessful.  The  President,  Benjamin 
Harrison,  shortly  before  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  ofiice  which  ended  on  March 
4, 1893,  advocated  annexation  in  a  message  to  the  senate ;  but  his  successor,  Grover 
Cleveland,  was  opposed  to  it.  The  kingdom  thereupon  was  declared  to  be  changed 
into  the  republic  of  Hawaii  on  July  4,  1894,  and  a  constitution  was  framed, 
which  provided  a  legislative  assembly,  a  senate,  and  a  house  of  representatives. 
The  constitution,  however,  hardly  lasted  long  enough  to  become  an  actuality ;  after 
McKinley's  entrance  on  office  in  the  spring  of  1897  the  incorporation  with  the 
Union  was  effected   without  any  difficulty.     The  constitutional  position  of  the 


324  HISTORY    OF  -THE    WORLD         lchaj>f,-rin 

island  group  was  settled  on  June  14,  1900.  Hawaii  now  forms  a  territory  of 
the  United  States;  the  iH)pular element  in  its  government  consists  of  a  senate  with 
fifteen  members  and  a  house  of  representatives  with  thirty  membei-s.  The  lirst 
election  of  a  representative  to  Congress  took  place  on  November  6,  1900.  The 
governor,  a  secretary,  and  the  three  judges  of  the  supreme  court  are  nominated  by 
the  president  of  the  United  Stales,  the  other  officials  V)y  the  governor. 

The  planting  of  the  stars  and  stripes  in  the  middle  oi  the  Northern  Pacitic 
Ocean  is  not  the  tirst  step  which  American  imperialism  has  taken  since  1898 
{inde  Vol.  I,  p.  574),  but  it  is  one  of  the  most  momentous.  Tutuila  in  the  Samoan 
group  and  Guam  in  the  Marianne  Islands  are  both  like  feelers  which  are  stretched 
out  far  towards  the  southwest  in  the  direction  of  ilelane.sia  and  Australia ;  the 
broad  surfaces  of  the  Philippines  flank  the  important  international  trade  route 
from  Europe  to  the  eastern  margin  of  Asia.  In  the  case  of  Hawaii  a  higher  stand- 
ard must  be  applied.  Wlien  the  Isthnms  of  Panama  has  been  cut  through,  and 
the  United  States  really  becomes  a  power  in  the  Pacitic,  then  Hawaii,  ajxirt  from 
its  trade,  will  be  indispensable  as  a  strategic  base  commanding  the  northern  half  of 
the  Pacific.  It  wUl  be  the  only  intermediate  station  on  the  long  route  from  the 
Central  American  canal  and  from  San  Francisco  to  Eastern  and  Southern  Asia. 
The  annexation  of  Hawaii  by  America  is  a  particularly  hard  blow  for  Japan,  which 
had  itself  been  forced  to  see  a  similar  attempt  fail  ;^  nor  is  it  welcomed  by  Eng- 
land, Germany,  Eussia,  and  France. 

Only  remnants  are  now  left  of  the  native  race,  and  only  traces  of  the  nation- 
ality of  HawaiL  There  has  been  an  uninterrupted  decline  in  the  native  population 
since  the  discovery  of  the  islands.  In  1778  there  were  estimated  —  though  the 
calculation  is  certainly  excessive  —  to  be  400,000  souls; in  1832  the  tirst  actual 
census  gave  130,313  natives.  Four  years  later  there  were  only  108,579;  in  1850, 
82,203  ;  1860,  71,019  ;  1872,  49,044;  1884,  40,014 ;  1896,  30,019.  At  the  present 
day  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  fix  the  number  of  pure  natives,  on  account  of  the 
numerous  half-castes,  whose  numbers  were  put  at  6,186  in  1890,  and  8,485  in 
1896 ;  an  increase  of  more  than  33  per  cent  in  six  j-ears.  At  the  same  time  the 
full-blooded  Hawaiians  have  diminished  by  10  per  cent.  These  make  up  barely 
a  fifth  of  the  whole  pojnilation  (in  1900,  154,000  souls) ;  they  are  therefore  less 
than  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  taken  separately,  and  will  soon  be  equalled  by  the 
Portuguese.  We  cannot  make  the  Europeans  entirely,  responsible  for  the  alarm- 
ingly rapid  retrogression  of  the  Hawaiians.  Besides  the  diseases  introduced  by 
the  former,  the  original  laxity  of  morals,  the  drunkenness,  various  epidemics,  and 
more  than  all,  the  traditional  practice,  of  infanticide,  have  been  the  chief  causes. 
In  place  of  the  natives  there  wUl  soon  be  only  Chinese,  Japanese,  Europeans,  and 
Americans  in  HawaiL 

(c)  Samoa.  —  More  labour  has  been  devoted  of  recent  times  to  the  investigation 
of  the  history  of  Samoa  than  to  that  of  all  the  other  Polynesian  island  groups  put 
together.  The  results  obtained  are  hardly  proportionate.  The  hnig  list  of  proud 
genealogies  with  an  infinity  of  names  tells  of  the  vigorous  life  of  the  petty  States 
on  the  several  islands  and  their  divisions ;  tradition  also  records  various  invasions 
from  Fiji  and  Tonga.  But  we  do  not  obtain  the  smallest  information  about  the 
date  of  the  various  events  to  which  the  legends  refer.  The  investigations  of  George 
Turner,  W.  von  Biilow,  0.  Stiibel,  Augustin  Kramer,  and  others  go  to  prove  that 


iTe'Jnt"'""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  325 

the  general  conditions  of  Samoa  in  the  periods  before  its  discovery  by  Europeans 
was  hardly  distmguished  from  that  of  other  archipelagoes.  Its  political  organisa- 
tion and  to  some  degree  its  stage  uf  social  institutions  had  alone  been  somewhat 
more  fully  developed.  The  vendettas  and  disputes  between  different  influential 
families,  which  are  also  recorded,  are  of  little  importance  to  the  world,  although 
they  have  naturally  been  exaggerated  to  great  events  from  the  perspective  of  the 
Polynesians. 

(a)  History  of  Samoa  Proper.  — The  traditions  of  Samoa  do  not  run  back 
very  far;  we  need  not  assume  more  tlian  live  hundred  years  for  its  inha})itauts 
as  a  historical  nation ;  how  far  before  that  date  their  immigration  must  be  placed, 
is  impossible  to  calculate.  The  chief  event  of  early  history  is  the  subjugation  by 
the  Tongans,  and  the  Samoan  war  of  liberation  wliich  was  connected  witli  that 
(according  to  Von  Blilow,  about  1600  a.  d.,  according  to  Kramer  about  1200  a.  d.). 
That  was  their  heroic  age.  Malie  tau,  malie  toa  ("  Well  fought,  brave  warriors  ") 
was,  according  to  legend,  the  admiring  sliout  of  the  Tongan  king  to  two  young 
chiefs,  as  he  pushed  off  from  shore  on  his  return  journey.  This  title,  which  then 
passed  to  the  elder  of  the  two  brothers,  Savea,  has  been  hereditary  in  his  family 
down  to  the  present  day. 

Samoa  is  the  land  of  titles.  Above  the  common  people  stand  the  nobles, 
at  the  head  of  whom  are  tJie  village  chief  Alii,  and  the  district  governor  Tui,  wliile 
the  highest  chief  (king)  bears  the  title  of  Tupu.  Little  inferior  to  him  are  the 
Tulafale,  or  orators,  whose  political  position,  generally,  depends  enthely  on  their 
personal  abilities.  Besides  this,  titles  taken  from  certain  districts  or  places,  in  com- 
memoration of  certain  persons  or  events,  are  conferred  as  honourable  distinctions, 
whose  possession  is  a  preliminary  condition  for  the  attainment  of  the  political 
headship.  The  most  famous  of  these  titles  is  the  above  mentioned  "  Malietoa," 
which  the  township  of  Malie,  lying  nine  miles  to  the  west  of  Apia,  has  the  right  to 
confer ;  a  second  and  hardly  less  renowned  is  "  Mata'afa,"  which  is  bestowed  by  the 
village  of  Faleata.  On  the  other  hand,  the  claim  to  the  sovereignty  rests  on  the 
lawfully  conferred  right  to  the  four  names,  Tuiatua  and  Tuiaaua,  Gatoaitele  and 
Tamasoalii,  the  last  two  of  which  are  traced  to  the  names  of  two  princesses. 

Shortly  before  Jean  Francois  Count  Laperouse  landed  on  Sam»a,  in  1787,  Galu- 
malemana,  a  chief  of  the  Tupua  family,  had,  after  fierce  civil  wars,  usurped  the 
sovereignty  of  the  whole  island.  On  his  death,  about  1790,  violent  struggles  broke 
out  between  the  brothers  entitled  to  the  inheritance,  from  which  at  first  Nofoasaefa 
(an  ancestor  of  Tamasese)  emerged  victoriously.  He  could  not,  however,  perma- 
nently maintain  his  position,  but  retired  to  his  ancestral  home,  Asau,  on  Savaii, 
and  once  more  revived  the  cannibalism  which  had  almost  been  forgotten  in  Samoa. 
Galumalemana's  posthumous  son,  J'aniufaua,  who  even  befoi-e  his  birtli  had  been 
called  by  the  dying  father  prophetically  tlie  unitur  of  the  kingdom,  finally  inherited 
the  throne.  He  was  succeeded  (after  1800)  by  Mata'afa  Filisoimu'u,  who  was  at 
once  involved  in  serious  wars  with  the  Malietoas.  The  victory  rested  with  the 
Malietoa  Vaiinupo,  an  ally  of  the  ruler  of  Manono,  who  conquered  the  countrj-  of 
Aaana  and  seized  the  power  on  the  same  day  of  August  in  the  3'ear  1830  on  which 
John  Wilb'ams  (Vol.  VII,  p.  362)  set  foot  on  Savaii  as  the  first  missionary. 
Malietoa  assumed  in  consequence  the  title  "Tupa,"  which  has  since  been  custom- 
ary in  Samoa.  He  also  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and  received  the  name  of 
Tavita  (David) ;  he  died  on  May  11,  1S41. 


326  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Ichapu,- iii 

Tlie  two  decades  after  his  death  were  in  Samoa  once  more  a  war  of  all  against 
all.  Out  of  the  number  of  claimants  to  the  throne,  Malietoa  Laupejia  ami  his 
uncle  I'e'a,  or  Talavuu,  linaUy  liekl  llie  j)o\ver  jointly  for  some  years.  But  intluenced 
by  the  foreigners  in  the  country,  the  Samoans  in  1868  resolved  to  put  only  one 
chief  at  the  head  of  affairs,  and  to  assemble  the  estates  of  the  realm  no  longer  in 
Manono,  but  in  Mulinuu,  near  Apia.  Manono,  jealous  of  its  ancient  precedence, 
declared  Pe'a  king,  and  conquered  JIalietoa  Laupcpa  and  his  followers.  Finally, 
in  1873,  through  the  intervention  of  the  foreign  consuls,  who  had  been  appointed 
in  the  interval,  a  treaty  was  concluded,  by  which  the  ruling  power  was  put  in  the 
hands  of  the  seven  members  of  tlie  Ta'imua,  an  upjier  house,  by  the  side  ol  which 
the  meetings  of  the  district  governors,  the  Fai  I'ule,  or  lower  house,  still  continued. 
But  in  1875  disorders  recommenced,  and  this  time  the  impulse  came  from  outside. 

(y8)  The  Invasions  from  Otttside.  —  As  far  back  as  1872  the  enterprising  New 
Zealanders  had  advocated  a  British  annexatitm  of  Samoa,  and  had  offered  to  equip 
a  ship  for  that  purpose.  At  the  same  time  the  United  States  had  obtained,  on 
Februai-y  17,  1872,  the  concession  of  the  harbour  I'ango-Pango  on  Tutuila,  tlie  best 
of  the  group.  Tlie  annexation  of  all  Tutuila,  proclaimed  by  a  sea  captain  on  his 
own  responsibility,  was  not  sanctioned  in  Washington.  About  the  middle  of  1873, 
the  American  "  Colonel "  Steinberger,  a  German  Jew  by  descent,  appeared  as  a  com- 
missioner in  Samoa,  in  order  to  study  the  resources  of  the  island  group.  This 
cunning  and  ambitious  man  soon  raised  himself  to  the  most  influential  position, 
and  induced  the  natives  to  ask  for  a  protectorate  of  the  United  States.  Steinberger 
himself  conveyed  the  petition  to  Washington ;  lie  returned  on  April  1,  lS7o,  to 
Samoa,  but  only  with  presents  and  a  letter  of  introduction  from  the  President, 
Ulysses  S.  Grant.  Steinberger  gave  the  country  a  simple  constitution,  appouited 
Malietoa  Laupepa  king  (nominally),  while  he  himself  modestly  assumed  the  title 
of  "  Prime  Minister ;  "  he  settled  the  succession,  arranged  the  system  of  jurisdiction, 
and  established  order  and  peace  throughout  the  land.  But  in  I)ccember,  1875,  at 
the  instance  of  the  jealous  missionaries  and  the  English  population,  he  was  carried 
off  by  an  English  man-of-war,  after  a  bloodly  battle,  and  taken  to  New  Zealand. 
He  died  in  New  York  toward  the  end  of  the  eeiitury. 

The  intentit)us  of  the  Union  on  Samoa  were  now  more  apparent;  in  1887,  the 
American  consul  hoisted  his  flag,  and  only  the  energetic  remonstrances  of  Germany 
and  England  hindered  the  Americans  from  tirnily  establishing  themselves.  In 
June  of  that  year  the  German  government  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Samoans, 
by  which  they  were  jirevented  from  giving  any  foreign  government  special  privileges 
to  the  prejudice  of  Germany.  On  January  17,  1878,  the  Americans,  for  their  part, 
entered  into  a  treaty,  to  secure  friendly  relations  and  jiromote  trade,  witli  Malietoa 
Laujiepa;  at  the  same  time  the  harbour  of  Pango-Pango  was  dctinitely  given  over 
to  them.  On  January  24,  1879,  tiermany  was  assigned  the  harbour  of  Saluafata, 
on  Upolu,  as  a  naval  station ;  England  also,  by  a  treaty  of  August  28,  1879,  secured 
for  herself  the  use  of  all  these  waters,  and  the  right  to  choose  a  coaling  station. 
On  September  2,  by  a  treaty  between  Germany,  England,  the  Union,  and  Malietoa, 
the  district  of  Apia  was  declared  neutral  territory,  and  placed  under  a  municipal 
council  to  be  appointed  by  the  three  powers  in  turn.  Finally,  on  December  23, 
on  board  the  German  ship  "  Bismarck,"  ^Malietoa  Talavou  (Pe'a)  was  elected,  by 
numerous  chiefs,  to  the  dignity  of  king  for  life,  with  Laupepa  as  regent. 


i^Lnt'"'"]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  327 

Since  the  middle  of  the  '•  fifties  "  the  Hamburo;  merchant  house  of  Johann  Cesar 
Godeffroy  and  Sun  had  made  the  South  Sea  the  chief  sphere  of  its  enterprises,  and, 
a  decade  and  a  half  later,  had  monopolised  the  trade  witli  the  central  and  eastern 
group  of  islands ;  it  had  also  acquired  large  estates  on  tlie  Carolines  and  the  three 
large  Samoau  islands,  Savaii,  Upolu,  and  Tutuila.  Misfortunes  on  the  stock 
exchange  placed  the  firm,  toward  the  end  of  the  "seventies,"  in  so  precarious  a 
position  that,  in  view  of  the  Anglo-Australian  movement  to  occupy  all  the  un- 
appropriated South  Sea  Islands,  Prince  Bismarck  abandoned  his  colonial  policy  of 
inaction,  and,  at  the  beginning  of  1880,  introduced  the  "  Samoan  proposition,"  by 
which  the  empire  was  to  uiterfere  and  undertake  to  guarantee  the  small  tribute 
due  from  the  Godeffroys.  But  the  German  Eeichstag  rejected  the  proposition  on 
the  third  reading  on  April  29,  1880  ;  "  where  difficult  duties  can  only  be  discharged 
by  the  resources  of  a  nation,  there  our  German  history  shows  merely  a  list  of  wasted 
opportunities  "  (Oskar  Peschel). 

(7)  Samoa  and  the  Puicers.  —  King  Malietoa  Talavou  died  on  November  8, 
1880.  His  nephew,  Malietoa  Laupepa,  was  totally  unable  to  check  the  renewed 
outbreak  of  civU  war  among  the  natives;  in  fact,  at  the  beginning  of  1886  one 
party  chose,  at  the  advdce  of  Eugen  Braudeis,  the  chief  Tamasese  as  king.  He 
found  support  from  the  Germans,  because  Laupepa,  in  November,  1885,  had  secretly 
ofilered  the  sovereignty  to  England.  Continued  injury  to  German  interests,  and 
insults  and  outrages  inflicted  by  Laupepa's  adherents  on  German  civU  servants, 
led,  in  August,  1887,  to  Laupepa  being  arrested  by  German  marines,  and  taken 
first  to  the  Cameroims  and  then  to  the  Marshall  Islands. 

Tamasese's  rule  was  also  brief.  On  September  9,  1888,  the  adherents  of 
Malietoa  Laupepa  proclaimed  the  renowned  Mataafa  king,  and  defeated  Tamasese. 
\Mien  his  people  ventured  on  outrages  against  the  Germans,  the  two  German 
•warships  lying  off  Apia,  at  the  request  of  the  German  consul,  Knappe,  landed 
their  crews;  but  through  treacher}'  they  fell  into  an  ambush  on  December  18, 
and  were  almost  annihilated.  Stronger  German  detachments  were  required 
before  the  rebels  were  repulsed.  In  addition  to  this,  a  luirricane,  on  JLuch  19, 
1889,  wrecked  the  two  German  gunboats,  "  Eber "  and  "  Adler,"  in  the  harbour 
of  Apia,  and  ninety-five  brave  sailors  lost  their  lives.  The  English  ship,  H.M.S. 
"  Calliope,"  escaped  by  steaming  out,  and  the  captain,  Kane,  displayed  the  greatest 
skill  and  seamanship.    The  Americans  suffered  neaily  as  lieavUy  as  the  Germans. 

A  settlement  of  Samoan  affaii-s  was  the  result  of  the  conference  held  in 
Berlin  during  the  summer  of  1889,  to  which  Germany,  England,  and  the  United 
States  sent  representatives.  In  the  final  protocol  of  June  14  the  island  group  was 
declared  independent  and  neutral  under  the  joint  protection  of  the  three  powers. 
Tamasese  and  Mataafa  were  deposed,  and  Malietoa  Laupepa,  who  had  been  brought 
back  to  Samoa  in  late  autumn,  was  reinstated  on  the  throne,  ilataafa,  however, 
was  soon  re-elected  king  by  his  party ;  but  in  1893  was  conquered  on  Manono  and 
banished  by  the  powers  who  signed  the  treaty.  Tamasese  the  Younger  took  his 
place,  and  the  civil  war  continued.  IMalietoa  Laupepa  then  died  on  August  22, 
1898.  Only  two  candidates  for  the  succession  were  seriously  to  be  considered, — 
the  banished  but  popular  Mataafa,  and  Tanu  Mafili,  the  son  of  Laupepa,  aged  six- 
teen, a  protege  of  the  English  mission,  and  thus  of  the  English  and  American 
governments.  Tamasese  the  Younger  was  kept  by  the  English  in  reserve  merely 
as  a  sulistitute  for  Tanu. 


328  HISTC)R^■    OF    THE    WORLD         [n.„j>urj/i 

The  subject  of  the  ih-ania,  which  was  unfolded  in  the  winter  of  1898-1899  in 
the  distant  South  Sea  archiiielajjo,  was  not  so  nnidi  the  welfare  uf  ilie  few  Saniuans 
or  the  possession  of  the  small  islands  as  far  weij^luiei-  cunHiclinjj  interests.  No 
worIs  need  be  wasted  about  the  causes  of  the  intense  Anglo-Australian  lonijing 
for  the  islands.  The  United  States  of  North  America,  who  had  obtained  Hawaii 
and  the  I'liilippines  immediately  before  this,  thus  possessed  niagniHcent  strategic 
and  commereial  bases  for  tlie  northern  part  of  the  Pacific,  but  not  for  the  south. 
The  interests  of  Germany,  hnally,  were  based  on  economics.  In  production  and 
trade  it  considerably  surpassed  both  parties ;  and  it  was  a  point  of  honour  with  the 
German  government  not  to  let  the  prize  which  had  onqe  been  grasped  escape  in 
the  end  from  their  lingers. 

The  Samoans  chose  Mataafa  by  an  overwhelming  majority.  At  the  same 
time  the  American  Chief  Justice  Chamber.s,  on  December  21,  declared  that  the 
young  Tauu  was  elected  with  his  approval,  and  that  ilataafa  could  not  come  into 
the  question,  since  he  was  excluded  by  the  Berlin  protocol,  aUhnugh  a  clause  to 
that  eftect  proposed  by  Prince  Bismarck  had  not  been  adopted  in  the  final  version. 
The  remonstrances  of  the  German  consul.  Rose,  and  tiie  German  municipal  coun- 
cillor. Dr.  Uaftel,  were  disregarded.  Mataafa  then  todk  the  matter  into  his  own 
hands  and  drove  the  supporters  of  Tanu  out  of  Apia  down  to  the  sea  and  the 
ships  of  the  allied  powers.  After  repeated  bombardments  of  the  coast  villages  by 
the  British  and  American  war  vessels  in  the  second  half  of  March,  a  joint  com- 
mittee of  inquiry  was  instituted  in  the  spring  of  1S99  at  the  suggestion  of  Crer- 
many,  and  this  transferred  in  July  the  rights  of  the  abolished  monarchy  temporarily 
to  the  consuls  of  the  three  powers.  In  the  treaty  of  Loudon  of  November  14 
Germany  and  England  came  to  an  agreement,  and  iu  the  Washhigtou  protocol  of 
December  2  the  United  States  also  gave  their  as.sent. 

Great  Britain  under  thi.?  treaty  entirely  renounced  all  claim  to  the  Samoan 
Islands.  By  the  repeal  of  the  Samoa  act,  Upulu  and  Savaii,  with  the  adjacent 
small  island.s,  became  the  absolute  property  of  Germany,  wliile  Tutuila  and  the 
other  Samoan  Islands  east  of  171°  W.  longitude  fell  to  the  United  States.  Germany 
in  return  renounced  her  claims  to  the  Tonga  Islands  and  Savage  Island  in  favour 
of  England,  and  ceded  to  the  same  power  the  two  Solomon  Islands,  Choiseul  and 
Isabel.  The  German  Reichstag  approved  the  treaty  on  February  IM,  1000.  On 
March  1  the  newly  nominated  German  governor,  Solf,  took  formal  possession  of 
the  islands.  On  August  14,  finally,  the  wisely  conceded  self-government  of  the 
natives  came  into  force  again.  The  rf)yal  dignity  alone  was  abolished.  Mataafa 
bore,  in.stead  of  tlie  former  title  of  Tupu,  tliat  of  a  Alii  Sill,  or  liigli  chief. 

(d)  Tonga.  —  Of  the  islands  in  the  central  part  of  Oceania,  the  Tonga  archi- 
pelago alone,  besides  Fiji  and  Samoa,  has  a  notewortliy  hi.story.  We  know  little 
of  its  course  before  the  arrival  of  James  Cook,  with  exception  of  the  social  condi- 
tions. At  the  head  of  the  constitution  stood  the  Tuitonga,  monarch  and  god  at 
once,  with  absolute  power  over  persons  and  pro]ierty.  Almost  equal  to  him  in 
reputation  and  sanctity  was  the  Tui  Ardeo,  according  to  Meinicke  the  descendant 
of  a  dethroned  royal  family,  which  had  still  retained  a  special  position.  The  Tui- 
tonga had  to  show  peculiar  honours  to  the  Tui  Ardeo  on  different  occasions.  The 
king  and  his  family  composed  the  first  class  ("  Han  ")  of  tlie  nobility.  The  second 
(the  "Eiki,"  or  "Egi,"  who  also  bore  the  title  Tui,  or  lord)  furnished  the  highest 


i^Sr"^]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  329 

officials  in  the  kingdom  and  the  district  governors,  and  was  appointed  by  the  king, 
although  the  dignity  was  heieditary.  The  first  of  tlie  Eiki  was  in  pre-Euiopean 
times  the  Tui  Hatakalawa,  the  minister  of  the  interior;  in  Mariner's  time  (1810) 
he  came  in  precedence  after  the  Tui  Kanakabolo,  or  war  minister.  Since  in  the 
nineteenth  century  the  Tuitonga  was  excluded  from  all  share  in  tlie  wars,  the  war 
minister  easily  attained  to  greater  influence  than  the  monarch  himself;  indeed, 
the  Tui  Kanakabolo  has  been  taken  by  more  than  one  traveller  for  the  Tuitonga. 
Among  the  Eiki  titles,  those  of  the  Ata,  the  highest  commander  in  war,  and  of  the 
Lavaka,  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  were  also  of  importance.  The  last  class 
of  nobility  (Matabule)  furnished  councillors  and  servants  of  the  Eiki  and  the 
Tuitonga,  district  governors,  public  teachers,  and  representatives  of  the  most  hon- 
ourable crafts,  such  as  shipbuilding  and  the  making  of  weapons.  The  three  classes 
of  nobility  were  the  sole  possessors  of  the  soil,  as  well  as  of  the  power  of  Taboo. 
The  common  people  had  no  share  in  either ;  it  only  possessed  its  personal  freedom, 
and  supported  itself  merely  bj'  the  cultivation  of  the  lands  of  the  nobles,  by  handi- 
crafts, or  by  fishing.  Among  handicrafts  those  requiring  superior  skill  were  reserved 
for  the  higher  class  of  the  commons,  the  Mua,  while  agriculture  and  the  profession 
of  cooking  were  assigned  to  the  lower  class,  or  Tua. 

Cook  in  1773  and  1777  found  the  glory  of  the  old  dynasty,  Fatafehi  (Falafahi), 
already  eclipsed  by  the  power  of  the  Tupo  nobles,  who  had  secured  all  the  im- 
portant offices  of  State.  According  to  Meiuicke,  the  Tuitonga  might  apparently 
only  take  their  wives  from  the  family  of  Tupo.  Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  this  concentration  of  power  had  increased  to  the  extent  of  driving  out  the 
Tuitonga.  This  roused  other  Eiki  families  to  imitate  the  example  of  the  Tupo. 
The  regents  of  Hapai  and  Vavau  first  revolted;  those  of  Tongalabu  followed. 
After  long  struggles  the  victory  rested  with  Finau,  the  Eiki  of  Hapai,  although  he 
could  no  longer  force  the  whole  archipelago  to  obey  his  rule.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century  the  Finau  shifted  the  political  centre  of  gravity  to  Vavau. 
In  1830  Taufaahau,  the  lord  of  Hapai,  and  Tubo,  the  Eiki  of  Tongatabu,  adopted 
Christianity.  When  the  Finau  died  out  in  1833,  Vavau  fell  to  the  former.  In 
this  way  Taufaahau  governed  over  the  same  kingdom  as  Finau  I  thirty  years 
earlier.  In  1845  Tubo,  or,  as  he  was  called  after  his  conversion,  Josiah  of  Tonga- 
tabu,  died  also.  Taufaahau,  as  King  George  Tubou  I,  now  united  the  wliole  archi- 
pelago into  one  kingdom.  This  State  bore  from  the  first  the  stamp  of  European 
influence.  The  Wesleyan  mission  had  soon  extended  its  activity  to  political  and 
social  matters.  In  1839  George  issued  an  edict  for  Hapai  and  Vavau,  wliich  estab- 
lished a  court  of  justice  of  four  members  and  a  wTitten  code,  and  abolished  the  old 
customs,  according  to  which  each  chief  administered  justice  at  his  own  discretion. 
The  legislation  of  1862  finally  raised  the  existing  serfs  to  the  position  of  free 
farmers  of  the  soil,  from  which  they  could  not  be  ousted  so  long  as  they  paid  their 
rent.  The  taxes  (six  dollars  yearly)  were  uniformly  imposed  on  all  male  inhabit- 
ants over  sixteen  years  of  age. 

After  1838  on  Tonga  also  there  were  (piarrels  between  the  Catholic  and  Pro- 
testant missions.  In  December,  1841,  threats  of  a  French  warship  caused  the 
ruler  of  Tongatabu  to  seek  an  English  protectorate,  which  was  granted  him.  The 
Catholic  missionaries,  however,  obtained  admission.  Their  success  in  the  religious 
field  was  never  important ;  but  in  the  political  field  they  had  even  in  1847  so 
great  an  influence  over  Tongatabu,  that  the  chiefs  of  that  part  commenced  an  oppo- 


330  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter in 

sition  to  the  rule  of  George  I,  which  was  only  repressed  in  1852  by  the  storming 
of  the  fortresses  Houma  and  I'ea,  defended  by  French  missionaries.  Although 
the  chiefs  were  reinstated  in  their  former  posts,  and  the  missionaries  receiveil  no 
injury  to  life  or  property,  France  felt  herself  aggrieved,  and  extorted  in  I808  an 
official  permission  of  the  Catholic  teaching,  and  put  various  Catholic  chiefs  in  the 
place  of  Protestants. 

King  tleorge,  notwithstanding,  found  time  to  make  expeditions  to  other  coun- 
tries. The  Tongans  had  at  all  times,  owing  to  their  great  nautical  skill,  under- 
taken campaigns  against  Samoa  and  Nuka  Hiwa,  and  had  caused  panic  especially 
in  the  neighliouring  archipelagoes.  The  people  of  Fiji  had  thus  a  stmng  tinge  of 
the  Polynesian  in  them.  A  few  years  after  Cook's  second  visit  (1777),  a  Tongan 
condottiere  played  a  great  part  in  the  Fijian  disorders.  In  1854  King  Geoi-ge 
appeared  with  a  large  fleet,  avowedly  to  support  Thakombau  in  his  difficulties 
(p.  313).  This  expedition  gave  the  Tongans  subseipienily  a  jm'text  for  claiming 
large  compensation,  which  finally  drove  Tliakombau  into  the  arms  of  England. 

George  Tubou  I  completed  tlie  internal  reforms' of  his  island  kingdom  by  the 
constitution  of  November  4,  1875.  This  was  partly  the  creation  of  the  king  him- 
self, partly  that  of  his  old  and  loyal  councillor,  the  missionary  Shirley  Baker.  Its 
contents  kept  closely  to  English  forms ;  in  its  idtimate  shape,  as  settled  b\-  the 
chambers  and  printed  in  the  English  language  in  1877,  it  provided  for  a  legislative 
assembly,  which  met  every  two  years.  Half  of  its  members  belonged  to  the  hered- 
itary nobility  and  were  nominated  by  the  king ;  the  rest  were  elected  by  the 
people.  The  executive  power  lay  in  the  hands  of  a  ministry  of  four,  who,  together 
with  the  governors  of  the  four  provinces  and  the  higher  law  officers,  composed  the 
cabinet.  The  administration  of  justice  was  put  on  an  independent  footing,  and 
comprised  a  supreme  court,  jury  courts,  and  police  courts.  Education  was  sujier- 
intended  by  the  missionaries,  who  had  erected  well-attended  schools  on  all  the 
islands.  An  industrial  school  and  a  seminary,  which  was  called  Tubou  College  in 
honour  of  the  king,  were  founded.  The  prohibition  against  the  sale  of  lantl  to 
foreigners,  which  was  inserted  in  the  constitution  at  Baker's  advice  ("  the  Tongans 
are  not  to  be  driven  into  the  sea  "),  was  important  for  the  economic  future  of  the 
Tongans ;  even  leases  of  land  were  only  allowed  after  notice  had  been  given  to 
the  government. 

In  view  of  the  increased  interest  which  the  European  powers  in  the  "  seven- 
ties "  took  in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  Tonga  with  its  favourable  situation  could  not 
permanently  be  neglected.  King  George  and  his  chancellor.  Baker,  were  on  terms 
of  open  friendship  with  Germany.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  War 
they  assured  King  William  of  their  absolute  neutrality.  On  November  1,  1S76, 
this  "  good-feeling "  took  the  form  of  a  commercial  treaty,  establishing  friendly 
relations  with  the  German  Empire,  according  to  which  the  harbour  of  Taulanga 
on  Vavau  was  ceded  as  a  coaling  station.  The  accompanying  request  of  George 
Tubou  for  a  protectorate  was  naturally  declined  by  Germany.  On  November  29, 
1879,  Tonga  concluded  a  similar  treaty  of  amity  with  England.  By  an  agreement 
of  AprU  6,  1886,  Germany  and  England  decided  tliat  Tonga  should  remain  neutral 
tenitoiy.     On  August  1,  1888,  a  treaty  was  made  with  the  United  States. 

King  George  Tubou  I,  died  on  February  18,  1893,  at  his  capital,  Nukualofa, 
aged  ninety-five  year.s.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  great-grandson,  George  Tubou  II, 
a  timid  youth  of  nineteen.     Down  to  the  time  of  his  accession  German  trade  and 


Australia  and 
Oceania 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  331 


influence  had  outstripped  English.  But  when  the  prime  minister  Baker  had 
fallen  a  victim  to  English  intrigues,  and  the  service  of  the  North  German  Lloyd  to 
Tonga  and  Samoa,  under  subsidy  from  the  empire,  had  been  discontinued,  the  Eng- 
lish occupied  the  vacant  position.  When,  in  March,  1899,  the  German  warship 
"  Falke  "  appeared  off  Tougatabu,  nominally  with  orders  to  occupy  the  harbour  of 
Taulanga  until  Tongan  debtors  had  paid  the  sum  due  of  §100,000  (accorduig  to 
Moritz  Schanz  merely  with  orders  to  induce  the  king  to  open  the  Tongan  courts 
to  the  recovery  of  debts  to  foreigners),  an  English  warship  from  the  Australian 
station  sailed  in  on  April  10,  paid  George  II  §125,000  on  the  sole  condition  that 
the  king  made  no  concessions  whatever  of  lauded  rights  to  any  foreign  power;  in 
return  for  this,  England  renewed  her  guarantee  of  independence  for  Tonga.  Since 
that  time  the  group  of  islands  has  only  been  valuable  to  Germany  as  the  object  of 
an  exchange;  in  the  treaty  of  November  8,  1899,  she  abandoned  all  claims  in 
exchange  for  half  Samoa  (p.  321).  Thus  Tonga  and  the  adjoining  Niue  (Savage 
Island)  were  placed,  in  spite  of  the  protest  of  King  George  II,  under  a  British  pro- 
tectorate on  May  19,  1900. 

With  the  Tongan  kingdom,  the  last  of  the  native  States  of  Oceania  disappeared. 
It  is  true  that  the  constitution,  formulated  on  a  European  model,  was  in  many 
details  unadapted  to  the  Polynesian  nature.  But  Tonga  preserved  many  other 
points  which  recalled  the  old  nationality.  These  relics  of  an  indigenous  develop- 
ment are  fated  soon  to  die  away. 

(e)  iVew  Zealand. —  (a)  The  Position  and  Physical  Features  of  Neiu  Zealand.  — 
New  Zealand,  which  from  weighty  considerations  is  better  treated  here  than  in 
connection  with  Australia,  occupies  a  geographical  position  which  reminds  one 
strongly  of  that  of  the  neighbouring  continent.  To  the  south  and  east  of  New 
Zealand,  the  ocean  is  quite  free  from  any  considerable  islands;  only  toward 
the  north  and  west  are  relations  possible  with  the  habitable  world:  on  the  one 
side  with  Australia  and  Tasmania,  on  the  other  with  New  Caledonia,  Fiji,  Tonga, 
and  the  Cook  Islands.  New  Zealand  is  so  situated  as  regards  all  these  countries 
that  the  lines  of  communication  with  it  are  almost  radii  of  a  circle,  a  fact  impor- 
tant geographically  and  historically.  It  was  merely  a  consequence  of  the  inferior 
seamanship  of  their  inhabitants  that  the  original  immigration  to  New  Zealand  did 
not  take  place  from  Australia,  New  Caledonia,  and  Fiji. 

New  Zealand  lies  about  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  juiles  from  the  coimtries  just 
mentioned.  This  distance,  in  spite  of  their  advanced  nautical  skiU,  was  too  far  for 
the  navigation  of  the  Pol}nesians,  and  thus  must  have  prevented  any  permanent 
and  systematic  expansion  of  the  Maoris  ;  their  naval  expeditions  did  not  go  beyond 
one  or  two  voyages  to  the  Hawaiki  of  legend  (p.  307),  and  the  occupation  of  the 
neighbouring  Chatham  Islands  (Warckauri),  which  was  effected  in  1834  with 
the  help  of  a  European  captain.  The  case  was  otherwise  for  the  New  Zealand  of 
the  Europeans.  Two  or  three  generations  ago  its  proximity  to  Australia  and  Tas- 
mania enabled  a  thorough  and  rapid  scheme  of  colonisation  to  he  carried  out 
thence ;  at  the  present  day  when  it  feels  itself  strong  in  the  number  of  its  udiabi- 
tants  and  its  resources,  it  lies  far  enough  off  to  be  able  to  entertain  the  idea  of  an 
independent  national  existence  by  the  side  of  the  Australian  commonwealth.  A 
feeling  in  favour  of  independence  was  discernible  as  early  as  1860  or  1870,  hardlj- 
a  generation  after  the  beginning  of   the  colonisation  proper.     The  interference 


332  HISTOm'    OF    THE    WORLD         \_c)u,i,hr  iii 

of  New  Zealand  in  Samoan  affaire  in  the  year  1872  (p.  326),  was  followed  by  the 
annexation  of  tlie  Keiinadec  Isles  to  Xew  Zealand,  in  18S!7,  and  that  of  the  Cook 
Islands  and  Manihikis  in  1900  ;  Fiji  apiiears  neaiing  the  same  destiny  now  (ji.  312). 
The  influential  circles  of  New  Zealand  are  univereally  of  opinion  that  all  the  island 
groui)s  of  Polynesia  belong  to  it  as  naturally  as,  according  to  the  idea  of  the 
Australians,  the  Western  Pacific  Ocean  falls  witliin  titeir  magic  circle.  Each  of  the 
two  countries  feels  itself  a  leading  power  in  the  southern  hemisphere ;  hence 
tlie  giandiose  phrase,  "the  position  to  which  this  land  is  entitled  in  the  concert 
of  the  powers "  used  in  1900  by  Eichard  Seddon,  the  prime  minister  of  New 
Zealand. 

Although  the  papulation  of  New  Zealand,  according  to  the  census  of  1900, 
amounted  to  little  more  than  that  of  Gla.sgow  (eight  himdred  thousand  souls),  it 
Would  be  unwise  to  ignore  those  jirelcnsions.  Ajiart  from  their  advantageous  posi- 
tion for  the  command  of  the  Soutlicrn  Pacific  Ocean,  tiie  two  islands  possess  a 
coastline  so  greatly  indented  lliaL  it  surpasses  Italy  itself  in  the  number  of  bays. 
Besides  this,  it  now  produces  gold  ai\d  coal  in  considerable  (luautities,  wliile  cojiper, 
silver,  iron-ore,  sulpliur,  ]ilatinum,  anil  antimony  are  also  to  be  found  jilentifully. 

New  Zealand,  lying  entirely  within  the  temperate  zone,  pos.sesses  a  further 
advantage  in  its  climate,  which,  judging  by  tlie  physical  and  intellectual  qualities 
of  the  Maoris,  must  be  credited  with  a  considerable  power  of  modifying  racial 
types  for  the  better,  unless  it  be  indeed  the  case,  as  is  sometimes  asserted,  that  it 
has  a  bad  effect  on  the  physique  of  Europeans  (p.  241).  Agriculture  in  New  Zea- 
land, as  in  Australia,  is  diminishing;  althougli  the  climate  is  temperate,  there  are 
cold  nights  in  summer,  wliich  makes  the  pro(hice  of  the  harvests  very  variable. 
Nevertheless  there  are  more  than  seven  iiuiidrcd  thousand  acres  of  land  under  cul- 
tivation at  present;  according  to  rough  calculations  twenty-six  million  acres, 
(nearly  forty  thousand  square  miles),  or  two-fifths  of  tlie  entire  surface,  are  suitable 
for  agriculture,  though  at  present  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  country  is  covered 
with  forests.  The  backbone  of  the  industries  of  New  Zealand,  as  of  Tasmania, 
which  in  many  respects  enjojs  the  same  climatic  conditions,  is  the  breeding  of 
cattle  and  sheep.  This  industry  is  steadily  growing,  as  cattle  can  remain  out  in 
the  open  and  find  sufficient  food  the  whole  year  through.  It  is  owing  to  this 
advantage  that  New  Zealand  has  outstripped  Australia,  which  lies  several  days' 
voyage  nearer  the  Old  World,  in  the  ex]Dort  of  frozen  meat.  Of  the  exports  for  the 
year  1899,  amounting  nearly  to  £12,000,000,  not  less  than  £8,000.000  came  from 
animal  jwoducls ;  minerals  produced  £1,600,000,  agriculture  only  £900,000. 

(/S)  The  nisforij  of  the  Maoris  to  the  Year  1830.  —  The  original  inhabitants 
of  New  Zealand,  the  Maoris,  were  only  benefited  by  the  advantages  of  their  coun- 
try to  a  certain  degree ;  their  physique  indeed  was  improved  there ;  but  industrially 
they  were  not  able  to  profit  by  the  green  fields  or  the  splendid  forests  of  Kauri 
pine.  They  only  made  use  of  the  native  fauna,  so  long  as  there  were  creatures 
to  hunt  and  eat;  even  yet  the  heroic  ballads  of  the  Maoris  tell  of  conflicts  with 
the  gigantic  moa,  the  first  species  of  the  fauna,  which  had  lived  on  for  thousands 
of  years  unmolested,  to  fall  a  victim  to  the  intrusion  of  man. 

The  first  Maoris  immigrated  into  the  two  islands,  then  uninhabited,  fully  five 
hundred  years  ago;  in  the  course  of  time  batches  of  frcsli  immigrants  followed 
them,  the  last  perhaps  in  the  eighteenth  centurj'.     The  point  from  which  the 


KXl'LANATION   OF   THE    POLYXESIAX    AXTTgriTI?:S  AND    CARV- 
INGS   DEl'ICTEl)    ON    THE   OTHKI!    SIDE    OF   THE    I'AGE 

Fig.  1.  Maori  coffin,  iiiuler  side.  Some  threi-  generation:*  oliler  than  Cook,  dating  tlierel'ore 
from  the  .second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  With  two  richly  tattooed  huiuau  ligures,  male 
and  female.  The  hole  in  the  centre  was  used  to  place  the  cotiin  on  a  wooden  pole  rising  higher 
than  a  man's  Iiead  from  the  ground. 

(From  the  original  in  the  Ethnological  Jliiseuni  at  Berlin.) 

Fig.  2.  Pou  Poll,  Ciirved  under-side  of  a  wall-pillar  in  the  great  meeting-house  of  Ohinemutu. 
The  richly  tattooed  figure  is  supposeil  to  represent  Taina-te-Kapua,  tin-  great  ancestor  ol  the  Arawa, 
presumably  wsJking  on  stilts. 

(Kroni  the  original  at  Ohinennitu  in  New  Zealand.) 

Figs.  3  a  and  b.  Large  sculpture  in  bitsaltic  lava,  foiunl  on  the  island  of  Oahu,  in  the  Hawaiian 
group.  The  figure  represents  an  old-time  European  with  wig,  ])ig-tail,  .iiid  rutf,  presumably 
one  of  the  old,  otherwise  unknown  Spanish  navigators,  who  had  '-discovered  ''  Hawaii  long 
before  Cook. 

(Kioni  the  original  in  the  Kthnological  Museum  at  l{i  rliii.) 

Fig.  4.  Korupe.  Lintel  from  an  old  house  in  New  Zealand.  From  Cook's  collection,  but 
even  then  ancient,  probably  belonging  to  the  seventeenth  century,  perhai)s  older.  One  of  the 
most  valuable  and  beautiful  works  of  the  old  Maori  art.  The  mythohigical  meaning  of  the  three 
richly  tattooed  figures  is  obscure. 

(From  the  original  in  tlie  Ethnological  Jluseuni  at  llerlin.) 

Figs.  5  a  and  b.  Carved  chest  from  New  Zealand,  for  keeping  feather  ornaments.  To  the 
right  (.'>a)  one  side  of  the  chest,  to  the  left  (•'ib)  the  lid  let  into  the  other.  From  Cook's  collec- 
tion ;  probably  belonging  to  the  seventeenth  century. 

(From  tlie  original  in  the  Imperial  Museum  at  Berlin.) 

Fig.  6.  Carving  from  New  Zealand,  representing  two  tattooed  men,  wlio  ar(!  making  tire 
by  rubliing. 

(From  the  original  in  the  Ethnological  Museum  at  Vienna.) 

Fig.  7.  The  central  portion  <jf  a  large  richly  decorated  transverse  board  from  the  front  of  a 
pataka  or  storehouse.  The  scene,  airved  almost  in  a  heraldic  style,  has  not  yet  been  explaine<l ; 
it  is  supposed  to  refer  to  the  legend  of  the  creation.  Demons  with  the  heiiils  of  birds  and  lizards 
play  an  important  part  in  the  ancient  art  of  Xew  Zealand.  The  small  triangular  notches, 
conspicuous  features  in  parts  of  this  i-arving,  are  called  tara-tara  o  kai.  The  pataka,  to  which 
this  board  belonged,  w.is  built  in  1820  by  the  chieftain  Haere  Huka,  and  stood  between  Rotorua 
and  Lake  Rotoiti.     It  now  stands  in  the  museum  at  Auckland. 

(After  a  copy  by  Hamilton.) 

Fig.  S.  A  board  from  the  inside  of  a  large  Maori  meeting-bouse,  with  the  representation  of  a 
Melu.sina-like  demon,  tauiwha,  or  mara-kihau,  having  a  tube-like  tongue,  by  which  these  demons 
were  able  to  suck  in  and  wreck  ships.  Similar  oltjects  are  still  to  be  found  in  Ruatahuna  and  in 
Te  Kuiti  (Xew  Zealand). 

(From  the  original  in  the  Museum  of  Honolulu.) 


^ 


c> 


POLVN'ESIAS   AMWraTIES  AKD  CaKVINGI 


D 


ireint"'"}  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  333 

migration  started  was  Hawaiki,  the  tlieine  of  so  many  legends,  the  Savaii  of  the 
Samoan  Islands ;  the  intermediate  station,  and  for  some  Maoris  the  actual  starting 
point,  was  Karotonga  (cf.  above,  p.  306).  According  to  the  legend  the  chief 
Ngalnic,  with  eight  hundred  vassals  in  twelve  ships,  whose  names  are  still  kept 
sacred,  lauded  in  Plenty  Bay  on  the  North  Island ;  when  the  English  began  to 
colonise,  the  population  was  estimated  at  one  hundred  thousand  to  two  hundred 
thousand  souls.  Such  an  increase  in  a  comparatively  short  time  could,  so  Kciljert 
von  Lendenfeld  thinks,  only  l)e  the  result  of  periods  of  undisturbed  tranquUlity. 
The  beasts  and  birds,  above  all  the  numerous  gigantic  species  of  moa,  reaching 
thirteen  feet  in  height,  did  not  enjoy  this  peace ;  they  soon  fell,  to  the  last  one, 
under  the  spears  and  clubs  of  the  immigrants.  The  inliabitants,  accustomed  to 
a  flesh  diet  and  with  ever  increasing  numbers,  looked  for  a  substitute  and  were 
driven  in  desperation  to  cannibalism.  With  tliis  momentous  step,  the  first  crisis 
in  the  history  of  the  Maoris,  the  prosperous  time  of  peace  was  irrevocably  past ; 
the  ensuing  period  was  one  of  continuous  murder  and  slaughter,  tribe  against  tribe, 
man  against  man. 

In  tlie  centuries  immediately  after  the  first  immigration  all  evidence  points  to 
the  existence  of  large  States,  wliich  occasionally  were  subject  to  one  common  head. 
There  seems  also  to  have  been  a  religious  centre.  This  was  the  period  of  tlie 
national  prosperity  of  the  Maoris,  wlien  their  workmanship  also  attained  its  highest 
perfection  (see  the  accompanying  plate,  "  Polynesian  Antiquities  and  Carvings"). 
Europeans  had  only  a  passing  knowledge  of  them  in  this  advanced  stage ;  Abel 
Tasmau  alone  saw  in  1642  large  and  splendid  double  canoes  in  use  among  them; 
such  canoes  the  Maoris  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  no  longer  able  to  buUd. 
The  decadence  was  universal.  The  ancient  kingdoms  broke  up  into  small  com- 
munities of  bold  incendiaries  and  rcibbers,  who  recognised  no  political  centre,  but 
were  engaged  in  fierce  feuds  one  against  another.  The  belief  in  the  old  gods  gave 
way  to  a  superstitious  belief  in  guardian  spirits,  charms,  and  countercharms.  The 
national  character,  always  inclined  to  pride  and  tyranny,  ended  by  becoming,  more 
and  more  bloodthirsty,  revengeful,  and  cruel. 

The  intercourse  of  the  ]\Iaoris  with  the  Europeans  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
and  the  beginning  of  the  niueteenth  century  only  rendered  the  incessant  civil  wars 
more  fierce  by  the  introduction  of  firearms.  In  the  year  1820  the  chief  Hongi 
(Shongi),  accompanied  by  the  missionary  Kendall,  visited  England,  and  was  pre- 
sented to  King  George  IV,  who  received  liim  willi  marked  attention  and  showered 
presents  upon  him.  Having  soon  learnt  the  political  condition  of  Europe,  and 
dazzled  by  the  still  brilliant  reputation  of  the  victorious  career  of  Napoleon  I,  he 
exchanged  his  presents  in  Sydney  for  weapons  and  ammunition,  armed  his  tribe, 
and  filled  the  North  Island  until  1828  with  all  the  horrors  of  war.  Thousands  of 
Maoris  were  shot  or  made  slaves,  and  hundreds  eaten.  Hongi,  having  neglected 
to  wear  in  some  battle  in  1827  the  cuirass  which  the  king  of  England  had  given 
him,  received  a  shot  in  the  lungs,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  died  fifteen 
months  afterward. 

The  diminution  of  the  native  population  owing  to  such  protracted  wars  was  an 
advantage  to  the  whites  ahead}-  settled  in  the  country.  Ever  since  the  year  1800, 
there  liad  been  a  large  number  of  "  pioneers  of  culture,"  runaway  sailors,  escaped 
convicts  from  New  South  Wales,  and  other  adventurers.  Their  relations  with  the 
Maoris  had  at  first  been  restricted  to  a  barter  of  New  Zealand  fla.x  and  timber  for 


334  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Ichaptc- ni 

rum,  iron,  and  other  Eun>pean  products ;  later  a  trade  in  tatlooeil  Maori  lu-ads  tiprang 
up,  to  which,  even  at  the  present  day,  European  and  American  museums  testify. 
In  1814  the  Anglican  mission  under  Samuel  Marsden  began  its  labours  in  the 
Bay  of  Islands,  and  soon  obtained  such  an  influence  among  the  natives  that  it 
seemed  in  1820  as  if  the  North  Island  would  develop  into  a  Christian  Maori  State. 
The  hoiTors  launched  on  the  island  by  Hongi  only  temporarily  stopped  this  move- 
ment ;  after  his  death  the  work  of  conversion  not  only  proceeded  rapidly,  but  the 
idea  of  a  Maori  State  under  Anglican  guidance  was  approaching  its  realisation. 
There  was  at  that  time  in  England  little  inclination  to  organise  a  state  colonisation 
of  New  Zealand ;  Australia  lay  nearer  and  had  a  less  dangerous  population.  But 
when  in  1831  a  French  warship  ancliored  in  the  Bay  of  Islands,  the  missionaries 
induced  thirteen  leading  chiefs  of  that  district  to  petition  King  William  IV  for 
protection  for  New  Zealand.  The  government  consented,  and  nominated  in  1833 
James  Busby,  a  colonist  from  New  South  Wales,  as  resident,  and  entrusted  him 
with  a  jurisdiction  over  the  British  settlers  which  was  backed  up  by  no  force  at 
alL  Busby's  first  act  was  to  grant  a  national  flag  to  New  Zealand,  which  was 
officially  recognised  by  England  toward  the  end  of  1834.  The  missionaries  thus 
obtained  the  object  for  which  they  had  so  perseveringly  tried,  a  Maori  State  appar- 
ently self-governing,  but  in  reality  dependent  on  them.  At  Busby's  instigation 
this  State,  represented  by  thirty-five  chiefs  of  the  north,  was  called  after  the 
autumn  of  1835  the  "  United  Tribes  of  New  Zealand."  At  the  same  time  the  chiefs 
declared  that  they  would  annually  hold  an  assembly,  and  there  pass  the  necessary 
laws.  Busby  himself  wished  to  conduct  the  government  with  tlie  help  of  a  council 
consisting  of  natives,  for  which,  after  a  definite  interval,  representatives  were  to 
be  elected.  The  preliminary  costs  of  this  new  constitution  should,  he  proposed, 
be  defrayed  by  England,  which  was  to  be  petitioned  not  only  for  a  loan,  but  also 
for  the  further  protection  of  the  whole  scheme. 

Busby's  plan,  which  was  ridiculed  by  all  who  were  acquainted  with  the  con- 
ditions of  New  Zealand,  had  been  suggested  by  another  fantastic  undertaking,  that 
of  Baron  Thierry.  This  adventurer  had  commissioned  Kendall,  the  missionary,  to 
obtain  large  tracts  of  land  for  him  in  New  Zealand,  and  Kendall  had  bought  in 
1822  forty  thousand  acres  on  the  Hokianga  from  three  chiefs  for  thirty-six  hatchets. 
But  Thierry,  without  entering  on  liis  property,  roamed  about  in  South  America,  in 
order  to  become  the  "  sovereign  "  of  some  people,  even  if  it  were  the  smallest  Indian 
tribe.  Later  he  pursued  the  same  aims  on  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  was  finally 
chosen  by  the  island  of  Nukahiwa  in  the  Marquesas  to  its  head.  As  "  sovereign 
chief  in  New  Zealand  and  king  of  Nukahiwa  "  he  announced  to  the  British  resident 
in  North  New  Zealand  his  speedy  anival  from  Tahiti  (1835).  The  kings  of  Great 
Britain  and  France,  he  declared,  as  well  as  the  president  of  the  United  States,  had 
consented  to  the  founding  of  an  indejiendent  State  on  Hokianga  Bay,  and  he 
was  only  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  a  suitabl}-  equipped  warsliip  sent  from  Panama 
to  sail  to  the  Bay  of  Islands. 

Busby's  counter-measure  was  tlie  founding  of  the  T'^nited  Tribes  of  New  Zealand. 
Strange  to  relate,  this  step  was  taken  seriously  in  England  (though  not  in  Aus- 
tralia), and  every  protection  guaranteed  to  the  chiefs.  There  was  a  strictly  correct 
exchange  of  notes  between  Thierry  and  Busliy,  until  Thierry,  at  the  close  of  1837, 
accompanied  by  ninety-three  European  adventurers,  appeared  in  person  on  the 
North  Island.     At  first  amicably  received  by  some  of  the  chiefs,  he  soon  perceived 


iZ'nT""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  335 

that  the  English  settlers  as  well  as  the  missionaries  were  working  against  him. 
When  it  appeared  that  his  announcement  that  liundreds  of  his  subjects  would  soon 
follow  him  was  idle  talk,  Thierry  became  the  laughing  stock  of  whites  and  Jlaoris, 
was  deserted  by  every  one,  and  thenceforward  eked  out  a  scanty  existence  as 
a  pauper. 

(7)  The  Treaty  of  Waitangi.  —  Tliierry's  French  name,  the  founding  of  the 
"  Compaguie  Nauto-Bordelaise,"  and  the  "  Compagnie  Fiau^aise  de  la  Nouvelle 
Z^lande,"  for  the  colonisation  of  the  east  side  of  the  South  Island,  finally  the 
settlement  of  the  French  missionary,  Pompallier  (Pomparlier),  in  New  Zealand,  — 
all  this  gradually  aroused  a  keen  interest  iu  the  two  islands  among  private  circles 
in  England.  James  Cook,  who  had  explored  the  islands  in  1769-1770, 1773-1774, 
and  1777,  had  always  advocated  an  occupation  of  the  country,  and  even  Benjamin 
Franklin  had  proposed  to  found  a  company  for  the  colonisation  of  New  Zealand  ■ 
both  without  results.  In  1S25,  it  is  true  that  a  "New  Zealand  Company"  was 
formed,  and  some  emigrants  were  sent  to  New  Zealand. 

The  behaviour  of  the  natives,  however,  so  alarmed  the  newcomers  that,  with  the 
excejition  of  the  four  most  stout-hearted,  who  remained  in  the  country,  all  returned  to 
Australia  fjr  England.  The  attempt,  whicli  had  swallowed  up  ten  thousand  pounds, 
was  a  failure.  In  1837  the  idea  of  colonisation  was  again  taken  up  by  Edward 
Gibbon  AVakefield,  the  founder  of  the  colony  of  South  Australia  (p.  283),  Lord  Dur- 
ham, the  leader  of  the  attempt  of  1825,  and  other  representatives  of  the  British 
parliament ;  but  since  the  "  Association  for  the  Colonisation  of  New  Zealand  "  could 
not  break  down  the  opposition,  fostered  by  the  missionarj-  societies,  of  the  govern- 
ment and  of  the  two  houses  of  parliament,  it  was  broken  up.  At  the  end  of  1838 
the  "  New  Zealand  Land  Company,"  also  founded  by  Wakefield  and  Lord  Durham, 
took  its  place.  This  wished  to  acquire  land  from  the  IMaoris,  in  order  to  resell  it 
to  English  emigrants.  The  price  was  to  be  so  adjusted  that  not  only  a  surplus 
should  be  produced  for  the  construction  of  roads,  schools,  and  churches,  but  al.so 
an  adequate  profit  for  the  shareholders.  Wlien  the  company,  on  June  1,  183!), 
publicly  put  up  to  auction  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand  acres  of  New  Zealand 
land,  so  many  bidders  were  forthcoming  that  verj'  soon  one  hundred  thousand 
pounds  poured  into  their  coffers. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  \'igorous  colonisation  of  New  Zealand  was  unavoid- 
able, the  colonial  minister,  the  Marquis  of  Normanby,  now  tried  to  anticipate  the 
New  Zealand  Land  Company  and  to  secure  for  the  government  the  expected  profits. 
Under  the  influence  of  the  Wakefield  agitators,  the  predecessor  of  Normanby  in 
office,  Lord  Glenelg,  had  planned  the  appointment  of  a  British  consid  to  New 
Zealand  and  the  annexation  of  districts  already  occupied  by  whites  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  New  Soutli  Wales.  On  June  15, 1839,  Captain  Hobson  was  nominated 
by  Normanby  consul  for  New  Zealand,  with  a  commission  to  induce  the  natives  to 
recognise  the  sovereignty  of  the  queen  of  England.  He  was  to  administer  the 
island  group  as  belonging  to  New  South  Wales,  in  the  capacity  of  a  deputy  gov- 
ernor. In  order  to  nip  the  plans  of  the  company  in  the  bud,  Hobson  was  further 
instructed  to  bind  the  Maori  chiefs  to  sell  land  exclusively  to  the  crown,  and  to 
suppress  the  speculation  in  land  which  was  raging  in  New  Zealand  (cf.  p.  265),  by 
requiring  that  all  purchases  of  land  effected  by  British  subjects  should  be  investi- 
gated by  a  special  committee. 


336  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter  rn 

But  the  governmeut  came  forward  too  late  witli  their  measures.  An  expeditiun 
of  the  New  Zealaud  Land  Compauy,  under  the  guidance  of  a  brother  of  Wakefield, 
had  already  landed  in  Queen  Charlotte's  ^ound  on  August  16,  1839,  had  obtained 
an  immense  territory  from  the  natives  for  a  few  articles  of  merchandise,  in  sjiite  of 
all  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries,  and  had  lost  no  time  in  founding  the  town  of 
"Wellington  on  Port  Nicholson.  The  capital  nf  tlie  "  Britain  of  the  South  Sea" 
was  thus  created.  One  out  of  every  eleven  acres  of  the  purchased  land  was  to 
remain  reserved  for  the  natives  as  an  inviolable  possession. 

Since  also  the  "Compagnie  Nanto-Bordelaise  "  was  well  on  its  way  to  secure  a 
strong  footing  in  New  Zealand,  Hobson,  who  had  landed  on  the  North  Island  on 
January  29,  1840,  concluded,  with  the  support  of  the  missionaries,  who  saw  in  a 
crown  colony  the  lesser  evil,  the  treaty  of  Waitangi  with  a  number  of  the  more 
important  chiefs,  in  which  they  absolutely  and  forever  resigned  the  sovereignty  of 
their  land  to  the  crown  of  England.  The  crown  in  return  guaranteed  to  the  Maoris 
the  royal  protection,  all  the  privileges  of  British  subjects;  and  all  their  rights  to 
land  and  property,  but  reserved  the  right  of  pre-emjition  of  every  district  which 
the  natives  should  be  willing  to  sell.  The  few  dozens  who  first  signed  were  soon 
joined  by  other  chiefs,  so  that  the  number  of  signatures  shortly  before  the  middle 
of  the  year  1840  reached  five  hundred  and  twelve.  In  June,  therefore,  the  British 
sovereignty  could  also  be  proclaimed  over  the  South  Island  and  Stewart  Island  "  on 
the  basis  of  the  right  of  Cook's  discovery."  On  September  19  Hobson  hoisted  the 
British  flag  in  Auckland.  Finally,  on  November  6,  1840,  New  Zealand  was  declared 
a  crown  colony.  Hobson  was  nominated  governor,  and  Auckland  became  temporarily 
the  seat  of  government. 

The  treaty  of  Waitangi  is  in  various  respects  an  event  of  historical  importance. 
For  the  first  time  a  Euro]iean  nation  laid  down  the  fundamental  principle  that  the 
natives  even  of  an  uncultivated  country  have  full  possessory  rights  over  their  own 
land.  We  may  contrast  with  this  the  conduct  adopted  by  the  government  and  the 
settlers  toward  the  neighboining  Australians  and  Tasmanians !  Now,  for  the  first 
time,  as  Theodor  Waitz  emphasises,  "  savages  "  were  officially  put  on  a  level  with 
colonists,  that  is  to  say,  were  treated  as  men. 

The  treaty  is  also  important  politically.  England,  by  firmly  establishing  herself 
in  front  of  the  broad  expanse  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  secured  a  commanding  position 
in  the  entire  Central  and  Southern  Oceanic  world.  This  was  an  exceptionally  hard 
blow  for  France,  since,  after  the  total  failure  of  her  Australian  and  Tasmanian 
schemes  of  colonisation,  there  was  no  other  considerable  tract  of  territory  to  be 
found  which  could  serve  as  a  strong  base  within  her  widely  distributed  colonial 
empire  in  the  South  Pacific.  The  French  ships,  which  arrived  off  New  Zealand  in 
July,  1840,  were  compelled  to  return  without  having  effected  their  purpose. 

Who  will  prove  victorious  in  the  fight  for  the  supremacy  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? 
This  Ls  a  difficult  question.  At  the  present  day  the  Pacific  is  a  stage  trodden  by 
many  actors ;  in  a  possibly  not  distant  future  it  will  become  the  theatre  of  war  for 
the  United  States,  Eussia,  and  England,  which  latter  has  in  reality  been  most 
closely  identified  with  the  Pacific  Ocean  (cf.  Vol.  I,  p.  599).  In  any  case  New 
Zealand  will  possess  great  value,  owing  to  its  geographical  position.  Strategically 
it  forms  a  splendid  flanking  outpost  for  Australia  which  is  otherwise  exposed 
defenceless  to  every  attack  from  north  or  east ;  and  as  far  as  industries  go,  it  is 
at  least  as  well  endowed  as  her  larger  neighbi)ur.  Inferiority  of  size  is  compen- 
sated by  more  favourable  climatic  conditions. 


^rr""""]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  337 

(8)  The  Fortunes  of  the  Maoris  from  IHIfi  to  the  Present  Dnij.  — The  iveaXy 
of  Waitangi  soon  involved  momentous  consequences  for  the  colony  itself.  The 
English  government,  which  had  never  recognised  the  New  Zealand  Land  Com- 
pany, reduced  its  claims  (20,000,000  of  the  46,000,000  acres  of  land  "bought" 
by  Europeans)  first  to  997,000,  and  after  a  more  exact  investigation  (1843)  to 
282,000  acres.  To  the  Englishmen  who  claimed  the  remaining  26,000,000  acres, 
only  100,000  were  awarded;  to  the  London  mission  only  66,000  instead  of 
216,000  acres.  The  rest  in  all  cases,  instead  of  being  given  back  to  the  natives, 
was  declared  to  be  crown  land  and  bought  by  the  government.  From  that  time  the 
natives  had  quite  a  different  notion  of  the  value  of  their  land,  which  tliey  had 
hitherto  unsuspectingly  sold  for  muskets,  rum,  tobacco,  blankets,  and  toys.  They 
began  more  and  more  constantly  to  dispute  the  old  bargains,  first  by  complaints 
and  protests,  then  by  blows,  and  finally  by  war  and  murder.  After  the  Maoris  had 
murdered  several  Europeans  in  184.3  and  repeatedly  lorn  down  the  English  flag, 
England  was  obliged  to  consider  herself  at  war  with  the  islanders.  The  succes.sor 
of  Hobson  (d.  1842)  was  Robert  Fitzroy,  known  as  the  commander  of  the  "  Beagle," 
which  had  carried  Charles  Darwin  on  his  voj-age  round  the  world.  Fitzroy  was, 
however,  incompetent  for  his  post,  and  by  all  sorts  of  concessions  (remission  of 
entrance-tolls,  and  restitution  of  laud  sold  by  the  Maoris  to  the  immigrants)  he 
prompted  the  natives  to  make  renewed  demands.  His  measures  with  this  view 
rapidly  emptied  the  colonial  coffers.  The  Xew  Zealand  Land  Company,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  perpetual  disturbances,  also  fell  into  ditficulties  and  temporarily 
suspended  its  operations.  Besides  this,  the  English  forces,  from  want  of  artillery, 
did  ver}'  little  against  the  brave  Maori  waiTiors. 

In  November,  1845,  George  Grey,  who  had  won  his  spurs  as  the  first  governor 
of  South  Australia  (p.  285\  arrived  in  Xew  Zealand.  Since  the  attempt  to  quiet 
the  insurgents  by  peaceful  methods  was  unsuccessful,  the  governor  prohibited  the 
importation  of  arms  and  ammunition,  and  rapidly  defeated  the  chiefs  Heki  and 
KawirL  He  was  able  to  conclude  peace  by  the  end  of  January,  1840.  Isolated 
subsequent  outbreaks  were  suppressed  with  equal  promptness.  Grey's  next  object 
was  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  civil  wars  by  a  system  of  suitable  reforms. 
Besides  the  above-mentioned  reduction  of  the  landed  property  of  the  missions,  he 
put  an  officer  into  the  post  of  native  secretary,  which  had  been  hitherto  adminis- 
tered by  a  missionary,  and  settled  the  laud  question  in  the  interests  of  the  natives. 
The  new  constitution,  recommended  by  the  British  government,  which  gave  the 
colony  comjilete  self-governmeut,  appeared  premature  to  him,  and  was  not  therefore 
put  into  force ;  he  contented  himself  with  dividing  the  colony  into  two  pnmnces. 
In  order  to  revive  immigi-ation,  which  had  almost  ceased,  steps  were  taken  to 
advance  to  the  New  Zealand  Land  Company  in  1846  and  1847  a  sum  of  £236,000 
free  of  interest,  and  the  crown  lands  of  the  district  of  New  Munster  were 
assigned  to  it  until  Jidy,  1850.  The  minimum  price  for  an  acre  was  fixed  at 
£1  sterling.  With  its  co-operation  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  foiuided  the 
colony  of  Otago  on  the  South  Island  in  1847,  and  the  Church  of  England  Canter- 
bury in  1849.  These  were  the  last  acts  of  the  company,  whose  directors  were 
compelled  to  suspend  the  business  finally  in  1850  from  want  of  funds ;  a  fortunate 
turn  for  the  development  of  the  colony  of  New  Zealand,  which  had  only  suffered 
from  the  juxtaposition  of  the  company  and  government.  For  this  reason  the 
government  remitted  the  payment  by  the  company  of  the  sum  advanced,  and 

VOL.  II  — •>> 


338  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD         [chapter ni 

assigned  to  the  shareholders  in  1S52  £268,000  sterling  as  compensation  for  their 
laniled  rights. 

George  Grey's  term  of  office  ended  on  December  31,  1853;  after  a  short  fur- 
lough at  home  he  was  transferred  to  Cape  Colony  (cf.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  507).  But, 
before  leaving,  he  had  obtained  for  the  two  islands  that  same  privilege  of  self- 
government  wliiuh  had  been  granted  by  the  mother  country  to  the  Australian 
colonies  (p.  286);  that  is,  a  responsible  government  (1852).  Tlie  constitution, 
which  was  largely  due  to  Grey  himself,  provided  for  six  pro\Tnces  with  separate 
aihninistration  under  a  separate  council  and  an  elected  superintendent.  Tlie 
provinces  composed  a  federal  State  with  a  parliament,  which,  consisting  of  an 
elected  lower  house  of  representatives  and  a  nominated  legislative  council,  met 
for  the  first  time  in  1854  at  Auckland,  the  seat  of  the  governor  and  of  the  central 
government.  Simultaneously  with  the  final  settlement  of  the  Australian  consti- 
tutional question  in  general,  the  forms  of  responsible  government  were  extended 
to  New  Zealand  in  all  its  parts.  In  the  matter  of  the  native  (juestion  alone  the 
home  government  reserved  the  right  of  interference  until  1862.  The  colonial 
cabinet  included  a  native  minister,  but  his  powers  were  slight;  all  matters  relating 
to  the  natives  and  their  lands  were  really  settled  by  the  governor  and  an  imperial 
official  known  as  the  native  secretary. 

The  departure  of  Sir  George  Grey  was  followed  by  a  cycle  of  years  of  external 
tranquillity,  and  of  visible  prosperity  for  the  colony.  Nevertheless  they  contained 
the  germ  of  fresh  troubles.  From  fear  lest  the  chambers,  in  which  they  were  not 
represented,  should  weaken  the  power  of  the  central  government,  which  had  been 
greeted  with  confidence,  the  natives  of  the  North  Island  combined  into  the  "  Land 
League"  (1856),  which  was  intended  to  check  completely  the  furtlier  sale  of  land 
to  the  government.  In  1857  matters  culminated  in  a  national  combination,  which 
was  intended  to  block  the  growth  of  the  foreign  element.  The  centre  of  the 
movement  lay  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Tai:po  in  North  Island,  a  region  in  which 
the  natives  still  kept  their  lands.  South  Island  had  by  this  time  ]>assed  completely 
into  European  hands,  and  therefore  did  not  come  within  the  sphere  of  war.  The 
lead  in  the  struggle  was  taken  by  the  chiefs  of  the  Waikato  valley,  who  proclaimed 
the  old  chief  Potatau  as  their  king.  But  Potatau  was  of  a  conciliating  temper, 
and  the  leading  spirit  of  the  whole  agitation  was  the  young  and  vigorous  Wocemu 
Kingi  (William  Thompson),  of  the  tribe  of  the  Ngatiawa,  called  the  king-maker, 
who  had  the  support  of  the  younger  chiefs.  As  long  as  the  "  King  of  Peace," 
Potatau  I,  lived,  the  Ma<iris  kept  (juiet. 

Under  his  successor,  Potatau  IL  hostilities  to  the  whites  broke  out  (1860), 
which  soon  assumed  such  proportions  that  the  British  government  sent  out  Sir 
George  Grey  to  New  Zealand  for  the  second  time.  In  spite  of  all  the  respect 
which  the  natives  entertained  for  him,  and  of  tlie  constitution  whieli  he  gave 
the  Maoris,  he  was  unable  to  procure  more  than  a  brief  suspension  of  hostilities. 
The  question  now  to  be  answered  was  which  race  should  remain  in  the  country. 
The  great  Maori  war  lasted  fully  ten  years,  if  several  interruptions  owing  to  the 
exhaustion  of  both  sides  are  included.  The  ^laoris  showed  in  it  a  courage  and 
endurance,  which  places  them  in  the  first  rank  of  all  primitive  peoples;  on  the 
other  hand  the  English  operations  were  hampered  by  continual  friction  between 
the  colonial  government,  the  governor,  and  the  commanders  of  the  military  forces 
sent  from  home ;  and  these  dissensions  were  not  the  less  disastrous  because  the 


irt""""]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  339 

blame  for  them  lay  rather  with  the  system  of  dual  control  itself  than  with  the 
individuals  who  were  fated  to  work  it.  One  defeat  of  the  English  followed 
another;  troops  after  troops  were  sent  across  from  England  and  Australia  as 
time  went  on.  At  length  in  1866  William  Thompson  the  chief  of  the  Waikato 
confederacy  made  his  submission ;  a  last  effort  on  the  part  oi  his  more  irrecon- 
cilable supporters  was  cruslied  in  1868  and  1869  by  the  colonial  troops,  the 
English  regiments  having  left  the  island.  Practically  the  war  was  at  an  end  by 
1867.  In  that  year  an  agreement  was  made  that  the  Maoris  should  liave  four 
seats  in  the  lower  house;  in  1870  peace  was  completely  restored.  The  war  had 
cost  the  colony  and  the  mother  coimtry  a  lai'ge  sum  of  money,  had  imposed  a 
heavy  burden  of  debt,  of  which  the  effect  was  to  be  felt  for  the  next  fifteen  years, 
and  had  sacrificed  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  colonists. 

The  natives,  their  pride  crushed  and  deprived  of  all  hope  of  maintaining  their 
nationality  or  even  their  race,  withdrew  into  "  Kingsland,"  a  district  some  sixteen 
hundred  square  miles  in  size  to  the  northwest  of  Lake  Taupo,  where  they  were 
left  unmolested  for  a  time.  The  last  three  decades  indeed  have  not  been  entirely 
free  from  collisions  with  the  wiiites;  but  on  the  whole  the  Maoris  have  resigned 
themselves  to  the  situation.  They  have  cultivated  a  considerable  part  of  Kings- 
land  on  a  sensible  system,  and  they  possess  more  than  tliree  million  slieep,  fifty 
thousand  cattle,  and  one  hundred  thousand  pigs.  Almost  all  can  speak  and  write 
English,  and  all  liave  been  baptised ;  they  eagerly  vote  for  parliament,  where  they 
are  represented  by  four  members  in  the  lower  house  and  two  in  the  upper  house. 
It  is  true  that  here  too  the  old  nationality  is  gone  irrevocably ;  the  forty  thousand 
Maoris,  for  such  is  the  figure  to  which  the  nation  numbering  one  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  in  its  palmy  days  has  shrunk,  hardly  resemble  their  ancestors  in 
any  one  respect.  They  have  not,  for  two  generations,  practised  cannibalism,  but, 
on  th^  other  hand,  they  have  become  addicted  to  drunkenness ;  and  consumption, 
asthma,  and  scrofula  have  followed  in  the  wake  of  this  vice. 

(e)  The  Colonial  Development  of  Ne%v  Zealand.  —  "New  Zealand  has  been  un- 
fortunate in  its  development  as  a  colony  from  first  to  last,"  wrote  Ferdinand  von 
Hochstetter  in  1862.  Almost  a  century  had  elapsed  since  James  Cook  had  hoisted 
the  flag  of  Great  Britain  on  its  shores,  and  there  were  not  yet  one  hundred  thou- 
sand European  colonists  in  the  country.  The  causes  of  this  slow  movement,  as 
compared  with  the  rapid  development  of  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria,  were  not 
to  be  found  in  the  nature  of  the  country ;  the  South  Island,  which  was  almost 
entirely  spared  from  disturbances,  developed  during  those  first  decades  considerably 
faster  than  the  North  Island,  where  war  was  raging.  The  squatters  (p.  265)  and 
shepherds  who  immigrated  from  New  South  Wales  and  Tasmania,  soon  perceived 
that  the  South  Island  was  very  suitable  for  slieep  farming,  and  a  few  years  after 
the  founding  of  the  church  colonies  Otago  and  Canterbury  (p.  337)  almost  the 
entire  centre  and  east  of  the  island  were  divided  into  pasture  lands.  In  1861  the 
island  exported,  roughly,  eight  million  pounds  of  wool  of  the  value  of  £500,000 
Sterling;  in  1899  wool  was  by  far  the  chief  export  of  New  Zealand  (£4,330,000). 

The  South  Island  also  gained  much  from  the  discovery  of  gold.  The  finds  at 
Coromandel  and  Nelson  on  the  North  Island  in  1852  remained  solitary  instances 
until  in  1861  the  discovery  of  the  rich  alluvial  deposits  at  Otago  produced  a  reg- 
ular gold  fever.     After  they  were  exhausted,  the  productive  fields  on  the  west 


340  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         \_Chapt,riii 

coast  were  worked.  Otago  exported  in  1863  gold  to  the  value  of  more  than 
£2,000,000,  the  west  coast  in  18G6  rather  more.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
"  sixties  "  the  production  and  export  from  the  North  Island  increased.  Owing  to 
this  the  confidence  of  the  mother  country  in  the  future  of  New  Zealand  was 
immensely  strengthened ;  the  Loudon  monej'  market  shows  a  long  list  of  loans 
made  during  the  last  thirty  years  for  the  development  of  the  resources  of  the 
country.  New  Zealand  at  llie  present  day  has  the  larj^est  public  debt  of  any 
country  in  the  world.  (On  March  31,  1900,  £47,870,000  sterling,  equivalent  to 
£61  13s.  per  head.) 

The  administration  has  undergone  very  few  alterations  in  the  course  of  the  last 
half  century.  At  the  beginning  of  the  "  sixties  "  it  was  certain  that  the  imion  of 
the  provinces,  which  ^  course  of  time  had  increased  by  three,  and  were  working 
independently  side  by  side,  was  only  a  question  of  time.  After  A\'ellington,  which 
lies  in  the  centre  (on  Cook  Strait),  had  been  chosen  for  the  federal  capital,  the 
privileges  of  the  provinces  were  abolished  in  1875.  Since  then  New  Zealand 
consists  of  eighty -one  counties,  which  send  their  representatives  to  parliament  at 
Wellington.  On  the  question  of  foreign  policy,  and  the  decision  for  or  against 
federation  with  the  Australian  Commonwealth,  the  reader  can  refer  to  pages  243, 
298,  and  328.  The  main  questions  of  domestic  politics  are  temporarily  obscure. 
A  "democratic  experimental  policy"  is  followed  (Moritz  Schanz),  but  efforts  are 
made  to  solve  the  land  question,  if  possible,  in  favour  of  the  small  people  and  to 
promote  native  industries  by  high  import  duties ;  on  the  whole,  since  the  falling 
off  in  the  output  of  gold,  socialism  is  much  to  the  fore. 

9.   MISSIONARY  WOEK   IN   THE   SOUTH   SEA 

A.  Missions  in  Australia 

The  whites  acquired  influence  over  the  destinies  of  the  Australians  and  Ocean- 
ians, as  over  the  majority  of  primitive  pecjples,  in  two  ways ;  by  taking  possession 
of  their  territory  politically  and  exploiting  its  industries,  and  by  introducing 
Christianity  into  the  national  paganism.  It  is  a  characteristic  feature  in  Oceania 
that  the  impression  produced  by  the  missions  far  surpassed  the  other  in  perma- 
nence and  to  some  degree  in  results.  This  is  not  the  case  with  the  Australian 
continent,  where  mis.sionar}'  attempts  have  alwaj-s  remained  occasional  and,  in 
comparison  with  the  gigantic  area,  of  trifling  extent ;  they  were  timidly  commenced 
and  achieved  no  important  results.  Mucli  indeed  is  told  us  of  the  achievements 
of  native  pupils  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  but  that  says  less  for  the  gen- 
eral success  of  the  mission  than  for  the  intellectual  gifts  of  the  race.  The  love 
of  the  Australian  black  fellow  for  an  irregular,  hand-to-mouth,  hunter's  life  was 
ineradicable. 

B.    Missions  in  Oceania 

Better  prospects  were  open  to  the  missionary  in  Oceania  (see  the  map  of  the 
religions  and  missions  of  the  world  in  Vol.  VII,  p.  357).  In  the  first  place  tlie 
confined  area  allowed  a  concentration  of  all  available  forces,  and  in  tlie  next  place 
the  national  disimion  of  the  Oceanians  prejiared  the  ground  f(ir  the  missionaries, 
as  the  conversions  of  Thakombau,  Pomare,  and  Kamehameha  II  show ;  the  prospect 


Australia  and' 
Oceania. 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  341 


of  the  political  support  of  the  white  preachers  of  the  gospel  was  too  alluring,  and 
many  availed  themselves  of  the  easy  method  of  an  almost  always  superficial  change 
of  faith.  The  real  results  of  conversion  are  nevertheless  generally  unimportant. 
The  very  promising  commencement  made  in  Tahiti  (p.  315)  suffered  a  severe  set- 
back after  the  interference  of  the  missionaries  in  the  disputes  for  the  throne.  In 
New  Zealand  the  disorders  under  Hongi  (p.  333)  brought  the  work  of  conversion 
to  a  standstill  for  years,  as  was  the  case  in  Hawaii  from  the  struggle  of  the  Kame- 
hameha  dynasty  for  the  political  headship  in  the  archipelago.  It  was  only  on  Tonga 
that  the  conversion  of  the  entire  north  was  completed  within  ten  years  of  mission- 
ary work  (1830-1840).  The  kings  Taufaahau  and  Tubou  lent  it  valuable  aid,  and, 
besides  that,  the  field  was  then  left  exclusively  to  the  Protestant  church.  Frcjm 
the  moment  when  the  French  bishop  Pompallier  set  foot  on  the  soil  of  Tongatabu 
(1841 ;  cf.  above,  p.  335)  we  have  presented  to  us  that  picture  of  denominational 
discord  and  intense  jealousy  among  the  disciples  of  the  different  schools  of  religion, 
which  only  too  easily  poisoned  other  phases  of  national  life. 

This  hostility  between  the  confessions  is  one  of  the  greatest  hindrances  to  mis- 
sionary work  in  Oceania,  and  prevents  any  disinterested  feeling  of  joy  being  felt 
when  a  whole  group  of  peoples  is  won  for  Christianity.  It  is  dilficult  to  decide  on 
whom  the  chief  blame  rests,  since  the  accounts  of  individual  efforts  as  well  as  of 
the  combined  result  vary  according  to  the  denominations.  But  in  the  great  major- 
ity of  cases  the  Catholic  missions,  which  came  too  late,  were  the  disturbing  ele- 
ment. Since  they  enjoyed  the  protection  of  France  everywhere,  they  made  up  for 
their  tardiness  by  unscrupulous  action,  of  which  the  events  on  Tahiti,  the  Mar- 
quesas, and  Tuamotu,  in  Hawaii,  and  above  all  in  the  Loyalty  Isles  supply  us  with 
examples.  In  the  Loyalty  Isles,  the  English  missionary  Murray  had  won  over  the 
greater  part  of  three  islands  to  Protestantism.  In  1864  the  group  of  islands  was 
occupied  by  the  French,  at  the  instigation  of  Catholic  missionaries,  and  Protestant 
were  replaced  by  Catholic  services.  The  French  soldiers  treated  the  natives  so 
harshly  that  various  powers  lodged  protests  with  the  government  of  Napoleon  III. 
But  this  interference  only  became  disastrous  in  1872,  1873,  and  1880,  when  in 
regular  religious  wars  between  the  members  of  the  two  churches  even  women  and 
children  were  not  spared. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Protestant  mission  must  be  made  responsible  to  a  large 
degree  for  having  often  combined  the  functicns  of  missionary  and  trader.  This 
practice,  which  had  been  adopted  by  John  Williams,  the  apostle  of  the  South  Sea, 
has  not  been  discontinued,  in  spite  of  frequent  prohibitions  by  England.  The  co- 
operation of  all  whites,  which  is  an  essential  condition  for  an  effective  mission 
of  civilization,  was  thus  destroyed;  the  professional  trader  had  no  motive  for 
supporting  the  church  whose  labourers  were  obnoxious  to  him  as  competitors. 
There  was  also  a  second  reason.  While  the  Catholic  missionary  sharply  defined 
the  exterior  boundaries  of  his  community,  and  then  devoted  himself  exclusively  to 
it  (hence  the  success  of  the  Jesuits  in  building  up  large  communities,  the  increase 
of  Catholics  on  Hawaii,  etc.),  the  Protestant  missionary  was  distracted  by  reason  of 
his  business  as  a  trader.  Both  confessions  were  equally  open  to  the  reproach  of 
having  interfered  in  the  political  affairs  of  the  Oceanians,  as  long  as  any  territory 
was  still  to  be  obtained.  It  is  true  that  the  missionaries  working  alone  in  the 
middle  of  turbulent  tribes,  were  often  forced  to  take  one  side  or  the  other,  if  they 
did  not  wish  to  risk  both  their  lives  and  the  success  of  their  missions  ;  but  just  as 


342  HISIORV    OF    THE    WORLD  [r/,„y,/,,- y;/ 

freiiiieully  we  tind  no  appaiviil  cause.  In  >;e\v  Zealand  there  had  been  an 
attempt  to  found  a  sepanite  Maori  kmgdom  under  ecclesiastical  rule,  a  counter- 
part to  the  Jesuit  State  in  Paraguay  (Vol.  1,  p.  400). 

What  did  missions  do  for  the  Oceanians  ?  In  the  controversy,  wliich  raged  in 
the  press  for  nearly  the  whole  nineteenth  century,  as  to  the  value  of  missions 
in  the  South  Sea,  many  voices  entirely  condemned  their  line  of  action.  Charles 
Darwin,  on  the  other  hand,  has  pointed  out  that,  apart  from  other  progress, 
missionary  activity  had  the  noteworthy  result  of  creating  a  network  of  stations 
over  the  wide  South  Sea,  before  tiie  value  of  that  proceeding  was  realised  by  the 
Western  powers,  and  by  so  doing  indisputably  civilized  the  habits  of  the  native; 
we  have  only  to  compare  the  little-visited  Solomon  islanders  with  the  formerly 
savage  and  now  quite  peaceful  Fijians.  The  credit  of  this  does  not  belong  entirely 
to  the  missions.  So  long  as  they  alone  represeiUed  Europeanisni,  there  was  on  the 
contraryniuch  bloodshed  in  Oceania  (wars  of  Hongi,  dynastic  conflicts  on  Tahiti, 
Hawaii,  Tonga,  and  Samoa).  It  was  only  when  the  strong  hands  of  the  colonial 
governments,  which  were  more  concerned  with  the  undisturbed  possession  of  the 
country  than  the  welfare  of  the  inhabitants,  guided  the  helm,  that  these  improve- 
ments in  culture  were  evident. 

The  luLxture  of  good  and  evil  in  the  achievements  of  the  missionaries  is  visible 
in  the  domain  of  knowledge.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  witli  what  zeal  the  more 
enlightened  of  them  identified  themselves  from  the  first  with  the  national  feelings 
of  the  Oceanic  peoples,  and  how  much  they  collected  which  has  been  essential  for 
our  later  comprehension  of  the  sul>ject.  But  it  is  none  the  less  to  be  remembered 
that  in  the  complete  (although  possibly  inevitable)  destruction  of  the  national 
characteristics  of  Oceania,  no  persons  took  part  more  ignorantly  than  these  very 
missionaries.  They  unscrupuU)usly  invaded  every  branch  of  the  national  life  in 
order  to  adapt  them  to  their  own  views.  They  even  substituted,  iu  many  parts, 
the  ugly  calicoes  of  Europe  for  the  time-honoured  dress,  at  once  tasteful  and 
practical,  of  Oceania ;  they  introduced  fa.shions  which  were  bound  to  jar  on  the 
native  sense  of  beauty,  and  which,  by  their  total  disregard  of  hygienic  laws,  have 
promoted  the  increase  of  various  chronic  diseases. 

Now,  when  the  island  world  of  Oceania  is  divided,  missions  with  their  thoroughly 
successful  enterprises  have  played  their  historical  part.  The  history  of  mankind 
now  takes  broader  strides ;  its  wide  paths  surroimd  even  the  diminutive  islands  in 
the  Pacific. 

10.     THE   COLONIAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   SOUTH   SEA 

Oceania,  at  the  present  day,  is  in  its  full  extent  colonial  territory ;  the  few 
land  surfaces  on  whicli  as  yet  no  white  power  flies  its  flags,  are  uninhabited 
or  barren  rocks  and  reefs.  The  New  Hebrides  alone  are  not  yet  disposed  of.  The 
value  attached  to  Oceania,  whicli  is  exjiressed  in  its  political  annexation,  dates 
from  recent  times.  Apart  from  the  Marianne  Isles,  on  which  the  beghinings  of 
Spanish  colonisation  go  back  to  the  sixteenth  century,  no  group  of  islands  found 
favour  in  the  eyes  of  Eurojiean  governments  before  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  reason  was  the  delicienc}-  of  Oceania  in  precious  metals,  valuable 
spices,  and  rich  stuffs.  This  deficiency  made  the  region  valueless  to  the  leading 
colonisers   of   early  times,  Spain   and  Portugal ;   the  others,  however,  Holland, 


i^a^J"""']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  343 

France,  and  England,  had  their  hands  full  with  tlie  development  of  their  Indian, 
African,  and  American  colonial  possessions. 

The  first  steps  toward  the  colonisation  of  Oceania  in  the  nineteenth  centur)' 
•were  taken  by  the  French.  Since  the  conquest  of  Algeria  was  not  enough  to  prop 
his  tottering  throne,  Louis  Philippe  had,  after  the  middle  of  the  "  thirties,"  issued 
tlie  programme  of  a  Polynesian  colonial  empire.  The  jdan  only  succeeded  in 
East  Polynesia,  where  a  really  compact  region  could  be  brought  tmder  French 
suzerainty ;  elsewliere  France  had  already  opponents  of  her  schemes  to  contend 
with,  who  were  found  not  only  in  tlie  ranks  of  the  Protestant  missionaries,  but 
also  in  the  cabinets  of  Loudon,  Washington,  and  St.  Petersburg.  She  was  thus 
able  to  annex  only  the  southeast  wing  of  West  Melanesia,  New  Caledonia,  and 
its  vicinity. 

England  has  had  to  take  over  a  large  part  of  her  present  Oceanic  possessions, 
even  New  Zealand,  under  compulsion,  not  from  choice.  In  earlier  times  the  con- 
stantly recurring  fear  of  French  rivalry  was  the  moving  cause.  As  German  trade 
relations  with  the  South  Sea  developed,  there  was  the  additional  anxiety  of  German 
encroachment,  and  in  this  connection  the  Australian  colonies  and  New  Zealand,  now 
conscious  of  their  place  in  history,  had  become  the  representatives  of  the  British 
idea  of  colonisation.  AVhen  the  German  Empire  stepped  on  to  the  colonial  world 
stage,  the  half-compulsory  annexation  of  new  territories  to  the  British  colonial 
empire  ceased.  Since  then  Albion  tries  to  take  anything  that  is  left  to  be  taken. 
At  the  present  day  it  may  regard  Central  Melanesia,  Central  Polynesia,  and  South- 
east Micronesia  as  its  spheres  of  interests.  The  "  free  "  New  Hebrides,  French  New 
Caledonia,  and  German  Samoa  make  little  difference  to  this. 

Germany  has  become  a  colonial  power  in  consequence  of  long-standing  com- 
mercial relations.  In  this  way  it  could  partly  occupy  unclaimed  countries ;  partly 
also,  following  the  American  example,  it  has  entered  upon  the  inheritance  of  the 
oldest  Pacific  power,  the  Spaniards.  At  the  present  time  Germany  rules  a  compact 
territory,  important  both  by  its  extent  and  wealth,  wliich  comprises  a  large  part  of 
Melanesia,  and  almost  aU  Micronesia,  but,  like  the  French  possessions,  suffers  from 
its  excessive  remoteness  from  the  mother  coimtry.  Besides  this,  Germany  has 
rivals,  which  are  formidable  both  industrially  and  politically,  in  the  new  American 
colonies  of  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines,  and  still  more  in  Australia.  Samoa,  which 
lies  in  front,  will  prove  more  of  a  trouble  than  a  blessing  to  the  empire. 

The  power  which  has  appeared  last  in  t)rder  of  time  on  the  Pacific  stage  is  the 
United  States  of  America,  whose  right  of  entry  has  been  bouglit  by  the  expulsion 
of  Spain.  The  firm  footing  of  the  Union  on  the  Philippines,  Hawaii,  Guam 
(Mariannes),  and  Tutuila  (Samoa),  that  is,  on  four  places  distributed  over  the 
whole  range  of  islands,  becomes  important  from  the  change  in  the  political  situation 
thus  produced;  America,  which  hitherto  has  turned  its  face  merely  toward  the 
east,  now  looks  to  the  Pacific.  At  the  same  time  it  is  preparing  to  cut  through  the 
onlv  obstacle  to  the  development  of  its  power  on  the  west,  the  Central-American 
isthmus.  The  total  effect  of  this  American  movement  is  that  the  possession  of 
Oceania  is  valued  more  highlv  than  before,  and  that  the  Pacific  Ocean  has  become 
the  focus  of  interest  in  the  history  of  man  (Vol.  I,  Chapter  VI) ;  recent  events  on 
the  east  coast  of  Asia  furnish  the  best  proof  of  this.  Oceania  has  room  only  for 
colonisation  bv  the  great  powei-s.  Spain  has  been  compelled  to  leave  it,  smce  it 
has  been  blotted  out  from  the  list  of  living  worid  powere.     Portugal,  following  the 


344  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chopt.r //i 

decisive  sentence  of  a  pope,  has  never  set  foot  on  it.  Holland,  al  the  most  easterly 
extremity  of  its  colonial  kinfjdom,  just  touches  the  Pacific  with  Dutch  New 
Guinea;  but  it  has  not  yet  been  active  there.  Chdi  possesses  Kaster  Island 
merely  for  show.     Japan,  finally,  has  found  on  Hawaii  the  dooi-s  closed  to  her. 

11.     THE  ANTARCTIC   REGION 

The  region  round  the  South  Pole  is,  in  all  jirobability,  uninhabited.  We  do 
not  even  know  whether  a  continuous  land  surface  or  islands  support  the  enormous 
fields  of  polar  ice.  The  history  of  such  a  region  can  only  be  expressed  in  the 
eflects  which  its  exploration  has  produced  on  the  course  of  the  development  of 
human  civilization.  These  begin  at  a  ijuiie  early  date  with  the  idea  of  the  unknown 
southern  country  (cf.  p.  253).  The  search  for  it  tills  a  large  jiart  of  the  sixteenth,  the 
seventeenth,  and  quite  two-thirds  of  the  eighteenth,  centuries.  In  tlie  geograjihical 
exploration  of  that  time,  which  was  dominated  by  material  aims,  ii  was  the  only 
object  of  discovery  with  an  itleal  background,  and  for  that  very  reason  it  was  not 
without  significance  for  the  history  of  mankind.  The  investigation  of  the  relative 
proportions  of  water  and  land  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  one  of  the  few  questions 
of  j)hysical  geography  on  a  large  scale  to  which  two  millenniums  have  seriously 
devoted  their  attention.  The  feeling  of  uncertainty  was  first  dissipated  by  the 
magnificent  polar  circumnavigation  of  James  Cook  (1772-1775).  Since  then  people 
have  been  contented  with  the  consciousness  that  the  earth,  even  without  the 
enormous  counterpoise  to  the  northern  regions  which  the  students  of  physiography 
demanded,  pursues  its  path  in  safety.  In  this  respect,  the  Antarctic  regions,  which 
are  inferior  to  the  north  polar  continent  in  significance  for  the  history  of  mankind, 
are  indisputably  more  interesting. 

Willi  the  lieginning  of  the  age  of  scientific  geographical  exploration  the  im- 
portance of  the  two  polar  regions  for  the  development  of  human  culture  has  been 
somewhat  altered.  The  revival  of  Arctic  and  Antarctic  exploration  in  the  year  1818 
(J.  Koss  and  W.  E.  Parry)  has  invested  the  two  regions  on  the  verge  of  the 
inhabited  world  with  the  character  of  a  neutral  sphere  of  exploration  for  all 
civilized  nations.  The  laborious  efforts  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  dwelling  places  of  man,  even  in  the  remotest  corners,  is  one  of 
the  most  attractive  chapters  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Undismayed  by  disastrous 
failures,  civilization  has  for  fully  a  century  striven  to  reach  this  goal,  and  has  been 
rewarded  by  great  success.  While,  in  spite  of  all  the  idealism  which  fills  modern 
exploration,  human  selfishness  is  conspicuous,  so  soon  as  the  further  destinies  of 
the  discovered  lands  come  into  the  question,  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions  form 
an  honourable  exception ;  they  are  of  little  or  no  economic  value,  but  the  scientific 
gain  to  be  derived  from  them  is  immense.  For  this  reason  the  civilized  nations 
of  to-day  consider  both  these  regions,  and  particularly  the  south  polar  lands,  as 
sacred  ground,  where  any  one  is  welcome  who  wishes  to  co-operate  in  the  unveiling 
of  those  far  remote  dwelling  places  which  lie  hushed  in  icy  night.  From  the 
moment  when  this  veil  is  lifted,  mankind  will  feel  the  poorer  by  the  loss  of  that 
property  now  common  to  all. 


-f»"a]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  345 


IV 
INDIA 

By  professor    DR.    EMIL   SCHMIDT 


1.    THE   CHAEACTERISTICS   OF   NEAKEE   INDIA 
A.    The  Country 

(a)  General  Observations.  —  Few  countries  in  the  world  contain  within  well- 
defined  boundaries  a  greater  diversity  of  geogiaphical,  anthropological,  and  ethno- 
graphical conditions  than  those  displayed  by  the  Indian  peninsula.  India  is 
indeed  a  world  in  miniature ;  those  natural  conditions  which  modify  the  progress 
of  civilization  are  varied  in  the  extreme,  and  the  civilization  of  the  inhabitants 
of  this  country  is  characterised  by  divergencies  wliich  are  the  inevitable  result  of 
conformation  to  so  varied  an  environment.  The  points  of  contrast  are  intensified 
by  their  mutual  proximity ;  broad  alluvial  plains  are  followed  by  the  highest 
mountains  in  the  world,  burning  tropical  heat  b}-  the  everlasting  fi-ost  of  tbe  snow- 
clad  peaks,  the  extremity  of  drought  by  the  greatest  rainfall  in  the  world,  tropical 
luxuriance  by  appalling  desolation.  Here  we  find  savages  living  almost  entirely 
on  the  products  of  the  chase,  and  by  agriculture  of  the  most  primitive  character  ; 
again,  we  find  Brahmans  devoted  to  the  contemplation  of  the  deepest  problems 
of  human  existence ;  here  we  find  the  black  Dravidiaus,  there  the  yellow-skinned 
Mongols,  with  the  representatives  of  the  wliite  races  in  the  flourishing  capital 
towns.  The  history  of  India  is  a  history  of  the  struggles  for  predominance  between 
these  different  peoples  and  races. 

Nearer  India  owes  its  name  to  the  river  upon  its  northwest  frontier,  the 
"  rushing  "  Sindhu  of  the  Aryans,  a  name  which  was  extended  to  include  all  the 
territory  beyond  the  river  by  the  old  civilizations  of  Europe,  when  they  first  came 
in  contact  with  this  distant  land.  India  is  the  midmost  of  the  great  peninsulas 
which  project  southward  from  the  continent  of  Asia.  The  southern  portion  of 
the  country  lies  within  the  tropic  zone,  wliile  its  northern  regions  advance  into 
the  temperate  zone  beyond  latitude  35°.  Its  frontier  position  has  separated  it 
from  immediate  communication  with  tli.e  steppes  and  deserts  upon  the  boundaries 
of  Asia  proper  except  upon  the  north,  the  northeast,  and  northwest;  its  coasts 
running  southwest  and  southeast  are  bounded  by  broad  seas  impassable  to  peoples 
in  the  lower  stages  of  civilization.  Upon  the  extreme  south  the  island  of  Ceylon 
lies  so  close  to  the  mamland  that  the  intervening  straits  are  rather  a  means  of 
communication  than  an  obstacle  to  intercourse. 

The  area  of  India  is  nearly  equivalent  to  that  of  Western  Europe,  if  a  line 
of  division  be  drawn  passing  through  the  eastern  frontiers  of  Norway,  Denmark, 
Germany,  and  Austria  (cf.  Vol.  VII,  p.  1).     In  respect  of  population  it  considerably 


346  HIS'IORV    OF    THE    WORLD         Ichapter iv 

surpasses  ihe  .lislrict  thus  ileHiied  (293,000,000  as  Loinpared  wiili  240.000,000)  ; 
while  its  iioimlation  is  more  than  double  that  of  East  Europe  (125,000,000). 

(l>)  The  Configuration  of  the  Country.  —  The  configuration  of  the  country  in 
horizontal  section  is  sin>ple ;  its  long  coasts  are  broken  by  but  few  cajws  or  gulfs, 
and  these  of  little  importance.  The  largest  gulf  is  that  of  Caiiibay  (Khanibat), 
which  was  of  higli  importance  at  an  early  period  as  a  commercial  centre.  Good 
harbours  are  comparatively  few  in  number  (Bombay  and  Goa).  Upon  the  west 
coast  landing  is  a  ditlicult  operation,  as  the  western  ghats  descend  abruptly 
to  the  sea,  while  on  the  east  the  coast,  thougli  fiat,  is  lashed  by  formidable  seas 
during  the  monsoon  season.  Lagoons  have  been  formed  only  m  the  south  of  the 
peninsula  on  cither  side  of  its  extremity.  These  facilitate  comnuuiication  along 
the  coast  even  during  the  unfavourable  monsoon  season.  On  the  northeast  and 
northwest  of  the  coast  line  the  Indus,  the  Ganges,  and  the  Brahmaputra,  which 
hring  down  large  quantities  of  sediment,  have  pushed  out  formidable  deltas  into  the 
sea,  communication  tlnough  whicli  is  impeded  by  the  constant  clianges  in  the 
course  of  the  various  mouths  and  the  heavy  deposits  of  silt;  one  arm  of  the  Ganges 
alone  (Hugli)  has  attained  to  political  and  commercial  importance  dm-ing  the  last 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  The  Indian  frontier  with  respect  to  the  rest  of  Asia 
is  defined  with  no  less  simjilicity  than  tlie  coast  line. 

The  configuration  of  the  country,  considered  in  vertical  sections,  is  more  com- 
plicated. Here  we  meet  with  three  great  districts  characterised  by  sharply 
contrasting  features,  the  gi-eat  mountain  range  in  tlie  north  of  the  peninsula, 
the  lowlands  in  the  north  of  India,  and  the  table-land  in  the  south. 

The  northern  frontier  of  India,  which  divides  the  country  from  the  table-lands 
of  Central  Asia,  is  formed  by  the  highest  mountain  range  in  the  world,  the  "  home 
of  snows,"  the  Himalayas.  Bounded  upon  the  east  and  im  the  west  by  the  open- 
ings made  respectively  by  the  Brahmaputra  and  the  Indus,  this  range  has  a  length  of 
fifteen  hundred  miles,  with  a  nearly  uniform  breadth  of  one  liundred  and  thirtj- -seven 
miles ;  its  area  is  almost  equivalent  to  that  of  Germany.  Its  importance  for  India 
consists  in  the  climatic  protection  it  affords  against  the  influence  of  the  waterless 
districts  of  Asia,  in  the  large  rainfall  which  it  collects,  in  the  supply  wliich  it 
affords  to  the  great  fertilising  streams  of  Northern  India,  and  in  the  protection 
it  gives  to  the  country  against  the  invasions  of  the  restless  inhabitants  of  the 
steppes.  Not  only  does  tlie  range  contain  the  highest  peaks  in  the  world,  but  it  is 
as  a  whole  almost  impassable  for  large  bodies  of  men.  Never  has  there  been 
an  invasion  of  India  from  Tibet  across  the  Himalaya  by  great  armies  or  large 
bodies  of  people.  Tlie  mad  attempt  of  the  sultan  Mohammed  ibn-Tughlak 
to  attack  China  by  land  ended  with  the  total  destruction  of  the  army  of  Hindustan 
in  the  suow-tields  of  the  mountain  (1337).  The  few  passes  which  exist  can  be 
traversed  only  at  rare  intervals  and  by  small  bodies ;  the  merchant  and  the  mis- 
sionary make  their  way  across  them ;  from  a  remote  period,  a  certain  number 
of  Mongol  immigrants  liave  very  gradually  trickled  into  Northern  India  by  this 
route  (Bhutan,  Sikkim,  Nepal),  by  which  also  Buddhism  made  its  way  to  the 
north. 

Mountain  systems  join  the  Himalaya  at  either  end,  completely  excluding 
India  from  the  rest  of  Asia.  (In  the  northwest  we  have  the  mountains  dividing 
India  from  Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan,  which  run  from  north  to  south,  decreas- 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  347 


ing  in  height  as  they  advance  southward,  and  broken  by  several  important 
passes.  These  long,  narrow  valleys  have  been  followed  by  all  those  foreign 
invaders  (Aryans,  Assyrians,  Greeks,  Scythians,  Afghans,  Mongols,  Persians, 
etc.),  who  from  earliest  times  have  aiited  as  modifying  forces  upon  the  historical 
development  of  the  Indian  populations. 

On  the  eastern  side  the  Himalaya  range  is  joined  by  a  number  of  high,  steep 
mountain  chains  running  north  and  south,  divided  by  deep  valleys,  througli  which 
the  rivers  of  the  Irawadi,  Salw(iii,  ilekong,  Yaugtse-kiang,  flow  southward  —  a 
barrier  of  extraordinary  strength  i)re\^enting  auy  communication  eastward.  The 
most  westerly  member  of  this  mountain  system  sends  one  of  its  spurs  southeast 
to  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the  Patkai  Mountains,  5,666  feet  in  height.  Thus  upon  the 
east  India  is  also  shut  off  by  a  mountain  wall  surrounding  the  low-lying  plains  of 
the  lower  Brahmaputra  in  the  shape  of  a  horse-shoe.  This  wall  is  passable  only 
upon  the  south,  and  by  this  route  has  undoubtedly  entered  that  infusion  of  Hindu- 
Chinese  blood  which  is  plainly  recognisable  to  the  anthropologist  in  the  mixed 
races  of  Assam,  Lower  Bengal,  and  Orissa. 

The  second  great  region  of  India  is  composed  of  two  great  river  systems,  those 
of  the  Indus  and  of  the  Ganges-Brahmaputra.  The  Indus  turns  at  right  angles  to 
the  mountain  range,  taking  the  shortest  route  to  the  sea,  which  it  reaches  in  a  rapid 
descent,  a  fact  of  no  less  importance  for  the  nature  and  the  inhabitants  of  its 
valley  than  the  fact  that  the  long  cliauuels  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra 
run  parallel  to  the  mountain  range.  WhUe  the  Indus  passes  the  spurs  of  the 
Himalaya,  and  is  fed  by  tributaries  from  these  sources,  a  sufficient  supply  of 
moisture  is  available  for  the  cultivation  of  the  ground ;  the  earth  then  showers  her 
gifts  upon  mankind  with  such  lavish  bounty  that  the  district  of  the  Five  Rivers, 
even  in  the  gray  dawn  of  history,  was  the  goal  of  the  ambitions  of  the  nomad 
tribes  inhabiting-  the  dry  steppes  of  Afghanistan  and  Central  Asia.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  valley  of  the  lower  Indus  the  arable  land  is  restricted  to  a  narrow 
belt  on  either  bank  of  the  stream,  which  here  runs  so  rapidly  that  navigation 
is  almost  impossible,  while  it  brings  down  such  heav}'  deposits  of  sUt  that  its  delta 
is  continually  changing,  and  the  arms  of  the  delta  and  the  sea,  in  their  neighbour- 
hood, are  with  difficulty  accessible  on  account  of  the  outlying  banks  of  sediment. 
Eastwards  from  this  arable  country,  upon  the  Indus,  stretches  the  Great  Desert, 
across  which  communication  is  almost  impossible.  It  extends  southwards  to  the 
sea,  and  northwards  almost  to  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  at  which  point  alone  a 
narrow  strip  of  land  makes  communication  between  the  two  river  systems  possible. 
Hence  it  was  at  this  spot  that  peoples  advaucmg  into  India  from  the  west  came 
into  collision  with  the  inhabitants  already  settled  m  the  valley  of  the  Ganges : 
this  district  has  repeatedly  been  the  scene  of  those  decisive  battles  which  pre- 
determined the  history  of  India  for  long  periods. 

The  eastern,  which  is  the  larger  portion  of  the  plains  of  North  India,  is  far 
more  favourably  situated  than  the  western.  The  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra  run 
parallel  to  the  mountains,  though  they  are  so  far  apart  from  the  Hiraalajas,  from 
the  heights  of  the  Deccan  on  the  south,  and  from  the  frontier  mountain  range 
about  Burmah,  that  on  either  side  a  wide  declivity  is  available  for  copious  irrigation 
by  artificial  means.  The  whole  river  valley  is  alluvial  land ;  but  a  distinction 
must  be  made  between  the  earlier  and  th^later  deposits ;  the  line  of  demarcation 
between  these  begms  at  the  Ganges  delta.     Up  to  that  pomt  the  land  falls  away 


348  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Ichapter  iv 

80  rapidly  from  the  west  that  tlie  soil  is  dry  and  fruitful;  everywhere  irrigation 
can  be  provided  in  sutlicient  measure  to  satisfy  the  most  zealous  cullivatur  i)f  the 
soil,  which  also  receives  new  deposits  of  rich  manure  from  the  silt-laden  waters 
of  the  rivers.  Navigable  streams  cross  this  district,  which  is  more  suitable  than 
any  other  in  India  for  the  development  of  important  towns  (the  Magadha  kingdom, 
the  Jlohammedan  kingdom,  the  centre  of  the  English  supremacy ;  see  also  the 
plate,  p.  370).  The  characteristics  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  river  valley 
are  wholly  different ;  in  the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  and  in  the  whole  of  Assam  the 
deposits  of  silt  have  been  so  recently  made,  and  the  gi-ound  in  conse([uence  lies  so 
low,  that  drainage  works  are  impossible ;  the  country  is  almost  everj'where 
in  a  swampy  condition,  and  tlie  malaria  of  the  district  is  dangerous  to  human 
occupants.  Navigation  is  dillu-ult,  as  also  is  communication  by  land,  for  the 
ground  is  not  sutticicnlly  iirm  to  permit  the  laying  down  of  roads.  Hence 
the  civilization  of  this  part  of  the  Ganges-Brahmaputra  valley  was  in  a  com]>ara- 
tively  backward  condition  before  the  rise  of  the  English  power  in  India;  Aryan 
and  Mussulman  influences  made  themselves  felt  comparatively  late,  and  it  is  only 
during  the  last  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  that  the  greater  intellectual  power 
and  energy  of  Europeans  has  brought  prosperity  to  the  delta  of  the  Gauges. 

In  the  southern  part  of  India  the  table-land  known  as  the  "  South  Land,"  the 
Deccan  of  the  Ar}'ans  of  Xortli  India,  rises  in  isolation.  It  forms  a  great  elevated 
highland  with  steep  walls,  which  fall  sheer  into  the  Arabian  Sea  on  the  west  (the 
west  ghats) ;  on  the  eastern  side  the  plateau  is  somewhat  lower  and  lies  at  some 
distance  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  from  which  it  gradually  retires  as  it  advances 
southward.  In  this  district  between  the  highlands  and  the  sea  rise  individual 
isolated  plateaus  and  numerous  single  peaks,  by  which  the  plains  are  diversified. 
The  table-land  attains  its  greatest  height  (with  the  mouutains  of  Anamalai,  8,977  feet 
high,  and  of  Nilgiri,  8,477  feet  high)  on  the  west  coast  and  falls  gradually  away  to 
the  eastward.  Hence  most  of  the  rivers  of  the  Deccan  run  eastward  (Son,  Maha- 
nadi,  Godavari,  Kistna,  Kaveri,  Tambraparni) ;  two  streams  only,  tlie  Narbada  and 
the  Tapti,  have  worn  out  deep  gorges  in  their  westward  career.  These,  together 
with  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  Vindhya  and  Satpura  running  parallel  to  them, 
divide  the  highlands  of  the  Deccan  iuto  a  southern  and  northern  half  (Central 
India),  which  for  a  long  time  proved  an  obstacle  to  the  advance  of  the  Aryans, 
more  by  reason  of  its  malarial  swamps  and  its  jungle  vegetation  than  because  of 
its  mountainous  nature.  All  the  above-mentioned  streams  are  unimportant  as 
means  of  navigation  and  communication,  on  account  of  the  variable  water  supply 
and  the  rapids  and  waterfalls,  by  which  they  are  broken  when  they  reach  the  pre- 
cipitous edge  of  the  highlands. 

(c)  The  Geographical  Position.  —  Friedrich  Ratzel,  the  most  brilliant  of  modem 
geographers,  has  laid  great  emphasis  upon  the  importance  of  geographical  position 
to  national  historj';  the  jiositii)u  of  India  has  exercised  a  decisive  influence  upon 
the  whole  course  of  development  of  the  natural  products  of  the  country  and  its 
population. 

The  position  of  this  central  peninsula  of  Southern  Asia,  situated  as  it  is  with 
reference  to  the  enormous  dry,  waterless  districts  of  the  desert  and  the  steppes  on 
the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  hand  to  the  tropical  sea  with  its  moisture-laden 
atmosphere,  determines  the  amount  of  the  rainfall  and  its  distribution,  and  there- 


Jjidia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  349 


fore,  also  the  fertility  of  different  parts  of  the  land,  which  again  influences  the 
population.  In  the  spring  and  summer  the  great  deserts  and  steppes  of  Central 
Asia  are  scorched  by  the  sun  whicli  then  attains  its  greatest  altitude ;  the  baromet- 
rical pressure  is  low  and  the  currents  of  air  with  their  burden  of  moisture  from  the 
tropic  Indian  seas  travel  in  a  northeasterly  direction  across  India  (a  deviation  due 
to  the  revolution  of  the  earth).  In  the  southern  portion  of  the  country  these 
clouds  then  meet  the  steep  wall  of  the  western  ghats  and  deliver  a  large  propor- 
tion of  theu-  moisture,  breaking  in  violent  thunder  storms  upon  the  mountain  wall 
to  return  again  to  the  sea  in  rushing  brooks  and  streams.  The  air  currents,  however, 
after  crossing  the  watershed  of  the  ghats  become  drier  and  provide  but  a  scanty  rain- 
fall for  the  eastern  district  where  the  highlands  slope  away.  Not  until  they  reach 
the  giant  wall  of  the  Himalaya  do  tliey  drop  all  the  moisture  which  they  have  retained, 
and  for  this  reason  tlie  mountains  of  Assam  can  boast  the  heaviest  rainfall  upon  the 
earth  (the  rainfall  of  Cherra  Punji  in  the  Hsia  Mountains  of  Assam  amounts  to  four 
liundied  and  forty-four  inches  during  the  summer  and  five  hundred  and  twenty 
for  the  whole  of  the  year).  On  the  other  hand,  during  tlie  winter  months  a  high 
barometrical  maximum  prevails  over  Central  Asia,  while  South  Africa  and  the 
Indian  Ocean,  which  are  then  scorched  by  the  sun,  show  an  average  low  baromet- 
rical pressure.  The  currents  take  a  backward  movement  and  blow  from  the  great 
dry  continent  as  the  northeast  monsoon,  bringing  but  little  moisture,  and  tliat  at 
uncertain  intervals  to  India.  Consequently  the  wide  districts  to  the  east  of  the 
gliats  as  far  as  the  Himalaya  Mountains  suffer  greatly  from  drought,  and  should 
the  rains  of  the  east  monsoon  fail,  are  confronted  with  terrible  famines. 

The  fertility  of  the  coimtry  depends  upon  the  amount  of  natural  or  artificial 
irrigation  which  it  receives.  Vegetation,  apart  from  human  agency,  flourishes  most 
luxuriantly  on  the  Malabar  coast.  Beyond  the  range  of  the  western  ghats  differ- 
ent conditions  prevail.  A  forest  country  is  first  met  with,  where  the  deciduous 
nature  of  the  trees  is  a  protection  against  the  excessive  drought  of  the  dry  season. 
Vegetation  then  conforms  to  the  character  of  the  steppes  in  general  and  agri- 
culture is  restricted  to  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  springs  or  tanks,  to  the 
river  banks,  or  to  the  river  deltas.  The  steep  wall  of  the  western  ghats  ends  upon 
the  north  with  the  river  Tapti,  so  that  at  this  point  the  moisture-laden  currents 
penetrate  more  deeply  into  the  country.  The  remoter  heights  of  Central  India 
produce  a  heavier  rainfall ;  though  the  forests  are  more  extensive  in  that  district, 
the  ]irevalence  of  malaria  is  an  obstacle  to  human  occupation.  The  great  plains 
in  the  north  of  India  receive  a  dimmishing  rainfall  in  proportion  as  they  are 
removed  from  the  deha  of  the  Ganges  on  the  west ;  compensation  is,  however, 
afforded  by  the  works  of  artificial  irrigation  which  distribute  the  streams  falling 
from  the  Himalaya  and  in  some  degree  those  which  rise  on  the  north  wall  of  the 
Deccan.  Tlie  delta  of  the  Ganges  and  the  lower  ground  m  the  valley  of  the 
Brahmaputra  suffer  from  an  excess  of  rainfall  and  ground  moistm-e. 

The  cultivation  of  the  country,  especially  as  regards  the  growth  of  cereals,  is 
primarilv  conditioned  by  the  existing  facilities  for  irrigation.  Where  copious 
supplies' of  water  are  to  be  had,  rice  is  the  staple  product  of  agriculture,  as  it  is  on 
the  wli,de  of  the  Malabar  coast,  on  the  deltas  of  the  Deccan  rivers,  of  the  Indus 
and  the  Ganges,  and  in  Assam.  Under  proper  irrigation,  land  containing  less 
moisture  will  produce  a  heavy  yield  of  wheat  as  is  the  case  in  the  Punjab,  the 
British  Northwest  Province,  Oudh,  the  Central  Provinces,  and  certain  favoured  parts 


350  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD         [chaj^t.r  j r 

of  the  presidency  of  Bombay.  Wliere  irrigation  is  difficult,  several  kinds  of  cereals 
(such  as  Elfiusine  coracana,  etc.)  and  other  subsidiary  products  flourish.  Where 
the  land  is  too  dry  for  these  plants,  as  is  the  case  in  large  districts  of  the  southern 
Deccan,  stock  breeding  (of  the  sheep,  buffalo,  etc.)  enables  mankind  to  make  a 
living  at  the  expense  of  some  hardship;  the  caste  of  the  Kurunibas  (shepherds), 
which  is  now  scattered  and  decayed,  played  au  important  part  at  an  early  period. 

B.   The   Popul.vtiox 

The  population  of  India  is  distributed  accordmg  to  the  fertility  of  the  soQ. 
The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  comparatively  small.  Coal  is  by  no  means 
common  and  has  only  recently  been  worked  upon  any  large  scale ;  iron  ore  is 
widely  distributed,  but  was  only  used  by  the  natives  to  a  very  small  extent,  and  the 
importance  of  this  industry  lias  been  practically  extinguislied  by  the  competition 
of  the  great  European  undertakings.  The  riches  of  India  in  precious  metals  and 
stones  have  been  considerably  exaggerated ;  the  real  wealth  of  the  country  does  not 
lie  within  the  soil,  but  gi'ows  upon  it.  Consequently  tlie  population  is  almost 
entirely  of  a  peasant  character;  the  last  census  to  hand  shows  only  2,035  towns 
properly  so-called  among  717,5-49  settlements;  of  this  number  1,401  had  less  than 
1,000  inhabitants,  407  had  between  10,000  and  20,000,  and  227  had  a  population 
above  20,000.  Only  26  towns  have  more  than  100,000  inhabitants  and  only  4  more 
than  300,000  (Calcutta,  Bombay,  Madras,  and  llaidarabad).  In  England  53  per 
cent  of  the  population  live  in  182  towns  of  more  than  20,000  inhal)itants,  whereas 
in  India  this  holds  good  only  of  4.84  per  cent  (distributed  in  227  towns  of  20,000 
inliabitants).  The  collective  population  of  the  countr)'  (287,133,481  inhabitants 
upon  1,560,080  S(iuare  miles,  excluding  Burmah)  gives  an  average  of  184  inhabi- 
tants to  the  scpiare  mile.  In  individual  districts  of  some  size  this  average  varies 
between  24  and  1,395  ;  it  is  larger  in  British  India  than  in  the  native  States,  a  fact 
apparently  due  to  European  influence  upon  the  country,  and  still  more  to  the 
circumstance  that  England  has  occupied  all  those  States  where  the  soil  is  more 
than  usually  fertile. 

A  systematic  ethnogiaphical  examination  of  the  population  of  India  is  an 
extremely  ditticult  task ;  no  universal  lines  of  division  can  be  drawn  including  all 
the  most  important  phenomena  of  divergent  nationality.  The  differences,  moreover, 
by  no  means  run  in  parallel  lines.  Tlie  most  important  points  to  be  noted  are 
physical  characteristics,  laugviage,  religion,  and  social  peculiarities,  together  with  the 
characteristic  signs  of  national  feeling  .which  these  differences  imply. 

(a)  Physical  Characteristics.  —  The  many  changes  in  Indian  history  presuppose 
the  impossibility  of  anv  physical  uniformity  throughout  the  pojnilation.  Apart 
from  the  infusions  of  Portuguese  and  Dutch  and  English  blood  during  the  last  four 
centuries,  foreign  representatives  of  the  white  or  yellow  races  have  frecpiently 
invaded  the  countrj'  through  the  nortliwest  passes.  However,  as  far  as  the  Mongol 
princes  are  concerned,  almost  every  trace  of  their  existence  has  disappeared  from 
the  ethnological  characteristics  of  the  modem  Indian.  The  Mediterranean  (white) 
races  have,  however,  exercised  a  permanent  modifying  influence  and  their  descend- 
ants form  one  of  the  main  racial  elements  of  the  country.  From  a  remote  epoch 
vigorous  commercial  relations  were  maintained  on  the  west  coast  with  the  western 


x»/»]  HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD  351 

continents,  which  have  left  their  traces  upon  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  coast 
dwellers  ;  the  Semitic  type  of  countenance  common  among  the  Mohammedans  of  the 
Malabar  coast  is  derived  from  the  Arabs.  Fugitive  Jews  have  repeatedly  entered 
the  country  in  bodies,  such  as  the  Jews  of  Cochin  (now  thirteen  hundred  in 
number)  who,  according  to  their  traditions,  left  their  country  after  the  destruction 
of  their  great  sanctuary  by  Titus  (70  A.  D.) ;  another  instance  is  the  Jewish  colony 
in  Bombay  which  was  expelled  from  its  former  settlements  by  ^lohammedan 
fanaticism.  Similarly,  a  large  number  of  fire  worshippers  fled  from  Persia  in  the 
year  1717  before  the  zeal  of  the  Mohammedans,  and  the  coast  of  Bombay  is  now 
inhabited  by  ninety  thousand  Parsees  wlio  remain  true  to  the  religion  of  Zara- 
thustra.  In  many  cases  their  Semitic  cast  of  features  recalls  the  representations 
of  the  kings  in  ancient  Nineveh,  whereas  others  remind  us  of  the  modern  represen- 
tatives of  the  white  races  in  the  Armenian  highlands  (the  Tadshik). 

The  east  coast  has  been  peopled  rather  by  Indian  migrations  directed  espe- 
cially toward  the  opposite  coast  of  Burmah  (Klings,  that  is,  descendants  of  the 
kingdom  of  Kalinga)  than  by  immigi'ation  from  abroad.  However,  a  strong  infu- 
sion of  Mongolian  blood  has  entered  from  the  north  and  northeast.  The  southern 
slopes  of  the  Himalaya  to  the  east  of  Dardistan  are  peopled  by  a  mixed  race  of 
Mongol  Indians  apjjarently  formed  by  the  slow  infusion  of  Mongols  from  Tibet 
over  the  extremely  difficult  mountain  passes.  A  similar  population  is  to  be  found 
in  Assam  and  in  many  of  the  tribes  inhabiting  East  Bengal  and  Orissa,  though 
here  the  Mongol  element  more  probably  entered  the  country  by  the  easier  route 
through  Burmah  than  by  crossing  the  extremely  difficult  moimtain  ranges  which 
run  in  parallel  lines  to  the  east  of  Assam. 

All  these  infusions  of  foreign  blood,  however,  excluding  the  mixed  Indo- 
Mongolian  population,  form  a  very  small  and  almost  unappreciable  element  in  the 
racial  composition  of  the  country.  The  two  main  component  elements  are  the 
representatives  of  a  white  race,  which  entered  the  coimtry  from  the  northwest  at  a 
comparatively  early  period  (more  than  four  or  five  thousand  years  ago),  and  a  dark 
race,  which  may  be  considered  as  directly  descended  from  the  original  population. 
This  race  is  recognisable  by  the  dark  colouring  of  the  hair,  eyes,  and  skin,  which 
is  of  universal  distribution,  and  is  often  intensified  into  the  deepest  shades  of  dark 
brown ;  a  further  characteristic  point,  reminding  us  of  the  black  negro  races  of 
Africa,  is  the  moderate  size  of  the  skull  and  the  short,  broad  nose;  the  race,  how- 
ever, is  differentiated  from  the  negro  type  by  the  shorter  and  more  upright  stature, 
and  especially  by  the  hair,  which  though  black,  is  but  moderately  crisp,  and  while 
often  found  in  curls  or  waves  is  never  of  a  woolly  nature.  The  representative 
types  of  this  race  usually  attain  a  stature  which  is  considerably  less  than  the 
average  height  of  the  German.  Races  living  under  very  unfavourable  conditions, 
with  an  insufficiency  of  nourishment  (such  as  many  of  the  dwellers  in  the  moun- 
tains and  jungles,  the  slave  castes,  etc.),  are  so  far  below  this  average  stature  that 
they  may  be  considered  as  dwarf  tribes  (cf.  Vol.  Ill),  though  it  is  impossible  to 
make  this  characteristic  a  line  of  demarcation  between  them  and  the  other  dark 
races  of  India. 

The  white  races  in  India  are  distinguished  from  the  dark  especially  by  their 
complexion,  which  in  pure  blooded  types  is  no  deeper  than  that  of  the  Europeans 
about  the  Mediterranean.  Their  average  stature  is  considerably  higher,  while  their 
features  are  smaller,  and  their  noses,  with  higher  bridges,  are  more  prominent  than 
in  the  case  of  the  black  races. 


352  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         \_(i.,,,t.r  iv 

An  examination  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  different  Indian  races 
will  begin  with  what  are,  comparatively  speaking,  pure  representatives  of  the  fair 
races  on  the  northwest,  immediately  adjoining  the  population  of  Afghanistan  and 
Baluchistan,  which  has  been  more  or  less  modified  by  infusions  of  Semitic  blood. 
Such  iuduence  is  less  prominent  in  Kashmir,  in  the  hill  countrj',  and  the  Five 
Rivers  district  as  far  as  the  upper  course  of  the  Ganges ;  on  the  other  hand, 
further  eastward  in  the  centre,  and  especially  in  the  lower  course  of  the  Ganges,  a 
deeper  complexion  may  be  observed  in  many  of  the  subordinate  grades  of  caste 
and  settlement  Further  east  again  in  Assam,  the  characteristics  of  the  fair  race 
disappear  by  degrees,  and  are  but  moderately  pronounced  among  the  higher  castes ; 
the  chief  element  of  the  popidation  is  formed  by  the  fusion  of  the  black  and 
yellow  races.  Gf  similar  composition  are  the  numerous  small  mountain  tribes  of 
the  Himalaya  as  far  as  Dardi.stan.  Southward  the  fusion  of  black  and  yellow 
comes  to  an  end  about  the  frontiers  of  Orissa ;  at  this  point  the  characteristics  of 
the  fair  race  are  again  strongly  marked  in  the  higher  castes  (Brahmans).  In 
Central  India  is  found  a  belt  of  almost  purely  dark  complexioned  population; 
further  south  again  in  the  Deccan  and  the  plains  upon  its  frontier  the  black  races 
are  greatly  preponderant,  though  in  individual  castes  varying  infusions  of  white 
blood  may  be  observed.  On  the  west  coast,  on  the  other  liand,  with  the  exception 
of  small  colonies  of  foreigners  (Jews  and  Parsees),  closely  united  bodies  of  white 
inhabitants  are  to  be  found  concentrated  among  the  dark  population.  Individual 
branches  of  the  Brahman  caste  (the  Konkanath,  Nambutiri,  and  Haiga  Brahmans) 
zealously  preserve  the  purity  of  their  caste  and  race ;  a  warrior  caste  of  the  Nair 
and  the  caste  of  the  Temple  Maidens  are  distinguished  from  the  surrounding  popu- 
lation by  their  fairer  complexions. 

{h)  The  Languages  of  India.  —  Indian  languages  display  the  utmost  variety. 
Philology  has  distinguished  three  typical  forms  of  language,  the  isolating,  the 
agglutinative,  and  the  inflectional.  These  three  types  are  represented  in  India,  and, 
in  general,  coincide  with  the  three  racial  types  there  represented ;  the  mixed  Jlon- 
golian  and  dark-skinned  races  (Hindu-Chinese),  the  unmixed  dark  races  (the 
Dravidians)  and  the  white  race  (the  Aryans).  If  a  straight  line  be  drawn  from 
Goa  in  a  northwesterly  direction  to  Eajmahal,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Ganges 
delta  (see  the  map,  p.  430),  the  agglutinative  languages  will  lie  chiefly  to  the 
southeast  of  this  line,  the  district  of  the  inflectional  languages  extending  on  the 
northwest  into  the  Ganges  delta  and  the  valley  of  the  Bramaputra,  while  the  iso- 
lating languages  are  found  at  the  edge  of  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas 
and  the  mountains  of  Southern  Assam.  The  boundary  between  the  Aryan  and 
Dravidian  languages  is  not  to  be  conceived  as  a  sharp  line  of  demarcation ;  the 
Dravidian  languages  are  sporadically  found  within  the  district  of  the  Aryan 
tongiie-s.  The  early  disruption  of  the  Dravidian  peoples  has  natunilly  brought 
about  great  differences  of  grammatical  form,  and  many  dialects  have  borrt)wed 
numbers  of  foreign  words  from  nei«ihbouring  languages.  These  isolated  Dra%-idian 
tribes  invariably  live  hard  lives  upon  a  low  plane  of  civilization  ;  they  include  the 
Khonds,  in  the  mountain  districts  of  Orissa,  Ganjam  and  Cuttack ;  the  Gonds,  a 
tribe  which  has  been  broken  into  several  isolated  linguistic  imits,  between  the 
Narbada  and  Godavari,  the  Oraon  in  Chota  Nagpur,  and  finally  the  most  northerly 
representative   of  this   division,  the  Mai   Paharia,  established   upon   the   lower 


'»H  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  353 

Ganges  in  the  mountains  of  Eajmabal,  whose  language,  though  greatly  differing 
from  the  other  Draviiliau  tongues,  must  none  the  less  be  included  within  the  Dra- 
vidian  family.  Whether  the  Brahui,  who  inhabit  the  district  from  the  Lower 
Indus  to  Baluchistan,  should  be  added  to  the  Dravidian  family,  is  an  unsettled 
question.  Assuming  that  they  are  members  of  tliis  family,  the  strong  differences 
between  their  language  and  that  of  related  tribes  may  easily  be  explained  as  the 
effect  of  the  different  migrations  which  had  passed  over  their  country.  Philologi- 
cally  their  language  resembles  in  such  respects  the  Dravidian  languages  of  South 
India,  ilore  accurate  information  will  be  forthcoming  upon  the  conclusion  of  the 
"  Linguistic  Survey  of  India,"  xmdertaken  by  George  A.  Griersou. 

The  Kolarians  (about  three  millions  in  number)  in  the  Presidencies  of  Bengal, 
Madras,  and  the  Central  Provinces,  are  an  ethnological  puzzle ;  they  have  been 
broken  into  isolated  communities,  and  their  language,  which  was  undoubtedly 
widely  distributed  at  an  early  period,  has  been  broken  up  and  confined  by  the 
advance  of  the  Ar}-an  and  Dravidian  languages.  Their  language  is  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Dravidian  tongues  (though  physically  they  closely  resemble  the 
Dravidian  type)  by  an  entirely  different  vocabulary,  and  by  an  embrj'onic  inflec- 
tional system.  As  yet,  however,  very  little  is  known  of  them,  and  further  research 
will  no  doubt  modify  the  views  now  held  upon  their  philological  position  and 
dialectical  division.  It  has  been  said,  but  by  no  means  proved,  that  they  are  phi- 
lologically  related  to  certain  tribes  of  Further  India. 

(c)  The  Distribution  of  the  Indian  Religions.  —  The  construction  of  a  scheme 
to  illustrate  the  distribution  of  the  different  religions  is  by  no  means  facilitated  by 
the  fact  that  sharp  distinction  between  them  is  often  impossible.  The  simple  con- 
ception of  a  divine  being,  inherited  and  obstinately  retained  from  the  earliest 
periods  of  tribal  development,  is  in  every  case  the  primitive  underlying  idea, 
and  is  manifest  even  in  the  most  advanced  religious  systems.  ^Vhile  the  Hindus, 
assert  their  faith  now  in  Vishnu,  now  in  Siva,  at  the  same  time  none  are  found  to 
deny  the  existence  of  demons,  upon  whom  the  religious  fears  and  veneration  of 
lower  tribes  are  entirely  concentrated,  and  these  powers  have  also  been  recognised 
within  the  Hindu  heaven.  Consequently,  statistics  of  the  adherents  of  the  various 
religions  are  extremely  unreliable ;  their  variations  as  compared  with  the  known 
populations  of  different  nationalities  frequently  show  the  lines  of  religious  demar- 
cation to  be  extremely  vague  and  unstable.  For  the  lowest  of  these  faiths,  the 
demon  worship,  the  census  of  1S90,  gives  a  percentage  of  2.64  of  the  whole  popu- 
lation in  British  India,  and  of  5.20  for  the  other  parts  of  the  country.  I'nder 
these  figures  are  comprised  chiefly  the  wild  races  dwelling  in  inaccessible  jungle 
districts,  which  have  been  as  yet  untouched  by  Brahman  civilization,  and  also 
man\-  of  the  so-called  slave  castes.  Consequently,  pure  demon  worship  exists 
chiefly  among  the  Dravidian  and  Kolarian  races  in  the  Central  Provinces  (14.8  per 
cent  of  the  population),  and  in  the  neighbouring  native  States  (22.7  per  cent), 
though  it  is  also  found  in  Lower  Bengal  (13  per  cent),  in  Assam  (17.7  per  cent),  etc. 

The  greater  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of  India  (72^  per  cent)  are  worship- 
pers of  one  or  other  of  the  great  divinities  of  the  Hindus.  \\'here  this  average  is 
not  attained  we  find  that  Hinduism  has  had  to  struggle  with  Mohammedanism, 
and  also  with  demon  worship,  or  other  special  forms  of  religion ;  such  cases  are 
the  Punjab  (.i7.1   per  cent  Hindus,  55.7  per   cent  Mohammedans,  6.7  per  cent 

VOL.  11 -23 


354  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  [Chapter jr 

Sikhs),  Kashmir  (27.2  per  cent  Hiudus,  70.5  per  cent  Mohammedans),  Assam 
(5-4.7  per  cent  Hindus,  27  per  cent  Mohammedans,  17.7  per  cent  demon  worshij> 
pers),  the  whole  of  Bengal  i,()3.4  per  cent  Hindus,  32.8  per  cent  Moliammedans, 
3.2  demon  worshippers).  In  all  the  other  provinces  and  States  the  average  percent 
age  of  Hinduism  is  surpassed,  and  is  highest  in  the  south  of  India,  esjiecially  in 
Mysore,  Kurg,  Haidarahad,  in  the  Presidency  of  Madras  and  in  I'oonah  and  Bamda. 

The  Mohammedan  worshippers  have  been  estimated  at  243,000,000,  and  of 
this  total  57,000,000,  that  is,  almost  a  quarter  (23.5  per  cent)  belong  to  India. 
This  belief  is  represented  in  ever}-  part  of  India ;  the  tolerance  displayed  by  the 
Mohammedans  toward  tlie  caste  system  gives  them  the  advantage  of  being  able  to 
maintain  commercial  relations  with  every  branch  of  society  in  the  country,  though 
naturally  to  a  larger  extent  in  the  older  Mohammedan  towns.  Consequently,  the 
northwest  provinces  and  States  (where  Islam  entered  the  country)  are  most 
thickly  jwpulated  with  Mohammedan  worshippers ;  to  the  average  already  given 
for  the  Punjab  and  Kashmir  we  must  add  Sindh  with  70  per  cent  of  Moham- 
medans ;  these  are  followed  by  the  chief  provinces  of  the  Mogul  Empire,  the 
mountainous  frontier  of  the  northwest  provinces  (30.6  per  cent),  East  Bengal 
(with  more  than  half  of  the  inhabitants)  and  individual  parts  of  the  Presidency  of 
Bombay  (especially  the  old  trading  stations,  etc.).  In  the  south,  the  numbers  of 
the  Mohammedans  diminish  considerably.  The  faith  is  practically  unknown  to 
the  tribes  of  the  Central  Provinces  and  a  very  small  percentage  is  found  in  ^Mysore 
and  Haidarabad.  Mohammedanism  would  also  be  unrepresented  in  the  remaining 
Presidency  of  Madras  were  not  the  prevailing  Hinduism  broken  by  individual 
groups  of  Mohammedans  (the  Mapilla  or  Moplah  on  the  Malabar  coast,  the  Labbe 
on  the  Coromandel  coast;  both  groups  have  originated  in  the  presence  of  Arab 
traders). 

Buddhism,  at  one  time  so  widespread  in  India,  has  now  degenerated  into 
Hindu-polytheism  in  the  mountainous  countries  of  the  north  (Himalaya  and  the 
Kashmir  valleys),  and  on  the  northeast  (the  frontiers  of  Tibet  and  Burmah).  Few 
adherents  survive  of  the  northern  branch  of  this  religion,  and  in  Kashmir  alone 
they  scarcely  amount  to  one  per  cent  of  the  whole  population.  The  Jain  religion, 
which  is  related  to  Buddhism,  is  better  represented  in  certain  provinces,  though 
nowhere  has  it  retained  a  higher  average  than  five  per  cent  of  the  whole  popu- 
lation. Eajputana,  Ajmir,  and  Gujarat  are  the  chief  centres  of  this  belief, 
whicli  only  numbers  1,400,000  adherents  throughout  India  (one-half  per  cent  of 
the  whole  population). 

Of  other  religions  we  may  mention  that  of  the  Sikhs,  which  is  almost  exclu- 
sively confined  to  the  Punjab  (1,900.000,  two-thirds  per  centof  the  whole  population). 
They  form  the  Hindu  sect,  which  lias  iieeu  influenced  by  ^lohaniniedanism,  and 
their  religion  is  now  only  distinguislied  from  Hinduism  by  its  ceremonial.  Other 
religions  wliich  have  entered  India  from  abroad  are  very  weakly  represented ;  such 
are  the  Parsees  (the  west  coast  of  India,  with  Bombay  as  their  centre),  with  90,000, 
that  is,  0.03  per  cent,  tlie  Jews  (early  colonists  in  Bomliay  and  Cochin,  together 
with  scattered  Jews  of  various  origin  throughout  India),  numbering  17,200  souls 
(0.006  per  cent),  and  the  Christians  with  2,300,000  (0.8  per  cent).  Of  these  latter, 
2,036,600,  that  is,  89  per  cent,  are  converted  natives,  while  80,000,  that  is,  3.5 
per  cent,  are  half-breed  Indians,  and  168,000,  tliat  is,  7.4  per  cent,  are  Europeans. 
More  than  half  of  this  latter  number  are  soldiers  with  their  relatives. 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  355 


(d)  The  Caste  System.  —  The  caste  system  has  exercised  so  deep  an  influ- 
ence, is  so  characteristic  a  phenomenon  of  Indian  social  life,  and  is,  moreover,  an 
institution  of  such  infinite  diversity  in  its  details  that  its  true  nature  can  only  be 
imderstood  in  connection  with  its  historical  development  as  a  part  of  the  national 
history  (cf.  p.  ;;74  ff.)- 

2.    THE  HISTORY   OF   INDIA 

The  history  of  India  is  a  drama  in  three  great  acts.  The  first  of  these  is 
occupied  by  the  struggles  of  two  races  for  predominance ;  the  second,  by  the  strug- 
gles of  two  religions  ;  and  the  third,  by  the  conflict  for  the  economic  exploitation  of 
the  country.  In  the  first  epoch,  Aiyans  are  opposed  to  Dravidiaus.  The  result  of 
their  struggle  is  a  development  of  a  mixed  race  of  people  whose  political,  social, 
and  religious  institutions  are  to  be  explained  partly  as  the  result  of  fusion,  and 
partly  as  due  to  the  predominant  influence  of  one  or  the  other  element.  The 
mixed  people  which  was  thus  developed  supported  the  Hindu  religion  and  theory 
of  existence.  The  Semitic,  Turanian,  and  Mongol  tribes  who  entered  the  country 
from  the  northwest  brought  the  Mohammedan  faith  with  them,  and  the  life  and 
death  struggle  of  these  two  religions  forms  the  second  epoch.  In  the  third  act 
Europeans  appear  upon  the  scene,  and  the  economic  struggle  for  the  wealth  of  the 
country  ends  with  the  total  collapse  both  of  Mohammedan  and  Hindu  indepen- 
dence, victory  remaining  with  the  side  that  possessed  superior  intellectual  power, 
clearer  foresight,  and  greater  strength.  From  the  prehistoric  period  to  the  end  of 
the  first  thousand  years  after  Christ  forms  the  period  of  native  Arj'au-Dravidian 
development  (the  period  of  ancient  India).  For  about  seven  hundred  years  the 
struggle  of  Hinduism  with  the  foreign  religion  continued,  and  forms  the  "  mediaeval " 
period,  while  the  "  modern  "  period  contains  only  the  last  one  hundred  and  fiftj' 
years,  in  wliich,  however,  the  whole  people  has  undergone  far  more  fundamental 
changes  than  any  that  all  previous  centuries  have  brought  to  pass. 

A.  Ancient  India 

(a)  Prehistoric  Age.  —  We  have  first  of  all  to  consider  the  two  races  whose 
struggle  composed  the  first  epoch  of  Indian  history,  together  with  the  mutual 
influence  which  they  exercise  upon  each  other. 

(a)  The  Original  Inhabitants  of  the  Country.  —  The  original  inhabitants  of 
India  have  left  us  neither  written  nor  traditional  records  of  their  existence  during 
the  prehistoric  period.  Traces  of  human  agency  during  this  epoch  have,  however, 
been  discovered  in  India.  As  in  Europe,  discoveries  of  stone  implements,  of  lance 
and  arrow  heads,  of  knives,  razors,  hammers,  etc.,  made  of  jasper,  agate,  and  chal- 
cedony (flint  proper  does  not  occur  in  India)  show  that  an  earlier  age  of  human 
development  preceded  the  time  when  metals  were  employed.  Whether  this  period 
goes  back  to  the  Tertiary  age,  as  many  investigators  suppose,  is  still  a  doubtful 
question. 

Graves  and  funeral  monuments  are  frequently  met  with ;  on  the  Malabar  coast 
we  find  tombs  dug  in  the  earth.  Moimds  of  earth  or  stone  cairns  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  throughout  India.     Such  a  cairn  in  the  country  of  Gond  is  supposed  to 


356  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [Chapter iv 

commemorate  the  death  of  a  tribal  princess  in  battle,  anil  was  increased  by  the 
practice  wliich  the  passers-hy  observed  of  castinj^  upon  tlie  heap  one  of  the  ipiartz 
crystals  wliich  are  numerous  in  that  district.  Further  discoveries  have  been  made 
of  stone  burial-chambers,  corridors  for  sculpture,  megalithic  stone  tables  with  three 
or  more  supporting  stones,  menhirs  (single  stones  set  up  on  end),  single  or  double 
circles  of  stones,  stone  avenues,  etc. ;  in  short,  of  all  those  arrangements  in  stone 
which  occur  in  the  countries  about  the  Mediterranean  Sea  (see  Vol.  I,  p.  163), 
together  with  pure  Indian  forms,  such  as  the  Kudikal  (that  is,  umbrella  stone)  or 
the  Topikal  of  Malabar  (hat  stone  or  stone  table  with  one  support  only).  Tiie  first- 
known  memorials  in  the  megalithic  style  are  found  in  the  far  North  (Khassia  Aloun- 
tams),  in  the  Central  Provinces  (Haidarabad,  etc.),  and  also  in  the  South  (Nilgiri, 
Anamala  Mountains,  the  districts  of  Coimbatore,  and  Tinnevelli,  etc.).  The  most 
ancient  tombs  contain  no  examples  of  metal  work  ;  those,  however,  that  are  found 
in  sepulchres  of  later  date  display  high  technical  skill,  and  enable  us  to  infer  a 
considerable  advance  of  civilization  in  general  (such  objects  are  iron  arrow-heads, 
knives,  lamps,  tripods,  stirrups,  etc.).  Fragments  of  burnt  pottery  ware,  coloured 
red  or  black,  and  also  complete  vessels  are  among  the  objects  most  freipiently  dis- 
covered in  these  tombs.  Clumsy  figures  in  clay  of  men  or  buffaloes  also  occur.  In 
many  cases  the  corpse  was  cremated  and  the  ashes  were  interred  in  cinerary  urns ; 
in  other  cases  the  skeletons  have  remained,  though  rarely  in  a  complete  state  of 
preservation,  and  in  most  cases  so  disintegrated  as  to  fall  into  dust  upon  exposure 
to  the  air.  In  many  cases  women  or  men  were  beheaded  at  the  funeral  of  a  dig- 
nitary and  buried  with  him.  Rarely  has  any  definite  tradition  of  the  person  buried 
in  the  grave  been  preserved.  In  Southern  India  these  graves  are  known  by  the 
population  as  Pandicazhay,  that  is,  Pandya  graves,  as  they  are  ascribed  to  the 
period  of  the  gi-eat  PSndya  kingdom  (p.  387)  which  was  popularly  supposed  to  be 
of  great  antiquity.  However,  the  earliest  literature,  Dravidian  and  Sanscrit  alike, 
has  not  a  word  to  say  upon  the  subject  of  these  graves. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  poems  of  the  Aryans,  who  were  making  their  victorious 
invasion  of  India  at  the  dawn  of  history  proper,  provide  us  with  much  information 
upon  the  life  of  the  original  inhabitants,  who  are  naturally  described  from  a  hostile 
point  of  view.  They  arc  conteiniiluously  known  as  Dasa  (slaves),  Dasyu  (low  class) 
Mleccha  (people  talking  an  unintelligible  jargon).  They  are  described  as  being  of 
black  complexion,  their  figures  small  and  uglj',  in  spite  of  their  heavy  ornaments  of 
gold  and  precious  .stones,  their  noses  liroad,  and  their  eyes  small.  They  were  indeed 
a  complete  contra.=t  to  the  Aryans,  who  must  have  been  jiarticularly  impressed  with 
these  points  of  difference  in  the  enemy,  as  their  own  stature  was  tall  and  proud, 
their  complexion  fair,  their  noses  boldly  formed.  ("  With  beautiful  noses  "  is  the 
title  which  they  give  to  the  images  nKxlcUed  in  their  own  likeness.)  The  enemy 
are  said  to  iuive  been  driven  back  into  the  mountains,  from  whence  they  made  repri- 
sals, attacking  the  herds  and  the  property  of  their  oppressors  as  "  robbers  "  without 
harm  to  themselves.  Magical  arts  were  attributed  to  them,  including  the  power  of 
drj'ing  up  the  streams  and  rivers  which  bring  fertility  and  verdure  to  the  ])lains. 
Mysterif)us,  also,  is  the  power  of  the  gods  to  whom  they  prayed;  hence  these 
were  soon  considered  as  demons  or  "  Yakshu,"  who  disturbed  the  fire  of  the  Aryan 
.sacrifices  ("Simyu  "),  and  for  whom  no  sacred  ilame  was  ever  kindled  ("  Kikata"). 

This  description  of  the  original  inhaliitants  in  the  old  Aryan  poems  entirely 
corresponds  with  the  appearance  of  the  mounlain  and  jungle  tribes  of  the  present 


/""".l  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  357 

day  and  also  with  that  of  the  lowest  classes  of  the  population  in  modern  India, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Brahman  castes.  Like  their  savage  ancestors,  the  tribes' 
of  the  present  day  carry  on  their  existence  under  conditions  of  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty, and  their  general  civilization  is  as  low  as  their  environment  is  rougli.  In 
many  cases  their  sole  agricultural  implement  is  a  stick  with  the  pomt  hardened  in 
the  fire,  with  which  they  grub  up  the  scanty  roots  and  bulbs  of  the  jungle ;  at  a 
somewhat  higher  stage  of  development,  agriculture  is  carried  on  by  burning  down 
a  portion  of  tlie  forest  ever}'  year  and  planting  in  the  fructifying  ashes  the  seeds  of 
the  native  cereals  or  tuberous  plants,  a  scanty  harvest  which  ripens  rapidly.  Tlie 
tribe  then  sets  out  upon  its  wanderings  to  choose  a  new  piece  of  forest  for  its  next 
harvest.  A  few  goats  or  sheep  and  the  small  pariah  dog  alone  accompany  it; 
from  the  climbing  plants  or  the  bark  of  the  trees  nets  are  woven,  the  waters  of  the 
tanks  or  pools  are  poisoned  with  leaves  or  fruits  and  tlie  tribe  thereby  obtains 
a  meal  of  fish.  The  arrows  of  the  savage  wanderers  lay  low  the  forest  game 
which  falls  into  their  traps  and  snares ;  wild  honey  provides  them  with  the  sweets 
of  their  meal.  They  roast  their  food  at  a  fire  which  is  kindled  by  the  rotatory 
friction  of  two  sticks ;  comparatively  few  of  the  forest  tribes  have  learned  the  art 
of  pottery.  A  roof  of  leaves  or  an  overhanging  rock  is  their  shelter,  an  apron  of 
grass  or  leaves  or  of  tree-bark  is  their  clothing,  the  scantiness  of  which  serves  to 
emphasise  the  weight  of  the  ornaments  with  which  they  load  every  {possible  part 
of  their  bodies. 

Though  the  poverty  of  the  life  of  these  tribes  may  arouse  our  sympathy,  yet 
their  character  demands  our  hearty  respect.  All  who  have  come  into  contact  with 
them  and  have  learned  their  habits,  praise  their  independent  spirit,  their  fearless 
bravery,  their  truth,  honour,  and  fidelity.  They  are  true  to  their  plighted  word, 
true  to  their  wives  and  to  their  race.  The  arrow  of  an  absent  chief,  given  by  his  wife 
as  a  means  of  recommendation  into  the  hands  of  an  English  ambassador,  secured 
for  this  emissary  security  and  hospitality  among  all  the  members  of  this  wild  tribe, 
even  in  the  remotest  districts. 

Family  life  has  often  developed  upon  different  lines  than  among  modern 
civilized  peoples ;  but  however  much  the  form  of  marriage  may  have  changed, 
man  and  wife  yet  remain  true  to  one  another  within  the  limits  of  that  family  life 
which  custom  has  consecrated,  and  woe  to  him  who  would  break  faith  or  attempt 
to  seduce  another's  wife.  Both  patriarchal  and  matriarchal  organisations  occur; 
that  is  to  say,  either  the  father  or  the  mother  may  be  considered  as  the  family  and 
tribe.  In  the  latter  case,  relationships  are  reckoned  through  the  female  line. 
Under  the  patriarchal  system  monogamy  prevails,  and  marriage  continues  imtil 
dissolved  by  the  death  of  one  or  other  of  the  parties.  A  man  acquires  his  wife  by 
purchase  or  capture,  though  the  latter  is  only  conventional  in  form.  Only  in  rare 
cases  does  the  man  take  a  second  or  several  wives.  In  many  cases  it  certainly  hap- 
pens that  upon  the  completion  of  a  marriage  the  husband's  brothers  become  eo  ipso 
husbands  of  his  wife  (in  Kurg  among  the  Todas,  Kurumbas,  etc.).  To  be  dis- 
tinguished from  this  kind  of  polyandry,  where  the  man  always  remains  head  of 
the  family,  is  the  primaeval  custom,  still  prevalent  among  certain  castes  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  which  allows  the  wife  to  choose  her  own  husband,  to  dismiss  him  at 
pleasure,  and  take  another  without  thereby  incurring  any  stigma.  Marriages  which 
can  be  thus  dissolved  are  entirely  legitimate,  as  also  are  the  children  of  them. 
The  man,  however,  remains  a  stranger  to  the  wife's  family,  and  the  children 


358  HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD         \_Ch„j,(,r  rr 

reckon  their  descent  from  the  mother.  Consequently,  in  these  cases  descent  is  reck- 
oned through  the  female  line,  whereas  in  the  patriarchal  system  descent  in  the  male 
line  is  the  fundamental  jirinciple  of  those  larger  social  organisms,  the  hordes,  con- 
sisting of  several  families  (\'edda,  Uladen,  Nayadi,  etc.),  which  again  may  develop 
into  a  tribe  at  a  later  period.  In  the  latter  case,  the  head  of  a  tribe  is  sometimes  a 
hereditary  chieftain,  and  at  other  times  is  chosen  by  the  heads  of  families.  He  is 
the  representative  of  the  tribe  and  directs  its  general  policy.  The  tribe  forms  an 
exceedingly  close  corporation  in  its  dealings  with  the  outer  world ;  attacks  made 
by  strangers  often  lead  to  blood  feuds,  and  peaceful  intercourse  and  barter  of  goods 
is  conducted,  as  among  the  Vedda  in  Ceylon,  by  the  so-called  silent  trade. 

The  mountain  and  jungle  tribes  are  obliged  to  carry  on  a  hard  struggle  for 
existence.  The  climate  alternates  between  seasons  of  burning  heat  and  terrible 
rain  storms,  and  a  tribe  driven  into  the  jungle  or  on  to  the  thirsty  plains  of  the 
steppes  obtains  but  scanty  nourishment;  often  enough,  even  those  tribes  which 
enjoy  more  favourable  conditions  of  life  are  hard  pressed  by  the  extremities  of 
famine.  In  the  jungle  the  tiger  and  the  poisonous  snake  lie  in  wait  for  them; 
their  scanty  crops  are  destroyed  by  wild  animals,  elephant.s,  pigs,  and  porcupines; 
leprosy,  malaria,  cholera,  and  other  diseases  make  their  way  to  the  remotest 
settlements,  and  Death  plies  his  scythe  with  ruthless  power.  Encompassed  as 
he  is  by  hostile  powers,  how  could  the  savage  conceive  of  the  supreme  beings 
which  guide  human  destinies  as  being  friendly  to  man  ?  Evil  demons  pursue  him 
from  his  biith  to  his  grave,  thirsting  for  his  blood.  P^verywhere  they  lie  in  wait 
for  him,  in  earth,  in  water,  and  in  air ;  in  the  rocks,  in  the  darkness  of  the  forests, 
upon  the  dry  steppes ;  at  night  they  rush  through  the  darkness  to  destroy  whom- 
soever they  may  meet.  They  hunger  for  blood  and  can  therefore  be  temporarQ)- 
appeased  by  bloody  sacrifices  of  fowls,  goats,  or  even  of  men ;  their  anger  can  also 
be  averted  by  those  magic  arts  which  the  Shaman  priests  employ  against  them  in 
their  frenzied  dances  (devil's  dancers).  Can  we  be  surprised  that  such  men  were 
considered  as  demons,  as  Yakshu,  as  llakshasa  l)y  the  Aryans,  wliose  bright  and 
heavenly  gods  were  their  stay  and  counsel  ? 

The  most  ancient  Aryan  poems  do  not,  however,  display  to  us  these  miserable 
savages  as  the  only  opponents  of  tlie  invaders ;  we  gain  information  upon  other 
tribes  in  higher  stages  of  civilization.  Togetiier  with  the  unsettled  and  nomadic 
Kikata  (p.  357)  settled  tribes  also  existed,  the  Nishada,  who  lived  under  a  settled 
social  organisation  and  were  even  envied  and  hated  by  the  Aryans  for  their  wealth. 
The  gods,  and  especially  Indra,  the  destroyer  of  cities  Purandara,  are  constantly 
praised  for  overthrowing  hundreds  oi  cities  of  the  Black  Dasyu ;  these  latter 
indeed  are  said  to  have  possessed  not  only  fortifications  to  protect  them  against 
the  enemy,  but  also  "winter  retreats,"  autunm  rain  and  cloud  castles  on  their 
mountains,  where  they  might  take  refuge  from  inundations  in  tlie  jdains  or  from 
dangerous  miasmas.  The  tribes  of  the  Naga  who  worshipped  snakes  wave  to  be 
destroyed  on  account  of  their  wealth  and  \aluable  possessions.  Their  capital,  in 
which  their  Prince  Wasuki  rules,  is  said  to  abound  in  treasures  and  fair  women; 
the  prince  possesses  a  talisman  which  can  even  bring  the  dead  to  life.  "  The 
treasure  chambers  in  the  rocky  ground  are  full  of  cattle,  horses,  and  good  things; 
the  warders,  the  Pani,  are  faitliful  waLclimen."  At  the  same  time,  these  tribes  are 
represented  as  cunning  traders,  ever  ready  to  take  advantage,  ami  bringing  to  the 
Arj-ans  for  barter  the  products  of  nature's  bounty  or  of  their  own  skill  in  handi- 


/«..«]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  359 

crafts.  The  trade  indeed  is  welcome,  but  hateful  are  the  traders,  the  "hateful 
misers,"  the  men  "  without  faith,  without'  honour,  without  victims,"  and  India  is 
called  upon  to  stamjj  down  the  greedy  merchants  with  his  feet.  Upon  the  further 
advance  of  the  Aryans  we  learn  that  there  were  important  native  kingdoms  in  the 
country  and  that  the  conquerors  entered  into  friendly  relations  with  these  (Krishna 
the  black  tribal  prince  of  the  Yadawa).  "When  the  conquerors  made  tlieir  way 
into  the  central  district  between  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges  they  appointed  the 
King  of  Nishadi,  a  vassal  of  the  kingdom  of  Ayodhya,  to  guard  the  sacred  district 
of  the  confluence  of  these  two  streams  ;  at  a  later  date  Aryan  Brahman  mission- 
aries (Agastya)  came  upon  the  flourishing  Pandja  kingdom  m  the  south  of  the 
peninsula. 

The  old  Aryan  songs  and  mj-tlis  provide  no  further  mformation  upon  the 
civilization  of  the  more  advanced  native  tribes  ;  however,  the  language  of  the  dark 
races  who  belong  to  the  Dravidian  famQy  (p.  353)  enaliles  us  to  draw  many 
further  conclusions  as  to  the  civilization  to  which  they  had  attained.  This  lan- 
guage is  certainly  modified  by  Aryan  elements  (Sanscrit),  but  the  non-Arj-an  por- 
tion of  its  vocabulary  provides  an  accurate  picture  of  the  pre-Aryan  civilization  of 
those  races.  According  to  Bishop  R.  Caldwell,  who  lived  among  the  black  popu- 
lation and  devoted  more  than  a  generation  to  the  study  of  their  language,  the 
original  vocabidaiy  of  the  Dra\idian  races  enables  us  to  conclude  that  before  they 
came  in  contact  with  the  Aryans  they  possessed  kings  who  lived  in  permanent 
dwellings  and  ruled  over  small  districts.  They  had  bards  who  sang  songs  at  tlieir 
feasts,  and  it  also  appears  that  they  were  in  possession  of  an  alphabet  and  that  they 
were  accustomed  to  write  upon  palm  leaves  with. a  stylus.  A  bundle  of  these 
leaves  formed  a  book.  There  were  no  idols,  no  hereditary  priesthood,  and  the 
primitive  Dravidiaus  appear  to  have  been  entu-ely  unacquainted  with  the  ideas  of 
Heaven  or  Hell,  of  sin,  or  of  the  soul ;  however,  they  believed  in  the  existence  of 
gods,  which  they  named  ko  (king),  an  absolutely  non-Aryan  word.  Temples  were 
erected  in  tlieir  honour,  known  as  ko-il  (house  of  god);  no  conclusions  as  to  the 
nature  of  theii-  divine  service  can  be  drawn  from  their  language.  The  Dravidians 
of  that  period  possessed  laws,  but  no  judges ;  doubtful  cases  were  decided  by  pre- 
cedent. Jlarriage  was  a  permanent  institution  among  them.  The  most  important 
metals  were  known  to  them  with  the  exception  of  tin,  lead,  and  zinc,  as  also  were 
the  greater  planets  with  the  exception  of  Mercury  and  Saturn.  They  could  count 
up  to  a  hundred  and  in  some  cases  to  a  thousand ;  higher  numbers,  such  as  the 
Aryan  lakh  (100,000)  or  crore  (10,000,000),  were  unknown  to  them.  Medicine 
was  practised  among  them,  though  medical  science  or  doctors  were  unknown. 
Hamlets  and  villages  existed,  but  no  large  towns.  Boats  great  and  small,  and  even 
decked  ships  able  to  keep  the  sea  were  employed ;  these,  however,  did  not  cross 
the  ocean,  and  consequently  foreign  countries,  with  the  exception  of  Ceylon,  were 
unknown  to  them,  and  their  language  appears  not  to  recognise  the  difl'erence 
between  continent  and  island.  Agriculture  was  a  professional  occupation,  while 
war  was  their  chief  delight,  their  arms  being  bows  and  arrows,  swords  and  shields. 
Manufactures  were  highly  developed,  especially  the  arts  of  spuming,  weaving,  and 
dyeing,  and  their  pottery  had  been  highly  perfected,  as  is  indeed  plain  fi-om  the 
examples  found  in  the  graves.  Little  was  known  of  the  higher  arts  and  sciences ;  . 
no  word  exists  to  signify  Sculpture  or  Architecture,  Astronomy  or  Astrology, 
Philosophy  or  Grammar.     Indeed  their  vocabulary  is  singularly  lacking  in  words 


360  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter  iv 

which  imply  intellectual  pursuits;  their  only  word  for  spirit  is  "diaphragm"  or 
"the  inside;"  there  certainly  exists  a  Dravidian  word  for  to  thmk,  but  no  special 
words  for  thought,  judgment,  consciousness,  or  will.'  As  against  this  last  sentence, 
we  must  not,  however,  forget  that  the  overpowering  iuflueuce  of  the  Brahmans  and 
their  highly  developed  terminology  for  abstract  mental  operations  may  very  well 
have  superseded  many  native  expressions.  Comparative  philology  does  not  provide 
wholly  conclusive  results  even  in  religious  matters,  and  a  comparison  of  those 
elements  common  to  the  early  Vedda  and  to  all  Dravidian  races,  even  to  those  at 
a  high  stage  of  civilization,  plainly  shows  that  the  fimdamental  beliefs  and 
religious  conceptions  of  the  jungle  tribes  were  not  confined  to  those  we  have 
mentioned,  but  were  the  common  property  of  Dravidian  religious  thought  and 
practice  from  the  very  outset. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Aryans  found  the  dark-skinned  race  in  posses- 
sion of  the  country  upt)n  their  atlvance  into  India ;  the  only  (juestion  is  whether 
this  race  belonged  to  the  Kolarian  or  the  Draviilian  gioup.  Weighty  evidence  can 
be  adduced  to  show  that  the  chief  mass  of  the  population  belonged  to  the  Dravidian 
group ;  especiall}-  significant  is  the  fact  that  offshoots  of  the  Dravidian  languages 
have  advanced  further  tliau  the  Kularian  group  into  the  linguistic  area  of  the 
Aryan  languages.  In  the  extreme  northwest  the  Brahui  apj)ear,  in  spite  of  long 
isolation  and  strong  influence  exercised  by  different  suiTounding  languages,  to  have 
preserved  a  number  of  Dravidian  elements  in  their  tongue ;  in  East  India  the 
Dravidian  races  extend  further  north  than  the  scattered  Kolarian  groups;  for 
instance,  the  Paharia  and  Rajmahali  are  more  northerly  than  the  Santhals  and 
Juangs,  and  in  Central  India  the  Hos,  Mundas,  Blnimij,  and  Gonds  are  more 
northerly  than  tlie  Kurku.  Upon  the  whole  the  linguistic  characteristics  of  the 
Kolarians,  though  their  language  has  not  yet  been  thorDugiily  investigated,  appear 
to  extend  rather  eastward  toward  Farther  India;  in  this  direction  they  live  in 
more  coherent  groups,  whereas  upon  the  west  their  settlements  occur  more  sporadi- 
cally and  give  the  impression  of  colonies  planted  by  a  i)eople  who  had  entered  the 
country  from  the  east.  Further  evidence  for  the  Dravidian  connection  of  the 
pre-Arjan  inhabitants  of  India  would  be  gained  if  the  theory  of  indiwdual  philolo- 
gists could  be  proved,  which  would  assume  llie  immigration  of  the  Dravidians  from 
the,  northwest  on  the  ground  of  their  close  linguistic  atlinities  with  the  Ural- 
Altaic  group.  However,  this  sweeping  assumption  is  as  yet  unsupported  by 
sufficient  e\'idence  upon  the  jihilological  side;  the  pomts  of  resemblance  are  in 
some  cases  wholly  isolated  and  therefore,  perhaps,  fortuitous,  though  in  other 
respects  a  general  resemblance  can  be  noted  ;  moreover  the  physical  characteristics 
of  the  race  pronounce  so  decisively  against  their  connection  with  the  Mongolian 
peoples  as  to  invalidate  the  probability  of  this  hypothesis.  Under  these  limitations, 
then,  whatever  view  may  be  taken  of  the  prehistoric  period  in  India,  tlie  fact 
remains  that  the  dark-complexioned  inhabitants  of  the  countiy,  of  whom  the 
Dravidians  were  by  far  the  strongest  element,  formed  the  original  population 
of  India. 

(/3)  The,  Iranian-Indian  Aryans  in  their  Original  Abode.  —  In  the  year  1833 
Franz  Bopp,  observing   the  close  connection   of  Sanscrit,  the   language   of  the 

1  A  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Dravidian  or  South  Indian  Family  of  Languages ;  second  edition. 
Loudon,  1875. 


/nrf,v,]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  361 

Brahmans  (p.  415),  with  most  oi  the  ancieut  and  modem  languages  of  Europe,  was 
able  to  establish  the  affinity  of  these  languages  beyond  all  dispute.  He  pointed 
out  that  Sanscrit  was  closely  related  not  only  to  the  old  Persian  (Zend)  but  also 
to  almost  all  the  other  languages  of  Europe,  the  only  exceptions  being  the  Basque 
and  certain  isolated  groups  of  Ural-Altaic  languages  in  the  north  and  east  of 
Europe.  How  was  this  similarity  to  be  explained  ?  Peoples  thus  connected  by 
the  tie  of  language  might  easily  be  conceived  as  connected  by  the  tie  of  blood, 
that  is,  as  descended  from  a  common  ancestral  tribe ;  and  Aug.  Pott,  Christian 
Lassen,  Jakob  and  Wilhelm  Grimm  and  others  lent  their  support  to  the  theory 
that  this  primitive  people  had  lived  in  A.sia,  a  supposition  which  became  almost  an 
article  of  faith.  The  ancestral  tribe  there  settled  was  said  to  have  been  gradually 
broken  up,  the  component  parts  migrating  in  different  directions,  for  the  most  part 
westward,  even  as  the  solar  system  is  conceived  to  have  been  formed  b}-  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  planets  and  their  satellites  from  the  primal  nebula.  At  a  later  period 
the  influence  of  the  Darwinian  theory  made  the  genealogical  table  illustrating 
these  descents  somewhat  more  complex ;  however,  the  idea  that  Asia  has  been  the 
common  cradle  of  these  "  Indo-Germanic  "  or  "  Aryan "  families  of  peoples  con- 
tinued to  maintain  its  ground.  In  more  recent  times  philological  and  anthro- 
pological evidence  has  led  investigators  to  place  the  common  origin  of  all  these 
peoples  in  one  or  another  part  of  Europe  and  this  theory  is  to-day  supported  b\-  the 
large  majority  of  philologists,  ethnologists,  and  anthropologists. 

We  may,  indeed,  doubt  the  intrinsic  probability  of  the  fact  that  any  single 
district  of  the  enormous  steppe  country  extending  from  Central  Asia  to  the  North 
Sea  could  have  been  the  cradle  of  so  large  a  family  of  peoples.  Natural  bounda- 
ries are  unknown  upon  the  steppes,  and  the  peoples  inhabiting  them  spread  outward 
without  let  or  hindrance.  The  nomads  inhabiting  those  districts  prefer  to  follow 
the  natural  changes  of  season,  climate,  and  consequently  of  vegetation,  wandering 
abroad  at  their  wiR  and  pleasure.  The  language  of  the  Yakuts  in  the  northeast  of 
Siberia  is  closely  connected  with  that  of  the  Ottomans  in  the  extreme  southwest 
of  that  great  continent.  It  is  waste  of  time  to  inquire  at  what  point  the  first  immi- 
grants entered  the  steppe  district.  It  is  highly  probable  tliat  as  soon  as  a  tribe 
had  secured  a  footing  there  it  did  not  confine  its  movements  to  a  small  district, 
but  finding  no  barriers  to  oppose  its  passage,  rapidly  extended  its  settlements  over 
a  wide  area  in  uniform  development,  though  sporadic  distribution.  Not  mitil  then 
did  isolation  of  position,  difference  of  environment,  and  foreign  influence  begin  to 
produce  divergences  in  physical  characteristics,  language,  and  customs.  Thus  hi 
different  provinces  similar  peoples,  occupying  widely  distributed  settlements,  devel- 
oped into  individual  tribes  more  or  less  strongly  differentiated.  In  1872  Johannes 
Schmidt  conceived  the  development  of  the  Indo-Germanic  languages  in  tlie  fol- 
lowing manner :  "  I  should  like  to  replace  the  genealogical  tree  by  a  diagram  of 
waves  expanding  in  concentric  circles  at  a  distance  from  a  central  point,  the  rings 
becoming  weaker  in  proportion  to  the  distance  to  which  they  spread  from  the  cen- 
tral point."  With  some  such  theory  the  facts  as  known  to  us  most  nearly  coincide, 
in  so  far  as  the  peoples  and  the  languages  in  close  local  connection  show  stronger 
mutual  affinity  than  those  at  a  remoter  distance.  The  development  of  Indo-Ger- 
manic peoples  conceived  as  occurring  in  ccjncentric  waves  is  shown  in  order  of 
development  by  the  rough  diagram  on  p.  362. 

The  westerly  development  of  the  wave  circles  after  radiation  from  the  central 


302  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichajjterir 

point  tloes  not  concern  us  here,  and  we  need  only  follow  the  history  of  the  most 
eastern,  or  Indo-Irauian  group.  Our  investigation  into  the  date,  locality,  and  the 
mode  of  life  of  this  original  circle  depends  upon  information  derived  from  com- 
parative philologj',  and  from  the  traditions  and  the  earliest  literature  of  the  jieoples 
which  have  proceeded  from  this  centre.  Such  an  investigation  will  show  tliat  the 
two  peoples  of  the  Iranians  and  Indians,  between  whom  all  outward  connection 
has  now  disappeared,  hroke  awaj-  from  their  common  centre  only  a  few  thou.«and 
yeare  before  the  outset  of  historical  chronology.  The  comparatively  late  date  of 
this  separation  is  proved  not  only  by  the  close  similarity  of  the  old  Iranian  lan- 
guage (Zend)  to  the  language  of  the  earliest  Indian  hymns,  but  also  by  the  wide 


Order  of  Development  of  the  Inuo-Geemanic  Peoples.     (Seep.  361) 


similarities  existing  in  maimers  and  customs,  especially  those  concerned  with  reli- 
gion, language,  mythology,  and  worship.  Both  peoples  are  called  by  the  same 
proud  name  of  Aryans  (Arya,  Airyu),  the  noble,  or  the  lofty;  in  both  peoples  the 
arrival  of  the  youth  at  man's  estate  was  marked  by  the  custom  of  girding  him  with 
a  string.  Botii  religions  contain  the  same  names  for  the  deities  worshipped, — 
iMitra,  Indra,  Siva,  Yama  (Yima),  Asura  (Ahura-Mazdah).  However,  the  deep 
gulf  dividing  the  two  jjcoples  is  api)arent  in  the  different  manner  in  which  these 
beliefs  have  develoj)ed :  the  gods  worship])ed  by  tlie  Indian  branch  as  the  chief 
deities  have  sunk  to  low  estate  and  lost  their  sanctity  among  llie  Iranians;  the 
bright,  shining,  glorious,  all-helping  Indra  of  the  old  Indian  faith  and  the  great 
god  (MahUdeva)  Aiva  became  in  the  Persian  pantheon  evil-minded  gods  or  hostile 
demons,  as  does  Asura  in  India.  Tiie  figures  of  the  gods  have  remained  unciianged 
and  only  the  faces  have  been  altered,  whUe  to  the  highest  deities  tlie  same  sacri- 
ficial drink,  the  sama  (haoma)  is  still  offered. 

The  traditions  and  the  language  of  the  two  peoples  point  to  a  former  common 
settlement  in  the  north,  and  there  is  good  reason  for  accepting  the  generally 
received  theory  which  considers  their  early  home  as  situated  in  the  land  watered 
by  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes  (Amu  Daria  and  Sir  Daria).  The  civilization  of 
this  early  settlement  can  be  inferred  in  its  general  features  from  the  vocabulary  in 


India]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  363 

use  bj-  its  descendants.  As  might  be  expected  in  a  country  of  steppes,  the  chief 
food  supply  depended  upon  cattle  breeding.  The  wealth  of  the  population  con- 
sisted in  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  and  in  the  keeping  of  these  flocks  the 
dog  was  the  faithful  companion  of  man.  The  horse  was  also  bred,  but  only  for 
traction,  not  for  riding  piu'poses.  War  chariots  drawn  by  horses  played  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  struggles  of  the  Aryans  upon  their  immigration  to  India.  The 
possession  of  wagons  enables  us  to  conclude  that  the  Indo-Irauians  were  not 
exclusively  a  shepherd  people.  The  fact  that  they  were  able  to  build  houses  of 
wood,  and  that  their  animals  were  driven  into  permanent  courtyards,  justifies  the 
conclusion  that  they  were  to  some  extent  a  settled  race.  The  cultivation  of  cereal 
plants,  barley,  wheat,  and  millet  was  common  throughout  the  Indo-Germauic  family 
in  primitive  times.  Jlost  probably  wheir  the  Aryans  entered  the  fertile  district  of 
the  Five  Kivers  they  had  already  acquired  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  regular 
irrigation  from  experience  on  the  banks  of  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes.  Cattle  breeding 
proN-ided  their  chief  sustenance  (milk  and  flesh,  for  fish  was  not  eaten),  as  also 
their  clothing  (wool  and  skins).  Of  metals,  copper  and  bronze  were  known,  while 
iron  is  rarely  mentioned.  Horn  was  used  more  often  than  bronze  for  the  arrow- 
heads, which  the  Aryans  smeared  with  poison.  Besides  the  bow  and  arrow,  their 
offensive  weapons  included  the  club,  the  axe,  the  sword,  and  the  spear.  There 
must  have  been  a  considerable  amount  of  peaceful  intercourse.  Straight  roads 
existed  traversed  by  wagons  drawn  by  horses,  while  rafts  and  rowing  boats  passed 
over  the  rivers  ;  commerce  by  barter  was  established,  and  hospitality  readily  granted 
to  the  stranger  who  came  in  peace.  Generally  speaking,  the  morality  of  the  Indo- 
Iranians  reached  a  high  pitch  of  perfection.  Family  life  was  pure ;  tlie  relations 
of  the  members  of  the  race  among  themselves  were  regulated  by  estabKslied  cus- 
tom, which  insisted  upon  truthfulness  and  good  faith ;  in  their  dealings  with  foes 
the  race  were  high-spirited,  bold,  and  warlike.  The  father  was  the  head  of  the 
family,  but  the  wife  also  was  highly  respected  and  honoured.  At  the  head  of  the 
tribe  or  community,  the  chief  or  ruler,  the  "  king,"  was  placed  not  only  to  conduct 
the  temporal  affairs  of  his  tribe,  but  also  to  represent  the  tribe  before  the  powers 
of  heaven.  There  was  no  special  priestly  class,  but  the  whole  people  was  inspired 
with  a  profound  religious  feeling. 

(b)  The  First  Stage  of  Art/an  Immigration  into  the  Punjah.  —  We  have  no 
knowledge  of  those  causes  which  induced  the  Indian  Aryans  to  migrate  from  their 
original  settlements.  Increase  of  the  population  above  the  number  that  the  land 
could  permanently  support,  the  hostile  attacks  of  other  steppe  tribes,  either  of 
remote  Indo-Germanic  peoples  from  the  west  or  nomadic  iMougoUan  tribes  from 
the  east  and  north,  those  internal  dissensions  which  ultimately  led  to  tlie  definite 
separation  of  the  Iranian  and  Indian  branches,  possibly  also  the  reports  of  the 
fabulous  fertQity  of  a  great  land  on  the  south,  — any  or  all  of  these  causes  may 
have  led  to  a  great  national  movement.  For  this,  of  course,  no  accurate  date  can 
be  given ;  modern  experts  are  inclined  to  place  it  about  the  middle  of  the  third 
millennium  B.  c,  or  considerably  earlier. 

(a)  The  Haute  of  Migration.  —  The  route  followed  by  the  migrating  people  led 
southward.  Here,  indeed,  they  were  confronted  by  a  high  mountain  wall,  — the 
Hindukush  and  the  Pamirs ;   but  these  districts  could  easUy  be  traversed  by  a 


364  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD  [chaj.t.rjr 

harily  mountain-bred  slieplierd  i'eople,who  would  be  alilc  li>  drive  tlieir  flocks  over 
these  chains  and  to  reach  the  jilains  beyond,  the  fertility  of  which  must  have 
seemed  an  attractive  paradise  to  a  people  of  the  steppes,  hard  pressed  by  the  stern 
necessities  of  existence.  It  is  by  no  means  improbahle  that  the  Indian  Aryans 
may  have  entered  the  country  both  by  the  Tamirs  and  tlie  Hindukush.  At  a  point 
further  eastward  they  could  without  difficulty  have  crossed  by  Chitral  or  Gilgit  to 
the  Indus  and  the  lovely  district  of  Kashmir,  as  well  as  to  the  upper  Punjab.  The 
western  road  over  the  Hindukush  led  them  into  the  Cabul  district  of  Northern 
Afghanistan.  Here  the  earliest  of  their  extant  sacred  hymns  seem  to  have  been 
composed ;  here  also  the  last  links  between  the  Iranian  and  Indian  branches  of 
the  Aryans  may  have  been  severed.  From  the  frontiers  of  the  Afghan  highland 
tlie  spectator  could  behold  the  fruitful  ]ilains  of  the  Five  Kiver  Land,  and  an 
advance  to  the  plains  through  the  natural  passes  of  the  mountain  wall  was  easy. 
It  was  no  doubt  by  this  route  that  the  main  branch  of  this  race  reached  its  new 
home,  though  not,  however,  in  one  great  ci^ilumn,  but  in  detachments,  tribe  follow- 
ing tribe  at  long  intervals.  Powerful  was  the  impression  made  upon  those  who 
crossed  the  mountain  range  reaching  to  the  heavens,  and  long  did  the  recollection 
of  those  snowclad  peaks  remain  among  the  people ;  they  alone  were  considered 
worthy  to  support  the  throne  of  the  gods  on  high. 

Magnificent  also  were  the  results  of  the  migration  wlien  the  Aryans  arrived 
in  the  Punjab,  that  district  watered,  with  what  was  to  them  an  inconceivable 
abundance,  by  streams  swollen  with  rain  and  melting  snow, — a  guarantee  of  inex- 
haustible fertility.  The  poets  sang  the  praises  of  these  rivers  with  high  enthusi- 
asm, especially  those  of  the  Indus,  the  Saraswati  of  the  Vedas,  which  unites  the 
waters  of  the  five  streams  flowing  eastward  and  bears  them  to  the  sea.  The 
Vitasta  (Jihlam),  Asikui  (Chenab),  the  Marudvridhft  rejoicing  in  the  wind  (Ravi), 
the  Vipas  (l.eyali),  and  the  Sutudri  (Sutlej),  these  are  tlie  rivers  that  cross  the 
district  named  from  their  number.  Five  Eiver  Land,  the  Pantshanada.  The  poet 
also  sings  of  the  land  of  the  seven  streams  (Sapta  Sindhavas),  adding  to  the  Five 
Eivers,  from  the  memories  of  the  long  migration,  the  Cabul  Kiver  from  the  west, 
and  the  Saraswati,  the  chief  of  the  seven  sisters. 

Not  without  a  struggle  did  this  fail-  land  fall  into  the  liands  of  the  immigrants ; 
the  dark-skinned  iidiabitants  whom  they  found  in  possession  (p.  352)  did  not 
tamely  surrender.  The  Vedas  of  that  period  ring  with  the  din  of  battle  and  the 
cry  of  victory ;  the  great  gods  of  the  Aryan  heaven  are  called  upon  to  strike  down 
the  wicked  Dasyu,  and  are  praised  with  cheerfid  thanks  for  overthrowing  hundreds 
of  the  cities  of  the  despised  and  miserable  slaves,  the  Dasa.  Serious  friction  occa- 
sionally occurred  between  ditrereut  tribes  of  the  same  race  when  newcomers 
demanded  their  share  of  the  conquered  territory.  The  Ar}-an  masses  pressed  suc- 
cessively further  eastward.  We  can  trace  their  advance  from  their  resting  place 
on  the  heights  of  the  Afghan  frontier  to  the  Jumna  (Yammia),  the  most  western 
of  the  Ganges  streams,  across  Five  River  Land.  Tliis  river  is  often  named  in  the 
later  Vedas,  but  the  Ganges  not  more  than  once  or  twice.  Such  an  ujiheaval  of 
the  different  tribes,  and  so  great  a  rivalry  for  the  possession  of  the  fertile  soil, 
must  necessarily  have  led  to  collisions.  Many  tribes  and  their  kings  are  mentioned 
by  name,  especially  the  federation  of  the  "  Five  Peojiles "  iu  the  north  of  Five 
River  Land,  the  Yadu  and  Turvasa,  the  Dndiyu  and  Auu,  together  with  the  Puru, 
who  were  situated  farthest  inland  on  the  banks  of  the  main  stream,  and  headed 


in4«q  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  365 

the  confederacy,  which  originally  included  the  two  first-named  tribes,  and  after- 
ward the  tliird  and  fourth.  Beyond  the  boundaries  of  these  five  confederate  peoples 
who  inliabited  Aiya  Varta,  or  Aryan  land  proper,  the  Tritsu,  a  branch  of  the 
powerful  ambitious  warrior  tribe  of  the  Bharata,  advanced  eastward,  and  bloody 
conflicts  arose  between  them  and  the  western  peoples  of  the  Punjab.  Tlie  allied 
tribes  were  driven  back,  were  confined  henceforward  to  Five  River  Land,  and 
gradually  lost  their  common  interests  and  the  consciousness  of  their  kinship  with 
those  of  the  Aryans  who  extended  further  eastward.  Most  of  them  disappear  from 
our  view ;  only  the  Puru  (King  Porus)  held  out  for  a  long  time  on  the  Indus. 

(/3)  Progress  in  Civilization.  —  In  the  general  civilization  of  those  Aryans 
who  migrated  into  Five  Eiver  Land,  that  progress  may  everywhere  be  observed 
wliich  is  connected  with  a  higher  development  of  agriculture  and  results  in  gieater 
prosperity,  greater  security,  and  greater  expansion  m  other  directions.  The 
Aryans  now  no  longer  lived  a  nomadic  life  on  the  boundary  steppes,  but  were  set- 
tled in  permanent  habitations  upon  arable  territory,  with  weU-defined  boundaries. 
Cattle  breeding  continued  to  be  vigorously  pursued ;  the  ox  was  the  imit  of  value, 
not  only  for  purposes  of  trade,  but  also  for  estimating  the  rank  of  indi\'iduals ; 
the  title  of  a  tribal  chief  was  even  then  "Possessor  of  Cows"  (gopati),  and  battle 
is  still  called  "  desire  for  cows  "  (gawishti).  Milk,  either  fresh  or  in  the  form 
of  buttermilk,  cream,  butter,  and  curds,  was  still  the  staple  article  of  food ;  the 
flesh  of  domestic  animals  was  rarely  eaten,  and  himtiug  was  carried  on  chiefly 
as  a  sport,  or  for  protection  against  wild  beasts,  while  fish  as  an  article  of  food 
was  still  despised.  A  flesh  diet  was  replaced  by  the  use  of  corn,  chiefly  of 
barley,  to  a  less  extent  of  wheat,  while  rice  is  not  yet  mentioned.  The  ^ilough 
and  sickle  were  more  important  implements  than  of  yore.  Corn  was  threshed, 
pounded  in  the  hand-mill  by  the  women,  and  made  into  bread  or  cakes  or  por- 
ridge. The  house  was  now  a  permanent  habitation  and  buQt  on  a  new  and 
stronger  plan.  A  roof  of  vegetable  fibres,  tree  bark,  or  straw  kept  out  the  rain ;  in 
the  centre  of  the  main  room  blazed  the  hearth,  round  which  seats  were  arranged 
(probably  of  earth  as  at  present)  ;  these  were  covered  witli  animal  skins  and 
served  as  sleeping-places.  Earthenware  pots,  brazen  caldrons,  and  liand-mills  for 
the  corn  were  the  most  important  kitchen  utensils.  Close  to  the  house  stood  the 
fenced  yard  where  the  herds  were  penned,  and  in  which  the  threshing-floor  was 
laid  out.  The  house  was  the  special  care  of  the  woman ;  here  she  cooked  food 
for  the  whole  family,  spun  the  wool  for  thread,  and  wove  artistic  fabrics ;  here 
she  made  beautifully  adorned  cloaks  of  the  skins  of  the  animals  killed;  here 
under  her  care  grew  up  the  daughters  and  small  boys.  The  man's  business 
lay  outside  in  the  field,  on  the  pasture  and  the  corn  land,  at  hunting  or  in  war. 
It  was  his  part  to  ply  the  handicrafts  which  were  now  increasing  in  number 
and  rising  to  a  higher  level  of  skill;  the  wagon  builder  made  strong  vehicles, 
the  smith  blew  up  his  fire  with  a  fan  made  of  bird's  feathers,  and  wrought 
not  only  bronze,  but  also  the  ii-on  which  the  original  inliabitauts  probably  brought 
to  him  in  its  raw  condition,  after  smelting  it  out  of  the  ore  (the  native  Indian 
form  of  pocket  bellows  does  not  seem  to  have  been  in  use  among  the  Aryans) ; 
the  goldsmith  produced  bright  decorations,  artistic  plates,  bracelets,  and  rings  to 
be  worn  in  the  ears,  round  the  neck,  and  upon  the  wrists  and  ankles  of  the 
women. 


306  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Ici.aptcr  ir 

Tlie  relations  of  niau  ami  wife  were  rej^ulated  by  sound  moral  prineiiiles.  To 
brin^  forth  sons,  worthy  members  of  a  tribe  and  an  honour  to  ilie  parents,  was  the 
highest  ambition  and  the  greatest  pride  of  the  father  and  mother.  liespected,  and 
on  an  equality  with  her  husband,  the  woman  was  mistress  of  the  house,  though 
the  man  as  being  the  stronger  was  the  natural  head,  protector,  and  leader  of  the 
family.  The  man  wooed  the  maiden  on  whom  his  choice  had  fallen  through 
friends  and  relations ;  if  his  suit  was  approved  of  by  the  girl's  parents,  the  mar- 
riage took  place  before  the  hearth  of  the  house  in  which  the  maiden  had  lived 
hitherto  under  the  protection  of  her  parents.  The  bridegroom  took  the  girl's 
hand  and  led  her  three  times  round  the  hearth;  the  newly  married  pair  were  then 
conveyed  to  their  new  home  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  white  steers,  the  former  cere- 
mony was  repeated  and  a  meal  in  common  concluded  the  festival.  Polygaiuv  was 
exceedingly  rare,  while  polyandry  was  utterly  unknown  to  the  ancient  Aryans. 
If  a  death  took  place  in  a  house,  the  body  was  buried  or  burnt  (interment  in  both 
forms  is  mentioned  in  the  early  Vedas);  widows  never  followed  their  dead  hu.s- 
bands  into  death,  either  voluntarily  or  as  a  matter  of  social  custom. 

The  houses  stood  in  groups,  forming  separate  hamlets  or  villages.  Some  of 
these  places  were  fortified  against  hostUe  attacks  by  walls  of  earth  or  stone  (place 
names  ending  in  pur  meanmg  fortified) ;  men  and  animals  were  often  obliged  to 
flee  into  fortified  settlements,  which  were  usually  uninhabited,  before  the  outbreak 
of  floods  or  hostile  incursions.  A  gioup  of  villages  formed  a  larger  community, 
whUe  several  of  these  latter  became  a  district.  The  district  belonging  to  one 
tribe  formed  a  corporate  whole,  each  of  these  groups  having  its  own  special  chief, 
wliile  at  the  head  of  the  whole  stood  the  kiug  (Kajau,  the  "  reigning") ;  his  title 
was  hereditarj-,  or  he  might  be  elected,  but  in  either  case  a  new  king  must  be  rec- 
ognized in  the  general  assembly  (samiti)  of  all  men  capable  of  bearing  arms. 
In  the  samiti  were  discussed  all  tht)se  matters  which  afl'ected  the  whole  tribe, 
especially  questions  of  war  and  peace.  The  inhabitants  of  the  district  or  the 
village  met  together  in  special  halls  (sabha),  which  served  not  only  for  purposes  of 
discussion  and  judgment,  but  also  for  conversation,  and  for  social  amusements, 
such  as  dice  })laying.  As  the  race  was  thus  organised  for  the  purposes  of  peace,  so 
also  the  army,  composed  of  all  men  capable  of  bearing  arms,  was  made  up  of  divi- 
sions corresponding  to  the  family,  village,  and  district  group,  each  under  its  own 
leader.  Famous  warriors  fought  in  their  own  war  chariots  harnessed  with  two 
horses  and  driven  by  a  charioteer,  while  the  main  body  of  the  people  fought 
on  foot. 

The  king  was  the  leader  in  war ;  he  was  also  tlie  representative  of  liis  people 
before  the  gods;  in  the  name  of  the  people  he  asked  for  help  or  offered  praise  and 
sacrifice.  He  was  allowed  in  certain  cases  to  be  represented  by  a  Purohita,  who 
conducted  the  sacrifice,  while  any  one  who  possessed  high  poetical  gifts  and  a  dig- 
nified appearance  might  permanently  occupy  this  position.  Other  nobles,  princes 
of  districts,  etc.,  might  appoint  I'urohitas,  whose  influence  was  increa.sed  in  pro- 
portion as  formal  prayer  took  the  jJace  of  extempore  petitions,  and  worship  became 
stereotyped  by  the  growth  of  special  uses  and  a  fixed  ceremonial.  Here  we  have 
in  embryo  the  separate  classes  of  king  and  priesthood,  an  opposition  which  was  to 
exercise  the  most  far-reaching  influeuce  upon  the  further  development  of  the 
Aryan  people  (cf.  p.  373). 


India 


.]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  361 


(7)  The  BcUgion  of  the  Indian  Aryans  in  the  Punjab.  —  The  Aryan 
people  brought  from  their  primal  home  one  precious  possession,  a  deep  religious 
feeling,  a  thankful  reverence  for  the  high  powers  presiding  over  natui-e,  who 
afforded  them  a  secure  and  peaceful  existence  by  assuring  the  continued  welfare 
of  the  Hocks  and  of  the  crops  planted  by  man.  The  good  and  kindly  gods  were 
those  who  sent  to  man  the  fertilising  rain  and  sunshine,  bringing  gi-owth  and 
produce,  and  to  them,  as  to  high  and  kindly  friends,  man  offered  his  faithful 
praj'ers  and  pious  vows.  To  them  he  prayed  that  his  iiocks  might  thrive,  and  tliat 
he  might  be  victorious  in  battle,  that  he  might  be  given  sons  and  have  long  life; 
they,  tlie  bright,  the  all-knowing,  and  the  pure,  were  the  protectors  of  morality  and 
the  wardens  of  the  house,  of  the  district,  and  of  the  whole  tribe.  Certain 
gods  belonging  to  primeval  times  appeared  in  the  Pantheon  of  the  Aryans  who 
conquered  Five  Kiver  district ;  Aditja,  the  "  Infinite,"  Mitra  and  Varuiia,  the 
Great  Spirit  Asura  (the  Ahuramazdah  of  the  Iranians),  Aiyaman,  etc.,  bright 
figines,  which  were  still  worshipped  in  common  by  the  Iranians  and  the  Indian 
Arvans.  But  among  these  latter  they  grow  pale  and  lose  their  firm  outlines,  like 
the  misty  figures  of  dim  remembrance;  they  become  many-sided,  secret,  un- 
canny, diabolical  (Asura)  ;  and  other  gods  of  more  definite  character  come  into 
prominence. 

Three  gods  are  of  special  importance,  Indra,  Surya  and  Agni.  Together  they 
form  the  early  Indian  Trinity  (Trimurti).  In  the  hymns  which  have  come  down 
to  us,  Indra  is  most  frequently  mentioned ;  he  was  the  atmospherical  god,  espe- 
cially favourable  to  the  Aryans,  who  gave  the  rain  and  the  harvest,  and  governed 
the  winter  and  the  thunder  storm.  We  can  easily  understand  how  the  god  of  the 
atmosphere  became  the  chief  Aryan  divinity ;  as  the  Aryans  learnt  upon  Indian 
soil  to  observe  the  regidar  recurrence  of  atmospherical  phenomena,  especially  that 
of  the  monsoon  winds  and  the  thunder  storms  upon  which  their  prosperity  de- 
pended, the  deeper  and  stronger  became  their  gratitude  aud  reverence  to  this  god. 
It  is  Indra  who  sends  down  the  water  of  the  heaven,  who  divides  the  clouds  with 
the  lightning  flash  before  which  blow  the  roaring  winds,  the  Maruts,  aspeciaUy  the 
fierce  Eudra,  the  hurricane,  which  rushes  immediately  before  the  black  tliunder 
clouds.  As  Indra's  flash  divides  the  clouds,  so  also  does  it  overthrow  tlie  citadels 
of  the  enemy  and  strike  down  the  wretched  Dasyu  by  thousands  in  the  battle. 
Thus  this  god  protects  the  Aryan  race,  which  celebrates  his  worship  in  thankful- 
ness wiih  sacrifice  (the  Soma  drink)  and  with  hyums  of  praise.  The  second  of 
the  three  chief  gods  is  Surya,  the  bright  sun  god,  gi\-ing  liglit,  warmth,  and  life,  an 
object  of  high  veneration.  Ushas,  the  morning  dawn,  opens  for  him  the  doors 
through  which  he  passes  to  traverse  the  heavens  in  his  chariot  with  its  seven  red 
horses.  After  these  two  gods  the  third  of  importance  is  Agni,  the  fire  born  from 
sticks  when  rubbed  together ;  this  god  lights  and  warms  the  hearth  of  the  house, 
drises  away  all  things  evil  and  impure,  and  watches  over  the  morality  of  the 
household.  As  the  sacrificial  flame  upon  the  altars,  he  is  the  means  of  commmii- 
cation  between  mankind  aud  the  other  gods;  in  his  destructive  character  he 
devastates  the  settlements  of  the  enemy  aud  the  hiding  places  of  their  demons 
in  the  depths  of  the  forest. 

The  worship  of  these  gods  is  characterised  by  a  feeling  of  lofty  independence. 
Not  only  does  man  receive  gifts  from  them,  but  he  also  gives  them  what  they  need. 
They,  indeed,  prepare  for  themselves  the  draught  of  immortality,  the  Amrita ;  but 


368  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [au.j,ter  iv 

they  hunger  for  sacritices  aiul  caiinoi  dn  without  them.  Kspecially  do  the  gods 
love  the  honey-sweet  draught  of  Soma;'  they  press  forward  eagerly  to  the  sacri- 
ficial flame  in  which  the  draught  is  poured  which  gives  even  Indra  himself  the 
courage  for  great  deeds  and  the  energy  of  vi(!torious  and  heroic  power.  Almost 
presumptuous  appears  to  us  the  prayer  iu  which  Indra  i.-;  invited  to  partake  of  the 
Soma  oftering:  "  Ready  is  the  summer  draught,  0  Indra,  for  thee;  may  it  fill  thee 
with  strength !  drink  the  excellent  draught  which  cheers  the  soul  and  conveys  im- 
mortality !  hither,  0  Indra,  to  drink  with  joy  of  the  juice  which  has  been  pressed 
for  thee ;  intoxicate  thyself,  O  hero,  for  the  .shiughter  of  thy  foes  !  sit  thou  upon 
my  seat !  here,  0  good  one,  is  juice  expressed ;  drink  thyself  full,  for  to  thee,  dread 
lord,  do  we  make  offering."  Though  Indra  is  here  in\ited  in  person,  yet  the  personi- 
fications of  early  Indian  mythology  were  much  less  definite  than  those  of  tlie 
Greeks.  Imagination  and  expression  vary  between  the  terms  of  human  existence 
and  the  abstract  conceptions  of  the  natural  powers  of  fire,  thunder,  sunshine,  etc. 
Consequently  the  god  as  such  is  somewhat  vague  and  intangible  in  the  mythology 
of  the  old  Aryans  of  India;  the  characteristics  of  one  deity  are  confused  with 
those  of  another  and  the  different  attributes  of  any  one  god  often  reappear  as 
separate  personifications.  The  mythological  spirit,  with  the  legends  which  it 
creates,  is  confined  within  narrow  limits,  and  the  genealogy  of  the  gods  in  no  way 
resembles  the  family  picture  observable  in  the  Greek  Olympus  (Vol.  IV,  p.  269). 

A  large  number  of  the  hymns  to  the  gods  have  been  preserved  to  us  (1,017 
in  all) ;  these  form  the  earliest  body  of  evidence  upon  Indian  life,  thought,  and 
feeling.  The  earliest  of  these  songs  were  undoubtedly  sung  by  the  Arj-ans  upon 
their  migrations,  when  they  invoked  the  protection  and  help  of  the  gods  to  enable 
them  to  reach  their  goal ;  new  songs  were  composed  on  the  banks  of  Five  Elver 
land  and  during  the  further  advance  into  the  Ganges  territory-  At  first  the  unpre- 
meditated outpourings  of  a  pious  heart,  they  gradually  became  formal  prayers; 
thus  these  hymns  were  preserved  in  families  of  bards  and  faithfully  handed  down 
from  generation  to  generation  until  at  a  much  later  period  they  were  reduced  to 
writing.  Such  at  any  rate  was  the  origin  of  the  earliest  collection  (saiiihit&)  of 
the  sacred  books,  the  Eig-Veda  {ric  means  song  or  poem ;  veda  means  sacred 
knowledge),  and  at  a  later  period  the  more  modem  Vedas.  The  length  of  the 
period  in  the  course  of  which  these  songs  arose  is  shown  by  their  many  linguistic 
divergences,  and  also  by  tlie  great  difference  in  the  phases  of  thought  which  they 
reveal.  In  many  of  the  Vedas  belonging  to  the  earliest  period  we  find  a  deep 
longing  for  truth,  a  stniggle  for  the  solution  of  the  deepest  mysteries  of  existence, 
in  short,  a  speculative  spirit  of  that  nature  which  marks  a  later  stage  of  Brahman 
development;  other  songs,  however,  are  pure  and  simple  prayers  for  victory, 
children,  and  long  life,  while  others  again  contain  promises  of  sacrifice  and  praise  if 
the  help  of  the  gods  should  be  granted.  The  general  collection  of  all  these  hymns 
was  made  at  a  considerably  later  jieriod,  subsec[uently  to  the  occupation  of  the 
Ganges  territory,  and  not  before  the  seventh  century  B.C. 

(c)  The  Expansion  of  the  Aryans  in  the  Ganges  Territory.  —  The  most  impor- 
tant events  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Vedic  age  took  place  on  the  frontier  line 
between  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges.     Here  certain  special  characteristics  were 


'  Iti  Iliiitii  II  certain  plant  (Sarcostcmma  brevistigma)  is  .still  called  Som  or  Soma. 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  369 


developed  which  were  afterward  to  lead  to  important  results;  we  speak  of  the 
opposition  between  the  wan-ior  and  priestly  classes.  At  the  head  of  the  allied 
tribes  in  the  Punjab  stands  the  proud  King  Visivamitra,  who  combines  the  func- 
tions of  king  and  priest  in  his  own  person  and  invokes  the  help  of  the  gods  for  his 
people.  Among  his  adversaries,  however,  the  King  Sudas  no  longer  commits  the 
duties  of  prayer  and  sacrifice  to  his  own  priests,  but  to  a  special  class,  the  white- 
clothed,  long-haired  priests  of  the  Vasishtha  family,  and  their  prayers  are  more 
effectual  than  those  of  the  priest-king.  This  event  is  typical  of  the  second  stage 
of  early  Indian  development,  which  ends  in  the  complete  victory  of  tlie  priests 
over  the  warrior  class  and  the  establishment  of  a  rigid  hierarchy.  The  date  of 
this  social  change  coincides  with  that  of  the  expansion  and  establishment  of  the 
Aryans  in  the  Ganges'  territory. 

(a)  Historical  Evidences —  The  Mahifl)harata.  —  The  sacred  books  are  of  less 
value  for  the. external  history  of  this  period  than  are  the  songs  of  the  liig-Veda  for 
the  preceding  age;  nevertheless  many  of  them,  such  as  the  Brahmanas,  contain 
important  evidence  concerning  individual  tribes,  their  settlements  and  liistory. 
A  large  body  of  historical  evidence  is,  however,  contained  in  the  second  great  epic 
poems  of  this  period,  the  MahabhSrata  and  the  Ramayana  (see  p.  496,  below);  the 
riotous  imagination  of  the  composers  has  given  a  strong  poetical  colouring  to 
the  whole,  and  the  lack  of  definite  purpose  which  is  apparent  in  their  construction 
makes  careful  and  minute  criticism  imperative. 

The  Mahabharata  in  its  present  state  is  the  longest  poem  of  any  people  or  age. 
It  contains  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand  doulde  lines  (slokas) ;  and  each  one  of 
its  eighteen  books  is  enough  to  fill  a  large  volume.  The  historical  basis  of  the 
great  poem  of  the  Bharata  (p.  364)  rests  upon  early  tradition.  The  enthusiasm 
inspired  by  heroic  deeds  found  its  vent  in  poetical  composition,  and  the  praise  of 
heroes  was  passed  from  mouth  to  mouth.  Thus  epic  poems  in  embryo  may  be 
earlier  than  the  first  one  thousand  years  b.  c,  but  when  that  period  of  turmoil  and 
confusion  was  followed  by  an  age  of  more  peaceful  development,  the  memories 
of  these  exploits  grew  fainter  in  the  minds  of  successive  generations ;  the  old 
songs  and  ballads  were  collected  and  worked  into  one  gieat  epos ;  many  of  the 
events  and  of  the  figures  are  the  additions  of  later  poets  (such  as  the  story  of  the 
Five  Pandu  brothers),  while  the  whole  poem  is  marked  by  the  brilliant  overflow 
of  a  luxuriant  imagination  and  by  ruthless  compression  of  the  historical  facts; 
the  histories  of  nations  become  the  victories  or  defeats  of  individual  heroes ;  long 
years  of  struggle  with  warlike  tribes  are  reduced  to  one  lengthy  battle.  To  this 
quasi-historical  part  of  the  MahSliharata  were  added  at  a  later  time  a  series  of 
lays  more  extensive  than  the  original  poem  and  written  from  the  Brahman  point 
of  view.  If  the  non-epic  elements  be  removed  from  the  poem  the  following  story 
remains. 

At  the  point  where  the  two  streams  of  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges  leave  the 
moimtains  and  iiow  through  the  jilains,  the  powerful  liharata  tribe  of  the  Kuru 
had  established  themselves  upon  their  eastern  and  western  banks;  even  to-day, 
the  district  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna  is  known  as  the  Kuru-kshetra  the 
sacred  Kuru  land.  This  royal  tribe  divided  into  two  branches.  Of  the  two  sons 
of  King  Santanu  the  elder,  Dhritarashtra  was  born  blind,  and  the  royal  power  was 
therefore  conferred  upon  his  younger  brother  Pandu.     To  the  latter  five  sons  were 

VOL.   11-24 


370  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [a,u^ter iv 

born  and  to  the  former  one  hundred,  and  the  struggles  of  these  two  groups  of 
cousins  (Kaurawas-lVindaw  us)  formed  the  substratum  of  the  epic.  All  these 
brothers  were  admirably  instructeil  ui  knightly  pursuits  by  the  Brahman  Dr^na 
"  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and  club,  of  the  battle  axe  and  the  throwing  spear,  of  the 
sword  and  dagger,  in  the  chase  of  the  horse  and  elephant,  in  conllicts  from  chariots 
or  on  foot,  man  to  man  or  in  combination."  In  the  elder  line  (Kuru)  Duryodhana, 
the  eldest  of  the  one  hundred  brothers,  was  especially  distinguished  for  his  skill 
in  the  use  of  the  club ;  Bhima,  the  second  son  of  Pandu,  was  famous  for  his  super- 
human strength.  The  third  son  of  Pandu,  the  beautiful  long-haired  Arjuna, 
excelled  with  all  arms,  but  especially  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow.  In  one  nf 
the  tournaments  which  concluded  the  education  of  the  princes  he  outstripped  all 
competitors ;  after  a  contest  with  many  nther  princes,  he  won  the  hand  of  the 
beautiful  Krishna  ("The  Black")  the  daughier  of  Drupada,  the  king  of  I'anlshfda. 
By  his  victory  she  also  became  the  wife  of  the  other  four  brothers,  a  polyandric 
marriage  which  is  represented  by  the  Brahman  poet  as  the  result  of  a  misun- 
derstanding with  the  moilier  of  the   Pandu  brothers. 

Duryodhana,  who  had  meanwhile  been  crowned  king,  dreading  the  military 
power  of  his  cousins  and  of  the  Pantshala  with  whom  they  had  allied  themselves 
by  marriage,  divided  his  kingdom  with  the  eldest  of  the  Pandu  brothers,  Prince 
Yudhishthira.  At  the  moment  of  his  coronation  Yudhishthira  played  a  game  of 
dice  with  the  enemies  of  his  house,  the  Kaurawas,  in  which  he  lost  not  only  his 
crown,  but  also  the  freedom  of  himself  and  his  brothers,  and  the  wife  whom  they 
possessed  in  common.  But  liy  the  decision  of  the  blind  old  prince  DhritarSshtra 
the  forfeit  was  commuted  for  a  banishment  of  thirteen  years.  The  Pandu  lirothers 
with  their  wife  spent  this  period  in  solitude,  need,  and  misery  in  the  forests,  and 
then  demanded  their  share  of  the  kingdom.  To  this  proposition  the  Kaurawas 
declined  to  agree,  and  both  parties  secured  the  support  of  numerous  powerful 
allies.  The  Kaurawas  were  joined  by  Karna  (a  second  Siegfried  or  Achilles), 
who  distinguished  himself  in  these  battles  by  his  splendid  bravery  and  military 
prowess;  the  Panda  was  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  the  cunning  advice  of  the 
Yadawa  prince,  Krishna,  who  placed  his  services  as  charioteer  at  the  disposal 
of  Arjuna.  A  fearfid  battle  ensued  of  eighteen  days'  duration,  in  which,  after 
marvellous  deeds  of  heroism,  all  the  warriors  were  slain  with  the  exception  of  the 
five  Pandu  brothers.  From  tliis  time  onward  the  whole  of  the  kingdom  was  in 
their  j)ower,  and  Yudhishthira  ruled  for  a  long  period  after  the  manner  of  an 
ideal  Brahman  prince.  Thereupon  they  retired  from  all  earthly  splendour  and 
became  ascetics  with  no  temporal  needs,  wandering  from  one  holy  shrine  to 
another,  until  at  length  they  entered  the  heaven  of  the  gods  opposite  the  holy 
Mountain  of  Meru. 

However  large  an  element  of  the  Mahabharata  may  be  purely  poetical,  none 
the  less  the  poem  enables  us  to  localise  with  some  accuracy  a  number  of  the  tribes 
which  were  actively  or  passively  involved  in  the  struggle  of  the  two  royal  houses, 
and  the  overthrow  of  the  warrior  class  to  which  that  struggle  led.  Of  llie  warrior 
class  the  chief  representatives  are  the  Kuru,  who  are  represented  as  settled  on  the 
upper  course  of  the  Jumna  and  Ganges,  Hastinapura  being  their  rajiital  town  (see 
the  map,  p.  430) ;  they  were  also  in  occupation  of  the  sacred  Kuru  land  to  the 
west  of  the  Jumna  as  far  as  the  point  where  the  Saraswati  disappears  in  the  sands 
of  the  desert.     The  poem  places  the  Pandu  and  their  capital  of  Indrapraslha  (the 


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in^ia-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  371 

modem  Delhi  on  the  Jumna)  in  the  central  Duab  (the  central  district  between 
the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges) ;  in  the  lower  Duab  is  settled  a  federation  of  five 
tribes,  the  Pautshala.  Opposite  these  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Jumna  dwell 
the  Surasena,  whQe  to  the  east  beyond  the  Ganges  are  the  Kosala  (capital  town 
Gogra)  who  extended  their  power  after  the  destruction  of  tlie  Kuru  and  PAndu, 
their  later  capital  of  Ayodhya  becoming  a  focus  of  Brahman  civilization.  Below 
the  confluence  of  the  Jumna  and  Gauges,  the  sacred  Prayaga,  where  at  an  earlier 
period  I'ratisthana  (Allahabad)  had  become  a  centre  for  pilgrimages,  the  northern 
bank  of  the  main  stream  was  occupied  by  the  Bharata  tribe  of  the  Matsya,  while 
to  the  southeast  of  these  in  the  district  of  the  modern  Benares  i  lived  the  Kasi ;  on 
the  southern  bank  the  native  tribe  of  the  Nishada  formed  a  defence  agamst'the 
Aryan  tribes  in  the  north.  East  and  north  of  the  Ganges  together  with  the  Kosala 
were  also  settled  the  moimtain  tribes  of  the  Kirata  who  were  in  alliance  with  the 
Kuru,  while  further  to  the  south  were  the  Pundra  Bauga  and  Anga,  the  IMithda, 
the  Wideha  (Tirhit),  and  Magadha. 

The  action  of  the  great  epic  poem  is  laid  withm  the  district  of  these  various 
tribes.  Several  centuries  must  have  elapsed  since  the  battle  of  King  Sudas,  during 
which  the  Aryans  had  formed  States  in  the  fruitful  central  district,  the  iladhya- 
desa,  and  had  extended  to  that  tributary  of  the  Ganges  now  known  as  the  Gariiti. 
In  the  earlier  period  of  Indian  antiquity,  the  chief  historical  events  take  place  in 
the  country  between  the  Ganges  and  its  great  western  Iributarv  the  Jumna; 
whereas  at  a  later  period  pure  Brahman  civilization  is  developed  in  the  kingdoms 
formed  further  to  the  east,  namely  north  of  the  Ganges  in  Wideha  (capital  town 
Mithila,  the  modern  Muzaffarpur)  aud  upon  the  southern  bank  of  the  gieat  river, 
in  Magadha  and  Wihara  (the  modem  Behar ;  capital  town  Pataliputra,  the  modern 
Patna).  During  this  period  at  any  rate  the  eastern  frontier  of  these  States  was 
also  the  eastward  limit  of  Aryan  occupation.  That  national  movement  ceased  at 
the  point  where  the  first  arms  of  the  gi-eat  delta  of  the  Ganges  diverge  from  the 
southern  bank  of  the  river  behind  the  mountains  of  Rajmahal;  the  almost  impene- 
trable malarial  swamp  districts  which  then  composed  the  whole  delta  remained  for 
a  long  period  in  the  imdisputed  possession  of  the  wild  jungle  tribes  and  noxious 
and  poisonous  animals.  However,  the  last  offshoots  of  the  stream  of  Aryan 
immigration  turned  southward  to  the  fertile  districts  of  Orissa  from  ilagadha,  at 
the  period  when  Brahmanism  had  reached  its  culminating  point.  Here  the  north- 
eastern arms  of  the  Mahanadi  delta  mark  the  extreme  limit  of  the  territory  then 
in  Aryan  occujiation,  which  consequently  extended  to  the  sea  upon  the  east  (see 
the  map,  p.  430). 

At  a  yet  earlier  period  the  Aryans  had  reached  the  Western  Sea  (the  Arabian 
Sea).  Immediately  after  the  occupation  of  Five  River  Land,  the  waves  of  the 
migration  passed  down  the  Indus  valley  aud  tlie  Aryans  became  acquainted  with 
the  districts  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  to  which  also  they  gave  its  name  (Sindhu). 
Their  settlements  in  that  district  did  not,  however,  become  a  point  of  departure 
for  transmarine  migration  (cf.  section  6  of  this  volume).  The  coast  was  iU-suited 
for  the  navigators  of  the  period,  and  a  far  more  favourable  spot  was  found  further 
to  the  southwest  in  the  Gulf  of  Cambay  (p.  346  above) ;  settlements  were  made 
here  at  a  period  considerably  subsequent  to  the  arrival  at  the  mouth  of  the  Indus. 


*  See  the  plate,  "  Benares  on  the  Ganges.' 


372  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [c/.aphrjr 

The  Great  Desert  and  the  unhealthy  swamps  which  intervene  between  this  gulf 
and  the  Indus  district  prevented  any  advance  in  that  direction ;  moreover  an  easier 
route  was  discovered  by  the  tribes  advancing  from  Five  IJiver  Land  to  the  Ganges 
district  along  the  narrow  frontier  between  both  territories.  Consecjuently  new 
arrivals  found  the  land  already  occupied  by  settlers  who  had  taken  this  route,  and 
bloody  coullicts  may  have  been  of  repeated  occurrence.  Driven  on  by  tribes  ad- 
vancing in  their  rear,  hemmed  in  before  by  earlier  settlers,  the}-  fomid  a  favour- 
able opening  of  escape  in  the  strip  of  fertile  territory  which  extended  southward 
between  the  Desert  and  the  northwestern  slojies  of  the  central  Indian  Highlands 
(the  Aravalli  Hills);  this  path  could  not  fail  to  bring  them  totlie  (!ulf  of  L'ambay, 
which  here  runs  far  inland,  and,  on  its  western  shores,  the  rich  districts  of  Gujerat 
and  those  at  the  mouth  of  the  Narliada  (Narmada)  and  the  Tapti  lay  spread  before 
them.  This  was  the  most  southerly  point  on  the  western  side  of  India  at  which 
the  Aryans  made  any  permanent  settlement. 

Hence  during  this  period  Aryan  India  included  the  whole  of  the  northwestern 
plains  extending  in  a  southwesterly  direction  as  far  as  Gujerat,  and  eastward  as 
far  as  the  (Janges  delta,  its  extreme  southeasterly  point  being  the  delta  of  Orissa. 
The  Highlands  of  Central  India  formed  a  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
Aryan  and  Dravidian  races.  The  district  was,  however,  not  entirely  secluded  from 
Aryan  influence,  which  at  the  outset  of  that  period  had  begun  to  put  out  feelers 
across  the  frontier  line.  The  Aryans  liad  already  become  acquainted  with  the  sea, 
which  was  for  them  rather  a  means  than  a  hindrance  to  comnmnication ;  the  fact 
is  proved  by  the  similes  occurruig  in  the  old  battle  songs,  wherein  the  hard-pressed 
warrior  is  compared  to  a  sailor  ujjon  a  ship  staggering  under  a  hea\y  storm  upon 
the  open  sea.  The  Aryan  colonisation  of  Ceylon  took  place  before  the  power  of 
the  warrior  class  had  been  broken  and  the  social  organism  stamped  with  the  im- 
press of  Brahmanism  (see  p.  496). 

On  conipuriiig  this  period  with  tliat  during  which  the  Aryans  advanced  into 
Five  Kiver  Land,  we  tind  a  fundamental  oliaiige  in  the  conditions  of  Aryan  life  as 
they  are  displaj-ed  in  all  these  struggles  and  settlements.  Nomadic  life  under  the 
patriarchal  system  is  replaced  b}-  feudal  ])rinci])alities  sunounded  with  all  the 
splendour  of  chivalry.  Changes  in  other  conditions  of  life  had  necessarily  effected 
a  fundamental  transformation  in  the  political  and  social  condition  of  the  people. 
A  more  settled  life,  and  tlie  advance  of  agriculture  at  the  expense  of  cattle  breed- 
ing led  to  a  more  comprehensive  subdivision  of  labour;  though  when  occasion 
demanded,  the  peasant  left  the  plouglishare  for  the  .sword,  yet  it  was  no  doubt  at 
an  early  period  that  that  wainior  nobility  arose  which  made  war  its  business  and 
profession.  The  leadership  of  the  tribe  as  the  latter  flourished  and  increased  be- 
came rather  a  professional  post;  in  place  of  the  tribal  elder,  wlio  originally  was 
merely  jiritnus  inter  j^ares,  appears  the  king  in  possession  of  full  royal  jjowers  and 
standing  high  above  and  apart  from  his  people.  The  position  of  both  king  and 
noble  must  have  advanced  to  more  brilliant  development  in  the  greater  area  of  the 
Ganges  territoiy.  In  the  MahrdjharaLa  tlie  liattles  and  the  names  connected  with 
them  are  no  doubt  in  large  part  the  result  of  poetical  invention ;  but  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  civilization  then  existent  cannot  be  wholly  imaginary,  and  the  royal 
courts  with  their  knightly  organisation,  however  romantic  in  appearance  and  akin 
to  the  institutions  of  media;val  Euroi^e,  may  be  considered  as  definite  historical 
facts. 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  373 


(/3)  Political  and  Social  Changes.  —  No  greater  change  can  be  imagined  than 
that  apparent  in  the  later  condition  of  those  peoples  whose  history  we  have  traced 
throughout  this  proud  and  warlike  period.  Gone  is  the  energy  of  j-outh ;  gone,  too, 
the  sparkling  joys  of  life  and  struggle ;  the  green  verdure  of  the  Aryan  spring  has 
faded,  the  people  has  grown  old.  The  nobQity  has  yielded  the  pride  of  place  to 
the  priesthood,  whose  ordinances  shackle  all  movement  toward  freedom  and  inde- 
pendence. The  new  power  appears  in  the  garb  of  deepest  poverty,  but  its  spiritual 
influence  is  all  the  more  profound ;  the  ambition  of  the  priests  was  not  to  be  kings, 
but  to  rule  kings. 

The  origins  of  this  great  social  change  go  back  to  a  remote  epoch.  Even  during 
that  period  when  the  Aryan  power  was  confined  to  Five  River  Land,  the  seeds  of 
opposition  between  the  temporal  and  spiritual  powers  are  found  in  existence ;  in  the 
great  battle  in  which  King  Sudas  conquered  the  confederacy  of  the  Punjab  the  oppo- 
sition becomes  prominent  for  the  first  time  (cf.  p.  369).  At  an  earlier  period  it  was 
the  natural  duty  of  the  tribal  chieftain  to  stand  as  mediator  between  his  people  and 
their  gods.  But  it  was  not  every  powerful  prince  or  general  who  possessed  the 
gifts  of  the  inspired  poet  and  musician,  and  many  kings  therefore  entrusted  this 
sacred  public  duty  to  their  Purohita  (p.  367).  His  reputation  was  increased  by 
his  power  of  clothing  lofty  thoughts  in  inspiring  form,  and  the  position  passed 
from  father  to  son  together  with  the  more  stirring  hymns  which  were  orally  trans- 
mitted. Thus  priestly  families  arose  of  high  reputation  whose  efforts  were  natu- 
rally entirely  directed  to  secure  the  permanence  of  their  position ;  the  most  certain 
means  to  this  end  was  the  creation  of  a  complicated  ritual  for  prayer  and  sacrifice 
which  could  only  be  performed  by  a  priesthood  with  a  special  training.  The  scene 
of  sacrifice  was  prepared  with  great  attention  to  minutiae,  the  altars  were  specially 
adorned  on  every  opportunity,  and  the  different  sacrifices  were  offered  with  scrupu- 
lous respect  to  ceremonial  detail ;  there  were  priests  who  recited  only  the  prayers 
from  the  Rig- Veda  (hotar),  others  who  sang  the  h3mus  from  the  Samaveda  (udga- 
tar)  ;  a  high  priest  stood  at  the  head  of  the  whole  organisation. 

Consequently  the  character  of  prayer,  sacrifice,  and  indeed  the  whole  body  of 
theology  underwent  a  fundamental  transformation.  Originally  the  victim  had 
been  the  pure  offering  of  a  thankful  heart,  while  prayer  had  been  the  fervent  yet 
humble  expression  of  those  desires  which  man  in  his  weakness  laid  before  the 
almighty  powers  of  heaven.  Gradually,  however,  the  idea  of  sacrifice  had  been 
modified  by  the  theory  that  human  offerings  to  the  gods  were  not  only  welcome, 
but  also  necessary  and  indispensable  to  those  powers.  In  the  sacred  writings  of  a 
later  date  passages  repeatedly  occur,  stating  that  the  gods  are  growing'  weak  because 
the  pious  priests  have  been  hindered  by  e\'il  spirits  from  making  the  necessary  sac- 
rifices: Indeed  it  was  only  by  means  of  the  sacrifices  that  the  gods,  who  had 
formerly  been  subject  to  death  like  men,  had  acquired  immortality.  "  The  gods 
lived  in  the  fear  of  death,  the  strong  Ender,  and  therefore  they  underwent  severe 
penance  and  made  many  offerings  until  they  became  immortal."  Hence  was  de- 
veloped the  further  idea  that  by  means  of  sacrifice  man  could  gain  a  certain  power 
over  the  gods  themselves  and  thereby  extort  gifts  and  services  from  them ;  and  ul- 
timately the  sacrifice  was  conceived  to  be  a  thing  of  immense  magical  power  before 
which  all  the  other  gods  must  bow.  The  all-compelling  power  of  the  sacrifice  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  priests,  the  Brahmans,  and  became  the  firm  foundalioii  of  their 
increasing  predominance.     An  Indian  proverb  says  :  "  The  universe  depends  upon 


374  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         lchaj>feriF 

the  gods,  the  gods  upon  the  Mantra  (the  formula  of  sacrifice),  the  Mantra  upon  the 
Brahniaus,  and  therefore  the  Brahnians  are  our  gods." 

Tradition  is  silent  upon  the  details  of  the  process  by  which  tlie  dominant 
power  passed  from  the  hands  of  the  nobUity  to  the  priesthood.  It  was  to  the 
interests  of  the  priests  to  obliterate  historical  facts  as  rapidly  and  completely  as 
possible  from  popular  memory,  and  to  inculcate  the  belief  that  the  iiigh  position 
of  the  Brahnians  had  been  theirs  from  the  outset.  The  history  of  the  period  has 
been  thus  designedly  obscured,  and  only  at  rare  intervals  is  some  feeble  light 
thi-own  upon  it.  The  epos  of  the  fall  of  the  great  race  of  the  Bharata  shows  us 
how  the  power  of  the  nobility  was  worn  away  in  bitter  struggles ;  nianv  priestly 
figures  such  as  Drona  and  his  son  ASwatthSman  take  up  arms  and  join  in  the 
destruction  of  the  nobility.  A  fact  throwing  special  light  upon  the  acerbity  of 
the  contest  between  the  two  struggling  powers  is  the  appearance  in  tlie  poem  of 
the  mythical  figure  of  Eama  who  was  considered  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu  at  a 
later  period,  a  Brahman  by  birth,  and  armed  with  the  axe  (parasurSma).  The 
balance  of  fortune  did  not,  however,  invariably  incline  iii  favour  of  the  Brahmans, 
as  is  plain  from  the  manj-  maxims  in  their  ritual  and  philosojihical  writings  con- 
ceived in  a  very  humble  tone :  "  None  is  greater  than  tiie  Kshatriya  (the  warrior), 
wherefore  the  Brahman  also  makes  sacrifices  together  with  the  royal  ofterings  to 
the  Kshatriya."  The  issue  of  the  struggle  began  to  prove  doubtful  from  the  Brah- 
man point  of  view,  and  therefore  tlie  myth  claimed  the  personal  interference  of 
the  powerful  god  Vishnu,  who  usually  became  incarnate  in  times  of  greatest  need, 
and  therefore  descends  for  this  reason  to  the  aid  of  his  special  favourites,  the 
Brahmans.  After  an  infinite  series  of  bloody  conflicts,  he  gains  for  them  a  bril- 
liant victory ;  thrice  seven  times  did  ParaSurama  purify  the  earth  of  the  Kshatriya. 

(7)  Tlie  Brahman  Caste  System.  —  Notwithstanding  their  military  capacity 
and  their  personal  strength,  tlie  nobles  had  been  defeated,  and  the  priests,  armed 
with  the  mysterious  magical  power  of  the  sacrifice,  had  gained  a  spiritual  dominion 
over  the  people.  This  power  the  priesthood  at  once  proceeded  to  secure  perma- 
nently and  irrevocably  by  arrogating  to  themselves  the  monopoly  of  all  religious 
and  philosophical  thought,  by  the  strict  and  detailed  regulation  of  public  and 
private  life  in  its  every  particular,  by  forcing  the  mind,  the  feelings,  and  the  will 
of  every  individual  into  fixed  grooves  prescribed  by  the  priests.  The  legal  books, 
the  earliest  of  which  belong  to  the  course  of  literature  of  the  old  Vedic  schools 
(the  Dharmasiitras  of  Gautama,  Apastamba,  Baudhayana,  and  others),  explain  the 
high  ideal  which  the  Brahmans  proposed  to  themselves  as  the  true  realisation  of 
national  life  ;  an  ideal,  however,  which  was'hardl)'  ever  attained  in  its  reality  or  at 
the  most  only  within  the  narrow  areas  of  individual  petty  States. 

The  position  of  the  priests  is  defined  with  the  greatest  precision  and  detail  in 
the  DharmaiSstra  of  M^nawa,  a  work  afterward  ascribed  to  Manu.  In  order 
to  make  this  work  yet  more  authoritative,  its  composers  assignetl  to  the  person- 
ality of  its  author  an  age  almost  amounting  to  immortality  (30,000,000  of  years) 
and  divine  origin,  attempting  to  identify  him  with  the  first  ancestor  of  the  Aryans, 
the  mythical  Manu.  In  reality  it  was  not  until  sliurtly  before  the  middle  of  the 
first  millennium  B.  c.  that  the  Brahman  code  had  developed  so  large  a  quantity  of 
precepts  defined  with  such  exactitude ;  in  its  present  form  the  work  of  Manu 
seems  to  be  the  result  of  later  re-editing,  and  according  to  Arthur  C.  Burnell,  dales 


^»*«]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  375 

from  the  period  between  tlie  first  century  B.  C,  and  the  fifth  century  A.  D.  Bud- 
dhist precepts  are  plainly  apparent  in  it,  and  many  jirohibitions  of  the  earlier  and 
later  periods  are  brought  together  in  spite  of  their  discrepancy  (for  instance,  the 
slaughter  of  animals  and  the  eating  of  flesh,  side  by  side  with  the  religious  avoid- 
ance of  animal  food)  ;  Buddhist  terms  of  expression  are  also  found,  such  as  the 
mention  of  female  anchorites  "  an  apostate  sect,"  which  are  evidence  in  favour  of 
a  later  date.  The  book  consists  of  a  collection  of  proverbial  sayings  which  were 
intended  to  fix  the  customary  law,  as  established  by  the  Brahmans,  for  a  district 
of  Northern  India  of  limited  area.  The  work  contains  2,685  double  lines  divided 
into  twelve  books ;  of  these  books,  five  are  concerned  with  the  rights  and  duties  of 
the  Brahmans,  whereas  only  two  books  are  devoted  to  the  warrior  caste,  and  only 
one  to  all  the  other  castes  put  together. 

Manu  expressly  proclaims  the  existence  of  four  castes  ^  only  :  "  The  Brahmans, 
Kshatriyas,  and  Vai^yas  form  the  classes  in  a  second  state  of  existence,  the  Siidra, 
is  in  the  first  state  of  existence  and  forms  the  fourth  class ;  a  fifth  class  does  not 
exist."  In  this  division,  the  first  point  of  note  is  the  contrast  between  those  in  a 
first  and  those  in  a  second  state  of  existence,  a  contrast  which  coincides  with  the 
racial  contrast  between  the  Aryans  and  the  original  inhabitants  ;  within  the  Aryan 
group  a  principle  of  tripartition  is  again  apparent,  which,  in  modern  language, 
amounts  to  the  separate  existence  of  a  learned,  a  military,  and  a  productive  class. 

Manu  here  speaks  of  only  four  divisions  of  society ;  elsewhere  he  recognises 
the  existence  of  other  caste  subdivisions :  the  castes  of  the  physicians,  astrologers, 
handicraftsmen,  oil  manufacturers,  leather  workers,  musical  performers,  Tshandala, 
etc.,  are  subdivisions  of  the  fourth  class.  Properly  speaking,  however,  the  origin 
of  these  castes  is,  according  to  Manu,  different  from  that  of  the  main  gi-oups ; 
these  latter  are  of  primceval  origin,  created  together  with  the  world  and  (an  im- 
portant fact)  by  the  purpose  of  the  Creator.  A  famous  hymn  of  the  Kig-Veda, 
which  is  a  later  interpolation,  describes  the  origin  of  the  castes :  "  The  sacrifice 
Purusha,  those  who  were  born  at  the  very  first  (the  first  men),  they  offered  it  upon 
sacrificial  grass  ;  to  it  the  gods  made  offering,  the  Sadhyas  and  the  Eishis.  When 
they  divided  Purusha,  into  how  many  pieces  was  he  cleft  ?  What  did  his  mouth 
become,  and  what  his  arms,  what  his  legs  and  his  feet  ?  His  mouth  became  the 
Brahman,  the  Rajanya  (Kshatriya)  came  forth  from  his  arm,  the  Vai^ya  from 
his  thighs,  the  Sudra  from  his  feet.  The  world  was  born  from  his  soul,  the  sun 
from  his  eyes,  Indra  and  Agui  from  his  mouth,  Wayu  from  his  breath.  From  his 
navel  came  forth  the  air,  from  his  head  the  heaven,  from  his  feet  the  earth,  from 
his  ear  the  districts  of  the  world.  In  this  manner  did  the  gods  create  the  world." 
Symbolically,  the  Brahmans  were  formed  from  the  same  member  of  the  body  as 
the  great  gods  of  early  India,  Indra,  and  Agni,  namely,  from  the  mouth,  which 
speaks  "  sanctity  and  truth  ; "  the  military  Kshatriyas  were  formed  from  the  arms, 
whence  they  received  their  "  power  and  strength."  The  thigh  bones  were  the 
means  of  mechanical  progress,  the  lowly  toil  of  life ;  from  these,  therefore,  were 
the  Vai^ya  formed,  who  go  behind  the  plough  and  gain  material  "  riches  and  pos- 
sessions "  by  their  industry.  From  the  feet,  however,  which  ever  tread  in  the  dust 
of  earth,  is  formed  the  lowly  ^udra,  who,  from  the  very  beginning,  is  "  destined  to 
service  and  obedience."     Thus,  according  to  Manu,  by  means  of  the  sacrificial 


1  Tlie  word  "  caste  "  is  of  Portuguese  origin,  casta  meaning  race  in  that  language. 


37G  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         {cin.i.ta- ir 

power  of  the  gods  and  of  the  sacred  iniiiiiuval  Hrahmaiis,  the  Jiishis  were  formed, 
the  four  great  classes  of  human  society. 

The  Brahiiiaiis  have  anollier  theory  to  account  for  tlie  sulidivisions  wilhiu  tlie 
6fldra  class,  which  are  exjilaiued  as  mixed  castes  proceeding  from  tlie  alliance  of 
members  of  ditfereut  castes.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  position  within  these 
mixed  castes  is  dependent  upon  the  higher  or  lower  caste  to  which  the  man  or  the 
woman  belonged  at  the  time  of  procreation.  Alliances  of  men  of  higher  castes, 
and  even  of  the  Brahmans  themselves  with  low-caste  women,  are  legally  permis- 
sible ;  however,  the  children  of  such  a  marriage  do  not  take  the  father's  caste,  but 
sink  to  the  lowest  castes.  Wholly  different  is  the  punishment  of  breaking  caste 
incurred  when  a  woman  has  children  by  a  man  of  lower  caste  tlian  herself;  not 
only  is  she  expelled  from  her  own  caste  with  ignominy  and  disgrace,  but  the 
higher  the  caste  to  which  she  belonged  by  birth,  the  lower  is  the  social  depth  to 
which  she  and  her  children  sink  ;  indeed,  the  lowest  of  all  castes,  that  of  the 
Tshandala,  is  considered  by  the  Hrahnians  to  have  been  formed  by  the  alliance  of 
Brahman  women  with  6udra  men.  On  the  other  hand,  the  children  begotten  by  a 
Brahman  of  a  Sfidra  woman  belong  to  the  higher  gradations  of  the  Sudra  group, 
whUe  the  father  in  no  wa_v  loses  his  own  permanent  position. 

Such  is  the  teaching  of  the  Brahmans  as  laid  down  in  the  book  of  Manu  upon 
tlie  origin  of  mixed  castes.  The  investigator,  however,  who  leaves  the  Sanscrit 
writings,  exammes  Indian  society  for  himself,  and  judges  the  facts  before  him 
without  prejudice,  cannot  resist  the  impression  that  this  theory  upon  the  origin  of 
mixed  castes  is  as  impossible  as  that  of  the  creation  of  the  four  main  castes  from 
the  sacrifice.  The  only  mixed  caste  in  tlie  proper  sense  of  the  words  is  that  of  the 
temjile  women,  and  their  children  ;  among  tliesc,  daughters  become  temple  women, 
sons  temple  musicians,  or  inferior  temple  servants,  etc.  But  in  all  other  cases 
where  there  is  no  very  great  difference  of  caste  between  the  parents,  the  child 
takes  the  lower  caste  and  a  new  mixed  caste  never  arises.  However,  in  the  very 
rare  cases  in  which  a  woman  of  extremel}-  high  caste  has  a  chUd  by  a  man  of  very 
low  caste,  abortion  is  invariably  procured,  or  the  mother  commits  suicide.  The 
Brahman  doctrine  upon  the  origin  of  the  lowest  castes  is  an  intentional  perversion 
of  the  facts.  One  of  the  most  skilful  investigators  of  the  caste  system,  W.  R. 
Cornish,  says,  "  The  whole  chapter  (of  Manu)  upon  mixed  castes  is  so  childishly 
conceived  and  displays  so  much  class  prejudice  and  intolerance,  so  appalling  a 
punishment  awaiting  the  Brahman  woman  who  should  err,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  Brahman  is  allowed  so  much  freedom  of  communication  with  other  castes 
without  injury  to  his  position,  that  the  intentions  of  the  author  become  fcnthwith 
obvious."  These  intentions  were  to  maintain  purity  of  blood  in  the  higher  castes 
and  especially  in  that  of  the  Bralimans,  by  appointing  the  heaviest  of  all  jmnish- 
ments  upon  any  woman  wlio  sliould  prove  unfaitiiful  to  her  caste.  It  was  not 
thus  that  the  lower  social  groups  of  which  we  have  spoken  originated ;  they  are 
earlier  than  the  laws  of  Manu.  The  legislator,  however,  employed  the  fear  in- 
spired by  the  prospect  of  sinking  to  their  degraded  position  as  a  ]iowerful  instru- 
ment wliereby  he  might  attain  liis  object,  the  preservation  of  racial  purity  among 
the  Brahmans. 

The  truth  is  that  castes  have  arisen  from  different  origins.  Differences  of  race 
and  racial  yirejiidice  form  a  first  line  of  cleavage.  Noteworthy  in  this  connection 
is  the  old  Aryan  name  for  caste,  warna,  that  is,  colour.     The  white  and  the  black. 


^'■H  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  377 

the  Aryan  and  the  original  inhabitant,  the  "  best,"  the  "  first "  (because  the  most 
successful  and  powerful)  in  contrast  with  the  low  and  the  common,  the  Dasyu,  — 
these  oppositions  form  the  first  sharp  line  of  demarcation.  At  then-  first  meeting 
the  latter  class  were  naturally  not  allowed  the  privilege  of  conforming  to  the  insti- 
tutions of  Aryan  society ;  extermination  was  the  sole  method  of  dealing  with  them. 
At  a  later  period,  however,  as  the  conquerors  became  more  prosperous  and  settled,  it 
was  found  advantageous  to  employ  prisoners  or  subject  races  as  serfs  for  the  purpose 
of  menial  duties.  The  original  inhabitants  of  the  country  were  thus  adopted  into 
the  Aryan  society,  and  in  that  social  order  the  first  deep  line  of  cleavage  was  made. 
Other  differences  then  developed  within  the  Aryan  population.  It  was  only  natural 
that  the  man  who  displayed  a  special  bravery  in  battle  should  be  more  highly 
honoured  and  receive  a  larger  share  of  booty,  of  territory,  and  of  slaves  to  cultivate 
that  territory.  Thus,  in  course  of  time,  a  warrior  nobility  was  formed,  the 
Kshatriya,  who  rose  to  power  as  we  have  seen  in  the  struggles  of  the  MahabhSrata. 
We  have  already  explained  (p.  373)  the  manner  in  which  a  further  social  division 
was  brought  ab'out  by  the  formation  of  a  hereditary  priesthood  (Brahmana).  In 
proportion,  however,  as  these  two  classes  became  exclusive  hereditary  castes,  so 
did  they  rise  above  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  the  farmers,  tlie  shepherds,  and 
the  handicraftsmen  whose  occupations  were  now  considered  as  professions  lacking 
in  dignity.  The  Kshatriya  proudly  called  themselves  Eajana,  Eajwansi,  the  royal, 
or  the  Rajputes  (rajaputra),  the  men  of  royal  race,  and  thought  themselves  high 
above  the  wis,  the  miserable  plebs,  the  Yaisya. 

Thus  the  great  castes  appointed  by  Manu  had  been  formed.  Further  differences 
arose  within  these.  Only  the  Brahmans  and  Kshatriyas  were  able  for  any  leugth 
of  time  to  prevent  the  rise  of  subdivisions  within  their  own  groups.  Their  narrow 
and  well-defined  profession,  and  also  among  the  Brahmans,  at  any  rate,  their 
jealously  preserved  racial  purity  protected  them  from  disruption.  But  in  the  two 
remaining  groups,  the  VaLsya  and  the  Sudra,  who  had  now  entered  the  social 
organism  of  the  Aryans,  a  different  set  of  circumstances  prevailed ;  the  development 
of  larger  political  bodies  resulted  in  subdivision  within  these  classes.  As  existence 
grew  more  secure  and  prosperity  increased,  the  necessities  of  life  increased  propor- 
tionately. In  the  simple  times  of  the  primaeval  Aryan  period,  every  tribe  was  able 
to  satisfy  such  demands  for  skilled  labour  as  might  arise  within  it ;  in  the  more 
complex  organisation  of  society  within  the  Ganges  States  sucli  simplicity  was  no 
longer  possible.  Undertakings  demanding  technical  skill  called  forth  by  the  claims 
of  a  higher  civilization  necessarily  brought  about  the  subdivision  of  labour  and  the 
creation  of  technical  professions ;  manual  labour  in  its  several  branches  became 
hereditary  among  individual  families  of  the  lower  castes,  as  other  professions  had 
become  hereditary  among  the  Brahmans  and  Kshatriyas.  It  is  possible  that  similar 
caste  divisions  corresponding  to  the  various  professions  may  have  existed  among 
the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country  before  they  came  into  contact  with  the 
Aryans.  The  natives  were  by  no  means,  in  every  case,  uncivilized  savages ;  some  of 
their  tribes  were  superior  in  technical  skill  to  the  Aryans  themselves,  and  bartered 
the  products  of  their  higher  knowledge  with  the  Aryans  through  merchants 
(wanidja;  in  modern  Indian,  banya).  The  existence  of  caste  divisions  among 
them  at  an  earlier  period  is  supported  by  the  enumeration  in  the  code  of  Manu  of 
the  manufacturing  castes  in  the  lower  divisions  of  the  Sudra  (astrologers,  oil 
makers,  leather  workers,  musical  performers,  etc.).     It  is  inconceivable  that  the 


378  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         \_Chapter IV 

Brahmaus,  when  formulatiug  the  rules  of  ludiaii  society,  should  have  troubled 
to  anancre  these  numerous  subdivisions  of  the  many  castes  of  the  Sfldra,  the  more 
so  as  they  were  accuslonied  to  avoid  any  possible  connection  with  this  unclean 
stratum  of  society ;  far  more  probable  is  it  that  those  dill'erences  of  caste  within 
the  Sildra  which  coincide  with  professions  existed  before  the  Aryan  period. 

The  political  relations  of  the  Aryans  to  the  non-Aryan  natives  also  contributed 
to  the  development  of  the  Aryan  caste  system.  The  deadly  haired  of  the  black, 
snub-nosed  people  which  inspires  the  hymns  of  the  Eig- Veda,  was  laid  to  rest; 
during  the  struggles  between  the  several  Aryan  princes  and  States  political 
necessities  often  led  to  acquaintance,  alliance,  and  friendship,  even  to  racial  fusion 
with  the  native  tribes.  In  the  JI;ih;11)hrirala  we  find  a  Nishftda  prince  appointed 
guardian  of  the  important  river  ford  at  l'ra};iga  (p.  371) ;  we  tiud  Dravidian  races 
Hghting  side  by  side  as  the  equal  allies  of  pure  Aryan  tribes,  while  the  names  of 
certain  personalities  famous  in  the  great  epos,  together  with  peculiarities  of  character 
and  custom,  are  evidence  for  the  close  coiuiection  between  the  distinguished  Ar^-an 
warrior  and  the  native  inhabitant.  Krishna,  "  the  Black,"  is  the  name  given  to  the 
Yadawa  prince  who  appears  as  the  firm  ally  and  friend  of  the  Pandawas.  The 
attempt  has  been  made  to  explain  this  name  by  the  hypothesis  that  his  tribe  had 
entered  India  earlier  than  the  other  Aryans,  and  had  therefore  been  more  deeply 
burned  by  the  sun ;  to  this,  however,  it  may  be  replied  that  the  complexion  of  a 
tribe  may  be  deepened  rather  by  fusion  with  a  black  race  than  by  exposure  to  the 
sun.  In  character  also,  Krishna  appears  unlike  the  Aryans ;  he  is  full  of  treachery 
and  deceit,  gives  deceitful  counsel,  and  justifies  ignoble  deeds  by  equivocation 
methods  wholly  foreign  to  the  knightly  character  of  the  Aryan  warrior.  The 
Paiitshala  princess  is  also  entitled  Krishna,  "  the  Black ; "  the  fact  that  she  lived  in 
true  Dravidian  style  with  the  five  Aryan  princes  in  a  polj-andric  marriage,  shows 
the  close  relations  existing  between  the  Aryan  and  the  native  peoples.  Similar 
relations  are  also  apparent  in  the  history  of  the  colonisation  of  Ceylon ;  the  Aryan 
ancestor  Yijayas  had  married  a  Dravidian  Kaliiiga  princess,  and  his  grandson, 
together  with  many  of  his  companions,  took  native  women  to  wife  without  any 
exhibition  of  racial  prejudice.  Thus,  since  the  time  of  the  Aryan  immigration, 
an  important  change  had  taken  place  in  the  relations  of  the  two  races.  The 
rapidity  with  which  the  racial  fusion  was  carried  out  is  apparent  at  the  present 
time  in  the  physical  contrast  between  the  peoples  of  the  Northwest  and  the 
Ganges  territory ;  in  Five  Eiver  Land,  in  Cashmir,  and  to  some  extent  in  Eajputana 
hardly  a  trace  of  the  black  population  is  to  be  found,  a  result  of  the  deadly 
animosity  with  which  the  war  of  coucpiest  was  prosecuted  ;  further  to  the  East  the 
mixed  races  reappear  and  the  evidence  of  -darker  complexion,  broader  features  and 
noses,  increases  proportionately  from  this  point.  Such  a  fusion,  and  particularly 
the  incorporation  of  whole  races  of  the  native  inhabitants  within  the  Aryan  society 
must  obviously  have  increased  the  subdivisions  within  the  castes. 

The  Brahmaus,  who  took  the  utmost  precaution  to  preserve  their  caste  purity, 
were  least  affected  by  the  entrance  of  foreign  racial  elements;  at  any  rate  in 
Northern  India  their  caste,  even  at  the  present  day,  has  changed  but  little  from 
the  Aryan  type.  However,  in  Orissa  and  to  a  greater  extent  further  southwards, 
even  this  exclusive  sect  considered  it  expedient  on  different  occasions  to  admit 
individuals  or  even  whole  tribes  of  the  black  race  within  their  caste,  if  they  could 
therel>y  attain  any  external  advantage  ;  thus  at  the  present  day  in  the  Deucan  many 


Mia]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  379 

more  dark  than  fair  Brahmans  are  to  be  met  with  (cf.  the  upper  half  of  the  plate 
facing  p.  418). 

In  the  wan-ior  caste  purity  of  blood  was  thought  of  less  vital  importance ; 
among  this  caste  there  even  existed  a  legal  form  of  marriage,  the  "  Rakshasa " 
marriage,  which  provided  that  the  bride  should  be  taken  by  force  from  a  hostile 
(often  dark-complexioned)  tribe.  The  nobles  thus  being  by  no  means  averse  to 
marriage  \\i\.h  the  natives,  the  common  people  naturally  had  the  less  inducement 
to  preserve  the  purity  of  their  Aryan  blood.  At  the  same  time,  however,  such 
connections  often  led  to  disruption  within  the  caste  ;  the  orthodox  members  refused 
to  recognise  the  mixed  families  as  pure  Kshatriya  or  Vai^ya,  avoided  com- 
munication with  them,  and  by  this  process  a  group  which  had  been  originally 
uniform  was  gradually  broken  into  an  increasing  number  of  disconnected  castes. 
The  infusion  of  foreign  blood  thus  acquii'ed  seems  to  have  modified  by  slow  degi'ces 
the  larger  part  of  the  Kshatriya  and  practically  the  whole  of  the  Vai^ya.  Thus  we 
have  an  intelligible  explanation  of  the  fact  that  onl}-  in  comparatively  few  districts 
(for  instance,  Rajputana)  could  particular  castes  retrace  their  origin  with  any 
clearness  to  the  old  Aryan  warrior  nobility,  their  proud  title  of  Kshatriya  resting 
in  many  cases  upon  fictitious  genealogies.  At  the  present  day  there  is  absolutely 
no  caste  of  the  Vaisya  which  can  prove  its  connection  with  the  early  Vai.4ya  of 
the  Aryan  Ganges  States. 

The  modern  caste  system  of  India  is  broken  up  into  many  hundreds  or  thou- 
sands of  separate  groups.  However,  in  early  Brahman  times  the  four  main  divi- 
sions of  society  appointed  by  the  legal  codes  had  an  actual  existence.  Of  these 
the  Sudra  led  lives  that  can  scarcely  be  qualified  as  human.  Considered  as  once- 
born,  a  gi-eat  gulf  was  fixed  between  them  and  those  who  had  advanced  to  a  higher 
state  in  \'irtue  of  a  second  birth.  To  them  was  forbidden  the  use  of  the  sacred 
band  with  which  the  youth  of  the  three  higher  castes  were  girded  as  a  sign  of 
manhood  upon  their  coming  of  age  (two  threads  of  wool  which  passed  over  the 
left  shoulder  and  the  right  hip;  cf.  above,  p.  362).  It  was  a  mortal  crime  for  any 
of  the  upper  classes  to  teach  a  Sudra  anything  of  the  sacred  proverbs  or  prayers. 
"  To  the  Sudra  no  man  may  give  counsel,  nor  is  it  lawful  to  give  him  the  remnants 
of  sacrifice,  food,  or  butter.  Similarly,  it  is  unlawful  to  teach  him  the  doctrine  or 
the  uses  of  religion.  For  whosoever  teaches  him  the  law,  or  gives  him  a  share  in 
religious  ceremonies,  he,  like  this  Sudra,  sinks  into  the  depth  of  the  hell  called 
Asamwi-atta."  The  very  breath  of  the  Sudra  contaminated  the  twice-born,  even  at 
a  great  distance.  Consequently,  the  Sudra  had  to  live  far  away  from  the  dwellings 
of  other  men,  and  to  build  their  miserable  huts  away  from  the  high-road  in  the 
jungle.  Should  they  meet  anybody  of  a  higher  caste,  they  must  avoid  him,  keep- 
ing at  a  distance  of  one  hundred  paces.  The  worst  rags,  the  most  miserable  food, 
the  lowest  and  dirtiest  labour  were  considered  good  enough  for  this  poor,  despised 
caste. 

A  great  gulf  divided  the  Sudra  from  the  Vaisya.  Upon  this  latter  the  two 
high  castes  of  the  priests  and  the  warriors  looked  disdainfully.  The  Vaisya  was, 
however,  a  twice-bom,  wore  the  sacred  band,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  Vedas  was 
not  forbidden  to  him.  It  was  the  common  and  monotonous  nature  of  his  calling 
that  degraded  him  in  comparison  with  the  higher  caste.  He  was  not  allowed  to 
devote  himself  to  the  proud  service  of  arms,  or  to  deep  spiritual  and  religious 
questions  and  interests.     His  lot  was  to  till  the  soil  throughout  liis  life,  and  upon 


380  HISTORY     Ol-    THE    WORLD  [chapter iv 

that  level  he  remained  He  was  the  peasant,  the  shejiherd,  the  lower-class  citizen 
iu  the  lluuiishin'j  towns,  the  niauutaclurer,  the  njeiehant,  the  inouey-chaiiger.  He 
ofteu  attained  to  high  iirosperity,  but  could  never  pass  the  barrier  which  the  stern 
laws  of  caste  had  set  against  his  further  progress. 

Higher  than  the  Vaifiya  stood  the  warrior,  the  Kshatriya,  in  the  social  organ- 
ism of  the  Brahmans.  The  splendour  of  his  profession  and  of  his  influence  was 
but  the  shadow  of  that  whioli  it  had  been  during  the  first  centuries  of  the  settle- 
ment upon  the  Ganges.  Moreover,  iu  the  more  peaceful  times  which  succeeded 
the  period  of  establishment  within  that  district,  the  profession  o{  the  warrior  nobles 
decayed  considerably.  The  more,  however,  his  real  importance  decreased,  the  more 
anxious  were  the  Brahmans  that  he  should  make  a  brilliant  figure  before  the  mass 
of  the  people,  in  order  that  he  might  thus  become  a  valuable  ally  to  themselves  for 
the  aitaiuuieut  of  their  own  purposes.  Thus  the  nobility  continued  to  enjoy  a  pre- 
dominant and  honourable  position.  Their  freedom  was  great  comjiared  with  that 
of  other  castes,  and  large  possessions  in  landed  property  secured  to  them  the  enjoy- 
ments of  life,  as  well  as  respect  and  consideration.  If  the  Kshatriya  exhausted  all 
the  pleasures  of  his  high  jmsition  and  was  overcome  by  weariness  of  the  world, 
he  was  allowed  to  join  the  company  of  hermits  and  to  devote  the  remainder  of  his 
life  to  inward  contemplation. 

The  Brahmans  belonged  to  the  same  group  of  twice-born,  and  wore  the  same 
sacred  baud  as  the  other  high  castes,  but  had  succeeded  none  the  less  in  securing 
for  themselves  a  position  that  was  infinitely  the  highest  in  the  country.  The  tre- 
mendous principle  that  they  were  beings  endowed  with  a  special  and  divine  wisdom 
and  dilfering  in  kind  from  all  other  men,  tliat  they  possessed  divine  power  and  cor- 
respondmg  privileges,  is  pushed  in  their  legal  books  to  its  uttermost  extreme. 
Their  position  may  be  explained  by  some  few  quotations  from  Mauu :  "  What 
being  can  be  higlier  than  tluit  through  the  mouth  of  which  the  gods  eat  their 
sacrifice,  and  the  spirits  of  the  dead  receive  their  gifts  ? "  "  Therefore  every- 
thing that  is  in  the  world  is  the  property  of  the  Brahmans;  for  the  Brahman 
can  claim  it  by  his  superiority  and  his  lofty  birth.  Indeed,  all  tliat  men 
have  they  enjoy  only  througli  tlie  kindness  and  good-will  of  the  Brahmans." 
"Who  without  danger  could  venture  to  destroy  these  sacred  men,  by  whom 
the  all-devouring  lire  was  created,  the  infinite  sea,  the  moon  with  its  wanings 
and  waxings?"  "Wiat  princes  could  prosper  who  should  resist  them,  who 
iu  their  anger  could  build  other  worlds,  and  give  them  rulers,  who  could  call 
new  gods  and  new  mortals  into  existence  ? "  "  AMio  that  cares  for  his  life  would 
outrage  those  who  alone  permit  the  worlds  and  the  gods  to  exist?"  Compare  with 
these  the  following  phrases  upon  the  i^udla  :  "  One  duty  has  the  law  laid  upon  the 
Sudra,  to  serve  the  higlier  castes  without  murmuring."  "A  Braliman  may  force 
a  Sudra,  whether  he  be  a  bond  slave  or  not,  to  serve  as  a  slave,  for  the  Sudra  was 
created  by  the  supreme  being  for  no  other  purpose  than  for  the  service  of  the 
Brahman.s."  "  A  Brahman  may  apjiropriate  without  the  smallest  scruple  the  whole 
properly  of  a  Sudra,  for  he  cannot  have  possessions  of  his  own;  he  is  a  man  whose 
possessions  can  be  taken  from  him  by  his  lord."  Remarkable,  also,  is  the  differ- 
ence between  the  penal  code  of  the  Brahmans  and  that  of  the  Sfldra;  the  greatest 
penalty  inflicted  upon  a  Brahman  in  any  case  is  the  shaving  of  the  head,  whereas 
for  other  castes  capital  punishment  is  appointed  in  similar  cases.  "  In  no  case  may 
a  king  .strike  a  Brahman,  even  though  he  catch  him  red-handed  in  some  crime ;  the 


inu,a]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  381 

king  may  only  banish  him  from  the  land,  but  in  possession  of  his  whole  property 
and  unharmed."  "  Should  a  Brahman  kill  a  cat,  an  ichneumon,  a  frog,  a  dog,  a 
lizard,  an  owl,  or  a  crow,  he  is  to  go  through  the  same  process  of  purification  as  if  he 
had  killed  a  Sudra."  Upon  the  Sudra,  however,  a  wholly  different  code  is  binding. 
"  Should  a  once-born  man  speak  insolently  of  the  name  or  the  caste  of  the  twice- 
born,  a  red-hot  iron  ten  fingers  in  length  sliall  be  thrust  into  his  mouth."  "  If  such 
a  man  should  be  so  insolent  as  to  criticise  the  behaviour  of  the  priests,  the  king 
shall  have  boiling  oil  poured  into  his  mouth  and  ears." 

The  outward  appearance  of  the  Brahman  in  no  way  represented  the  power  of 
his  caste,  in  which  respect  he  is  to  be  contrasted  with  the  Kshatriya.  Modesty, 
indeed,  poverty  characterised  his  appearance  and  his  mode  of  life.  Lucrative  pro- 
fessions, which  were  in  his  eyes  derogatory,  were  closed  to  him.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  was  the  duty  of  every  Brahman  to  found  a  family,  and  his  great  ambition 
was  to  beget  sons  who  should  revere  his  memory  after  his  death,  and  provide  prayer 
and  sacrifice  for  his  spirit.  Consequently,  the  material  possessions  of  the  Brahmans 
became  more  and  more  divided.  Moreover,  the  whole  Brahman  theory  of  existence 
was  opposed  to  the  temporal  point  of  view.  Not  only  physical  existence,  but  also 
material  possessions  were  considered  by  him  as  so  many  obstacles  in  the  way  to 
felicity  which  his  soul  would  tread  when  after  purification  it  became  reunited  with 
the  universal  element.  Hence  in  the  eyes  of  the  Brahman  the  mendicant  profes- 
sion was  in  no  waj'  derogatorj',  since  the  whole  world  alreadj-  belonged  to  him. 
Begging,  on  the  contrary,  seemed  to  him  the  loftiest  of  all  professions,  as  it  implied 
the  least  amount  of  hindrance  in  the  prosecution  of  his  high  tasks.  It  is  true  that 
voluntary  offerings,  even  when  the  Brahman  power  was  at  its  height,  by  no  means 
invariably  sufficed  to  maintain  the  caste,  many  members  of  which  were  obliged  for 
this  reason  to  adopt  one  of  the  lucrative  professions.  Many  gifts  were  made  to 
them  as  payment  for  relief  from  spiritual  duties,  for  religious  instruction,  prayer, 
sacrifice  and  judicial  pronoimcements.  If  the  income  from  these  sources  proved 
insufficient,  the  Brahman  was  allowed  to  plough  the  fields  or  to  tend  the  herds. 
He  might  also  learn  the  arts  of  war  and  practise  them  (Drona  and  Aswatthaman, 
p.  374),  or  carry  on  commercial  business,  though  money-lending  upon  interest,  the 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquors,  or  of  milk  and  butter,  the  products  of  the  sacred  cow 
were  forbidden  to  him.  It  was  as  impossible  for  a  Brahman  to  get  his  living  by 
the  practice  of  the  lower  arts  (music,  song),  or  by  unclean  occupations,  as  by  the 
practice  of  leather-working  or  any  other  degrading  trade. 

The  life  of  a  Brahman  as  a  whole  included  several  grades,  that  of  the  neophyte, 
the  patriarch,  the  hermit,  and  the  ascetic.  Upon  his  coming  of  age  the  youth  of 
this  caste  was  girded  with  the  sacred  band  and  received  into  the  community  of 
the  twice-born.  His  education  was  passed  under  the  super\-ision  of  a  spiritual 
teacher,  the  Guru,  whom  he  was  to  reverence  more  highly  than  his  own  father. 
"  If  a  Brahman  pupil  should  blame  his  teacher,  even  though  with  justice,  he  will 
be  born  again  as  an  ass ;  should  he  betray  him  falsely,  as  a  dog ;  should  he  take 
his  property  without  leave,  he  will  be  born  as  a  small  worm,  and  should  he  refuse 
him  service,  as  an  insect."  Under  the  Guru  the  yoimg  Brahman  learned  during 
the  long  course  of  his  education  the  sacred  books,  all  the  prayers,  offerings,  and 
ceremonial  connected  therewith,  and  all  the  laws  governing  Brahman  society. 
Then  came  the  stage  of  family  life,  a  burden  laid  upon  him  as  a  member  of  the 
earth  to  maintain  the  prosperity  of  his  tribe  and  caste  by  begetting  sons.     This 


382  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [c/.aj.fer  JV 

task  accoiniilislied,  the  rest  of  liis  life  was  tu  be  devoted  to  tlie  highest  and  most 
beautiful  taste,  tiie  work  of  redemiilion  and  iniritication  of  the  soul  from  cartlily 
elements.  The  Brahman,  often  accompanied  by  his  wife,  leaves  his  home  and 
becomes  a  hermit  in  tlie  forest.  There  he  lives  only  upon  such  fruits  or  roots  as 
his  surroundings  afl'ord,  or  u]x)n  the  scanty  gifts  of  pious  devotees,  being  entirely 
occupied  witli  the  fulKlment  of  religious  precepts  and  with  deep  introspective  spec- 
ulation upon  the  evils  of  existence  and  the  means  of  puritication.  Tiie  highest 
task  of  the  Hrahman's  existence  is  pure  and  untroubled  thought,  far  removed  from 
all  worldly  interests,  upon  the  deepest  (piestions  wliich  can  occupy  the  luiinan 
mind.  Brahmaus  of  similar  interests  ofien  united  for  pious  practices;  spiritual 
orders  were  formed  with  rulers  to  regulate  their  behaviour,  and  with  the  common 
object  of  entirely  forgetting  the  world  around  them  and  devoting  themselves  to 
introspection.  Otliers  were  not  content  with  such  intellectual  submergence  in  the 
divine,  and  also  sought  to  suppress  and  to  destroy-  the  earthly  element,  the  flesh, 
while  they  still  lived.  The  most  ingenious  tortures  and  penances  were  devised, 
and  the  universal  ordinances  of  Maiui  did  not  leave  this  subject  untouched :  "  The 
penitent  is  to  roll  upon  the  ground,  to  stand  upon  tip-toe  all  day,  or  to  stand  up 
and  sit  down  alternately  witliout  cessation.  During  the  hot  season  he  is  to  sit 
under  the  burnmg  rays  of  the  sun  between  four  fires;  in  time  of  rain  he  shall 
expose  himself  naked  to  the  downpour,  and  wear  wet  clothes  during  tlie  cold  sea- 
son. By  increasing  severity  of  his  jienance,  he  is  gradually  to  wear  away  the  tem- 
poral element.  And  when  he  is  sick  unto  death,  he  is  to  rise  and  walk  directly 
northeast  with  air  and  water  for  liis  sole  nourishment,  until  his  mortal  ]>ower8 
give  way  and  his  soul  is  united  with  l.rahman." 

(S)  The  Brahman  Philosophy.  —  The  subjection  of  the  flesh  was  a  task  under- 
taken with  dilferent  energy  and  success  by  different  individuals,  but  before  every 
Bralinian  a  high  ideal  was  placed.  As  the  ceremonial  aspect  and  magical  effects 
of  the  sacrifice  were  especially  emphasised  upon  the  large  mass  of  the  people,  so 
the  best  minds  of  the  deepest  thinkers  could  not  fail  to  be  proportionately  con- 
vinced of  the  valuelessness  of  such  ceremonies;  the  knowledge  of  the  fictitious 
basis  upon  which  the  power  of  the  liralinians  entirely  rested  must  in  manj-  cases 
have  destroyed  the  pleasures  of  their  existence.  Consequently  even  in  the  case  of 
those  who  had  made  the  profoundest  speculation  their  peculiar  profession,  thought 
was  coloured  by  a  deep  .sense  of  the  uselessness  of  existence  ;  man  and  the  wluile 
world  were  but  one  great  process  of  suffering,  and  the  highest  object  of  life  could 
only  be  freedom  from  this  suffering,  while  the  highest  object  of  intellect  was  to 
find  the  path  to  freedom.  This  path  was  only  to  be  found  by  the  understanding 
of  sutiering  as  an  essential  element  in  life,  by  the  knowledge,  that  is,  of  the  logical 
connection  whicli  unifies  the  cosmos.  The  path  to  redemption  is  the  patii  to 
knowledge  (iiana).  Thus  the  objects  of  Brahman  philosophy  are  wholly  different 
from  those  of  Euroiiean  civilization  ;  tlie  latter  would  know  the  truth  for  itself 
alone,  whereas  the  Braliman  speculates  with  the  practical  aim  of  attaining  freedom 
from  the  suffering  whicli  lies  like  a  curse  upon  the  whole  world. 

This  Brahman  philosophy  has  been  reduced  to  writing  in  the  Upani-shads,  the 
"mystical  teaching  of  that  whicli  lies  concealed  beneath  the  surface."  These  also 
are  considered  as  sacred  writings,  but  are  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  liighest 
castes,  whereas  the  Vedas  were  open  to  the  Yai.'^ya.     Their  teaching  is  s])iritual 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  383 


pantheism ;  the  cosmos  is  one  being,  a  world  soul,  Atmau  or  Brahman.  The  teach- 
ing of  the  Upanishads  is  explained  in  detail  in  the  philosophic  system  of  the 
"  Vedanta." 

The  world  soul  m  its  original  form,  and  in  its  ultimate  condition,  the  "  self,"  is 
impersonal  (the  Brahman,  neuter)  without  consciousness,  in  absolute  tranquillity, 
infinite,  without  beginning  or  end  and  existing  by  and  for  itself.  As  soon,  how- 
ever, as  the  desire  for  acti\-ity  arises  within  it,  it  becomes  the  personal  creator 
(Brahma) ;  this  it  is,  which  creates  the  world  perceptible  to  the  senses.  Every- 
thing in  the  world,  the  heaven  and  the  foundations  of  the  earth,  fire  and  water,  air 
and  earth,  suns,  plants  and  all  living  beings,  animals,  men  and  gods  are  the  ema- 
nation of  that  all-pervading  spirit,  the  Brahman,  conceived  as  personally  operative. 
When  this  latter  desires  to  become  creative,  its  objective  appearance  in  the  world 
implies  the  production  of  spirit  (apperception,  thought,  and  will)  and  of  bodily 
form,  which  varies  in  the  case  of  difl'erent  living  beings,  consisting  of  a  material 
body  which  disappears  upon  death,  aud  a  more  immaterial  form  in  which  the  soul 
remains  upon  the  departure  of  the  body ;  this  latter  survives  until  the  soul  which 
it  clothes  is  again  absorbed  into  the  impersonal  and  unconscious  Brahman.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  earthly  existence  the  universal  being  by  objectifying  itself  aban- 
dons that  state  of  absolute  passivity,  which  is  its  highest  form ;  it  sinks,  that  is, 
from  the  highest  stage  of  perfection.  Hence  is  derived  the  suffering  inseparable 
from  eartlily  existence,  and  return  to  the  ideal  condition  of  passivity  enjoyed  by 
the  world  soul  is  the  gieat  longing  of  ever}-  creature.  The  path  of  redemption  is 
by  no  means  easy ;  by  the  iron  laws  of  causation,  the  operation  of  the  world  soul 
becomes  a  curse  permanently  imposed  upon  every  physical  being.  Every  act,  bad 
or  good,  leads  to  some  new  act,  to  further  separation  from  the  highest  existence, 
and  hence  to  further  uuhappiness.  Every  death  is  followed  by  a  new  birth,  the 
soul  entering  a  higher  or  a  lower  plane  of  existence  according  to  the  merits  of  its 
previous  life,  becoming  a  god,  a  Brahman  or  a  Sudra,  a  four-footed  animal,  an  in- 
sect or  a  worm.^  The  chain  of  transmigrations  which  the  soul  may  thus  undergo 
is  of  endless  duration,  including  millions  of  new  births.  None  the  less,  a  definite 
goal  is  set  before  it  and  the  reunion  or  absorption  of  the  personal  soul  into  the 
absolute  passivity  and  unconsciousness  of  the  primal  Brahman  is  a  definite  possi- 
bility ;  the  way  leading  to  this  end  is  the  way  of  knowledge,  the  way  of  under- 
standing, which  can  only  be  attained  by  absolute  self-absorption. 

This  pantheistic  teaching  of  the  Brahmans  emphasises  the  width  of  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  purely  spiritual  nature  of  the  original  Brahman  and  that  of 
the  existing  world.  Several  philosophical  systems  and  schools  (six  of  wlrich  have 
found  general  recognition),  have  attempted  to  solve  the  great  problem  by  different 
methods.  Of  these,  two  are  of  especial  importance  for  the  further  development 
of  Indian  thought,  the  Samkhya  philosophy  and  the  already  mentioned  Vedanta 
philosophy  (the  end  or  perfection  of  the  Yedas).  The  former  considers  the  exter- 
nal world  as  having  an  objective  reality  under  certain  aspects,  a  reality  derived 
from  the  creative  power  of  the  world  soul ;  whereas  to  the  Vedanta  philosophy 
material  existence  is  purely  illusory  aud  has  no  value  as  such.  According  to  this 
latter,  as  soon  as  the  Brahman  acquii-es  consciousness  and  personality,  it  also  assumes 


1  The  more  practical  doctrine  for  popular  consumption  also  inserted  promises  of  purifactory  fires  and  the 
punishments  of  hell,  which  were  painted  by  Indian  imagination  in  the  liveliest  possible  colours. 


384  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chajHerJi' 

an  iniagiimry  physical  form.  In  its  most  refined  form  it  appears  as  the  chief  di\'ine 
pereouality,  Iswara.  But  all  such  forms  are  necessarily  subject  to  the  conditions 
of  acti\-ity  (rajas),  of  goodness  (sattwa),  and  of  imperturbability  or  darkness 
(tamas),  so  that  this  higliest  god  appears  as  a  trinity.  He  is  the  personally  active 
creator,  BrahmS ;  the  all-helping,  ever  operative  Vishnu,  or  the  Rudra  Siva,  the 
acent  of  dissolution  and  destruction.  At  the  same  time,  however,  these  and  all 
the  other  gods,  together  with  mankind  and  the  whole  of  the  jnaierial  world,  are 
merely  a  dream,  an  idea  of  the  world  soul  which  is  itself  the  sole  existing  reality. 

It  was  not  easy  to  appreciate  all  the  difficulties  which  beset  every  Indian  philo- 
sophical system,  much  less  to  pass  judgment  ujion  the  results.  Tlie  te.\t  of  the 
sacred  Yedas,  the  basis  of  all  knowledge,  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  harmonised 
with  the  philosophy.  The  interjireter  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  comments  and 
explanations,  which  are  refinements  of  hair-splitting  and  miracles  of  ingenuitj'. 
Commentators  were  invariably  anxious  to  surpass  one  another  in  learning  and 
erudition,  in  readiness  and  brilliancy  of  exposition.  The  methodic  and  the  formal 
finally  strangled  the  material  content  of  the  system,  and  Indian  philosophy  was 
thus  degraded  into  a  scholasticism  with  every  characteristic  of  that  current  in 
the  thought  of  medi;eval  Europe. 

(e)  Brahman  Thcoloijy.  —  The  teaching  of  Brahman  philosophy  was  fully 
calculated  to  satisfy  the  introspective  spirit  of  the  Brahman  weary  of  life  and  tor- 
mented by  doubt.  To  him,  bound  fast  in  the  chains  of  asceticism,  this  teaching 
ajijxjared  as  truth  of  the  highest  and  most  indisputable  order.  To  the  great  mass 
of  the  people,  however,  such  teaching  was  unintelligible,  and  would  in  any  case 
have  proved  unsatisfactory.  The  worker  for  his  daily  bread  demands  other  sj)iritual 
food  than  the  philosophic  thinker.  A  popular  diN-iuity  must  be  almighty  and  at  the 
same  time  intelligible  to  mankind.  If  tlie  Bralimans  did  not  wish  to  lose  their 
inthience  upon  the  people,  a  danger  threatened  by  the  appearance  of  Buddhism 
with  its  powerful  spiritual  iufiuence,  they  were  forced  to  offer  to  the  people  gods 
more  definitely  comprehensible  to  the  ordinary  mind. 

The  gods  of  the  old  Vedas  of  the  military  period  had  lost  their  splendour  and 
power  upon  the  downfall  of  the  nobility.  They  had  developed  under  other  circum- 
stances, and  were  unable  to  conform  to  the  new  conditions  of  life.  But  in  legend 
and  poetry  other  ideal  figures  had  arisen,  the  heroes  of  the  flourishing  period  of  the 
Arvau  domination  in  the  west  of  the  Ganges  valley.  Mytholog}-  provided  them 
with  a  genealogy,  bringing  them  into  connection  with  those  forms  of  nature  which 
had  ever  been  objects  of  especial  reverence  (the  Sun  and  Moon  dynasties).  How- 
ever, the  Indian  heroic  period  was  historically  too  near  in  date  to  the  development 
of  Brahmanism  for  its  figures  to  attain  the  ijusitinu  of  supreme  gods.  Other  divini- 
ties came  forward  from  otiier  directions.  Tlie  diminution  and  the  importance  of 
the  old  Vedic  gods  was  largely  due  to  the  conjunction  and  partial  fusion  of  the 
two  races  which  had  originally  opposed  one  another  as  deadly  foes.  At  that  period 
the  Aryan  gods  had  been  primarily  gods  of  battle  and  slaughter.  Circumstances 
now  had  become  more  peaceful  and  tranquil.  As,  however,  under  Brahman  influ- 
ence the  people  lost  the  proud  consciousness  of  their  strength,  as  the)'  also  be- 
came penetrated  with  the  sense  of  the  miseries  of  existence,  so  did  they  become 
more  inclined  to  receive  the  mysterious  and  repellent  forms  of  the  primeval 
In<lian  demonologj-,  which  had  formed  the  shadowy  spirit  world  of  the  original 
inhabitants. 


i^i.-\  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  385 

This  change  in  the  belief  of  the  great  mass  of  the  people  was  by  no  means 
unwelcome  to  the  Brahmans.  In  the  worship  of  these  gods,  in  their  magic  formuliB 
and  incantations,  m  their  objective  representations,  they  found  a  great  deal  which 
corresponded  to  their  own  worship;  and  they  had,  therefore,  the  less  scrapie  in 
forming  an  alliance  with  the  demon  world  of  the  Dravidians.  Hence  it  is  that  in 
the  later  sacred  books  of  the  Brahmans,  even  in  the  Atharva  Veda,  the  latest 
in  date  of  the  Vedas,  numbers  of  alien  and  evil  spirits  leer  upon  us,  of  which  the 
earlier  books,  the  Rig  Veda  especially,  knew  nothing.  For  the  Brahmans  it  was 
perfectly  easy  to  include  these  spirits  witlim  their  own  Pantheon,  for  their  theory 
of  immanence  and  emanation  enabled  them  to  incorporate  within  their  own  system 
elements  the  most  contrary  to  the  divine  nature.  As  their  highest  being,  the  Uni- 
versal Soul,  manifested  himself  in  an  iutinite  variety  of  forms,  why  should  not  these 
manifestations  include  evil  demons  and  ghosts  ?  Then-  own  speculations  upon  the 
three  manifestations  assumed  by  tlie  supreme  being  when  personified,  corresponded 
in  two  cases,  at  any  rate,  to  the  two  characteristics  of  the  gods  of  one  and  of  the 
other  race.  In  the  kindly  benevolent  Vishnu  were  personified  the  early  Vedic  gods, 
well  disposed  toward  mankind ;  whereas  the  disruptive  and  destroying  Rudra  ^^iva 
(see  the  upper  plate,  "  Early  Indian  Sculpture,"  page  390)  was  the  personification 
of  all  those  hostile  powers  which  were  feared  in  the  demoniacal  deities  of  the 
Dravidians.  The  remaining  manifestation  of  the  Brahman  supreme  being,  the 
personified  and  creative  BrahmS,  in  no  way  corresponded  -with  any  part  of  the  relig- 
ious feelings  and  desires  of  the  people,  but  has  always  remained  a  conception 
peculiar  t<j  the  Brahmans.  In  many  thousands  of  temples  worship  was  paid  to 
the  other  two  personifications  of  the  supreme  being,  whereas  throughout  India 
hardly  two  temples  can  be  found  in  which  a  Brahman  desirous  of  objectifying 
his  conceptions,  worships  the  creative  power  of  the  world  soul  under  the  image  of 
a  god. 

(?■)  The  Extension  of  Brahmnnism  to  South  India.  —  As  the  Aryan  States  on 
the  Ganges  flourished  and  extended,  as  life  became  more  highly  organised,  so  did 
the  Brahmans  become  ever  more  inclined  to  the  solitary  life.  In  countries  as  yet 
untouched  by  Brahman  teaching,  in  the  jungle  deserts  and  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
foreign  native  States,  whole  colonies  of  hermits  arose,  living  either  in  isolation  or 
under  some  organised  constitution.  Often,  mdeed,  they  had  to  struggle  with  the  at- 
tacks of  hostile  races.  We  hear  a  great  deal  of  the  evil  Rakshasa,  who  harassed  or 
disturbed  the  pious  hermits.  But  they  also  met  with  more  civilized  and  kindlier  treat- 
ment, and  men  were  found  who  would  gladly  make  small  offerings  to  the  more  highly 
educated  foreigners,  receiving  instruction  and  stimulus  in  exchange.  These  men 
thus  became  the  pioneers  of  Brahmanism,  and  their  monasticism  and  influence 
steadily  extended  southward.  Tlie  Mahabharata  describes  how  Arjuna,  during  his 
pilgrimage  from  hermitage  t(j  hermitage,  at  length  reached  the  maidens'  baths  of 
Komarya  at  Cape  Comorin.  Similarly  Rama  meets  hermits  everywhere.  The 
name,  however,  that  constantly  recurs  in  all  these  reports,  the  man  who  is  ever 
ready  to  help  aU  Aryan-Brahman  kinsmen  with  counsel  and  assistance,  the  man 
who  possesses  the  greatest  influence  in  the  whole  of  the  south  is  Agastya.  In  the 
myths  he  appears  as  one  of  the  greatest  sages  (Rishi)  of  the  primeval  period,  the 
son  of  Mitra  and  Varuna,  the  strong  helper  in  the  necessity  of  the  old  Arj-an  gods 
when  they  were  threatened  with  conquest  by  the  e\il  demons,  the  Asuras.     In  the 


VOL.  11  —  25 


3SU  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ichapter ir 

south,  he  is  the  incarnation  of  the  victorious  advance  of  15raliman  culture.  The 
Yiudliya  Mountains  hitherto  uncrossed  bend  before  him.  He  is  the  sworn  enemy 
of  the  evil  demons,  the  Rakshasa  (the  gods  of  the  original  inhabitants)  and  the 
brinjicr  of  civilization  to  the  Dravidian  kingdoms,  and  consequently  tlie  Tamir 
Muni,  the  sage  of  the  Tamils. 

The  history  of  the  south  before  the  Brahman  period  is  hidden  for  us  in  dark- 
ness, only  penetrated  here  and  there  by  the  feeblest  rays  of  liglit.  Native  legends 
consider  the  starting  point  of  the  general  development  of  civilization  and  politics 
to  be  Korkay  (the  Greek  Colchi)  at  the  mouth  of  the  sacred  river  Tanibraparni  in 
the  Gulf  of  Manaar.  This  district,  sheltered  upon  the  east  by  the  bridge  of  Adam 
from  the  inhospitable  Sea  of  Bengal  with  its  dangerous  cyclones,  forms  a  connec- 
tion between  the  two  rich  lauds  of  India  and  Ceylon  on  the  north  and  south. 
Korkay  was  an  old  town  even  when  the  Greeks  first  visited  it  and  brought  news 
of  its  existence  to  the  west.  It  owes  its  origin  and  its  prosperity  to  the  product  of 
that  gulf,  the  pearls,  which  were  highly  prized  in  antiquity,  in  which  this  Bay  of 
Colchi  has  proved  richer  than  any  other  part  of  the  earth  at  any  period  oi  history. 
The  age  of  that  old  trading  station  is  probably  identical  with  the  date  of  the  use 
of  pearls  for  ornamentation  among  the  peoples  of  antiquity.  The  ancient  ruins  of 
Korkay  have  been  discovered  at  a  distance  of  several  miles  from  the  present  coast 
line,  buried  in  the  alluvial  soil  which  the  Tambraparni  brings  down,  advancing  its 
delta  ever  further  into  the  sea  (not  far  from  the  modern  harbour  of  Tutikorin). 
The  legend  relates  that  Korkay  was  founded  by  three  brothers,  who  lived  in  unity 
for  a  consideralile  period,  afterward  separating  and  foimding  three  kingdoms  (the 
Mandalas),  the  Pandya  kingdom  (in  Greek  Paudiou)  in  the  extreme  south,  the 
Cliola  kingdom  in  the  northeast,  and  the  Chera  kingdom  in  the  north  and  north- 
west (see  below).  Of  these,  the  most  important  was  the  PSndya  kingdom,  which 
for  a  long  period  held  the  harbour  of  Korkay  as  its  capital.  The  totem  sign  or 
insignia  of  its  kings  was  the  Fish  (carp),  a  fact  confirming  the  legend,  which  states 
that  the  centre  from  which  further  ci%Tlization  was  developed  lay  upon  the  sea.  At 
a  later  period  the  capital  was  placed  more  in  the  centre  of  the  country  at  MathurS. 
When  the  first  Aryan-Brahman  hermits  advanced  into  that  distant  territory,  they 
found  flourishing  and  well-organised  States  in  existence.  The  later  introductions 
of  northern  civilization  were  collectively  attributed  to  the  name  of  Agastya.  He 
arrived  at  the  court  of  King  Kula.sekhara,  was  well  received,  and  wrote  books  in 
the  language  of  the  country,  treating  of  every  branch  of  science  and  culture. 

Utterly  different  is  the  history  of  the  introduction  of  Aryan  civilization  to  the 
south.  In  the  north,  it  had  led  to  a  racial  struggle.  The  rude  strength  of  races 
more  powerful  intellectually  and  physically  had  been  pitted  against  backward 
tribes,  the  consequence  being  that  the  latter  had  disappeared  or  had  been  reduced 
to  the  lowest  stage  in  the  social  organism ;  whereas  in  the  south  the  struggle  was 
fought  with  intellectual  weapons,  the  higher  knowledge  and  power  of  pre-eminent 
individuals.  Bralimanism  creej-is  in  quietly  and  insinuatingly,  makes  concessions, 
leaves  the  people  in  possession  of  their  language,  increasing  their  vocabulary  with 
elements  of  the  sacred  Brahman  language  (Sanscrit)  only  where  it  is  incapable  of 
expressing  the  terms  of  abstract  thought  and  religious  teaching.  But  even  then 
this  language  is  so  highly  respected  that  kings  and  towns  consider  it  an  honour  to 
bear  a  Sanscrit  together  with  their  old  Dravidian  name,  which  former  are  known 
to  us  only  from  the  later  accounts  of  the  Greeks.     Moreover,  the  native  name 


/-""]  HISTORY    OF    THE   WORLD  387 

Pandya  (the  sap  of  a  palm-tree,  one  of  the  staple  products  of  the  country)  so  closely 
resembled  the  Pandava  of  Aryan  legend  (p.  370)  that  the  two  were  considered 
identical,  and  the  Pandya  dynasty  of  the  southern  kingdom  was  identified  with 
the  Aryan  gods  who  had  sprung  from  the  Pandu  dynasty  in  the  north.  The 
Brahmans  even  left  the  people  their  system  of  writing.  The  origmal  native 
Vattezhat  alphabet  (Vatteluttu),  a  wholly  original  creation,  maintained  its  ground 
in  the  three  kmgdoms  of  Southern  India  imtil  the  end  of  the  first  milleuniuni  a.  n., 
when  it  was  replaced  by  a  more  modern  system  which  may  be  traced  back  to  the 
Southern  Asoka  inscriptions. 

The  date  of  the  .subjection  of  Southern  India  to  Brahman  influence  is  as  uncer- 
tain as  is  the  whole  chronology  of  India  before  the  Greek  age.  The  Kshatriya 
play  no  part  in  this  intellectual  subjection  of  the  south.  The  immigi-ants  appear 
also  to  be  in  full  possession  of  tlie  pure  Brahman  civilization,  facts  which  show 
that  the  struggles  for  supremacy  between  these  two  orders  must  have  already  come 
to  an  end.  The  Greeks  under  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  Eomans  in  the 
Augustan  period  found  the  social  life  of  the  people  so  penetrated  with  Brahman- 
ism  that  several  centuries  must  then  have  elapsed  from  the  date  of  its  introduction. 
Hence  we,  perhaps,  conclude  that  the  conversion  of  the  south  to  Brahmanism  took 
place  in  the  first  half  of  the  first  millennium  B.  C. 

(7;)  The  Early  Kinrjdoms  in  the  South  of  India.  —  The  earhest  historical  men- 
tion of  the  pandya  kingdom  of  Southern  India  occurs  in  the  Buddhist  chronicles 
of  Ceylon.  The  forerunners  of  the  Aryans  under  Vijaya  had  already  encountered 
a  strong  kingdom  in  that  district,  to  which  the  north  of  Ceylon  was  probably  tribu- 
tary, and  it  appears  that  the  new  Aryan  arrivals  who  took  wives  from  that  country 
were  obliged  to  send  the  regular  tribute  of  pearls  and  conchs  to  the  Pandya  princes. 
The  reports  of  Megasthenes  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  or  beginning  of  the  third 
century  B.  c.  mention  the  Pandya  kingdom  as  lying  at  the  extreme  south  of 
the  Indian  peninsula,  adding  a  word  upon  its  productiveness  in  pearls.  The  king- 
dom is  also  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions  of  Asoka  in  connection  with  the  two 
neighl^ouring  Tamil  States  (Pada  =  Pandya,  Chuda  =  Chola,  and  Kera  =  Chera). 
Eoman  coins  are  occasionally  found  in  this  most  southern  portion  of  India,  and 
confirm  Strabo's  references  to  the  commercial  relations  existing  between  the  Eoman 
and  the  Pandya  kingdoms  and  of  the  embassy  sent  by  the  latter  to  the  emperor 
Augustus.  The  boundaries  of  this  kingdom  (see  the  map,  p.  430)  coincide  upon 
the  south  and  southeast  with  the  north  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  and 
the  Palk  Straits.  From  the  north  end  of  these  the  frontier  line  advances  in  a" 
westerly  direction  to  the  Palni  hills.  Upon  the  west  the  power  of  the  Pandya 
king  often  extended  to  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  even  at  the  present  day  the  language 
of  the  east,  Tamil,  is  spoken  in  the  southernmost  districts  of  the  JMalabar  coast. 
During  the  whole  of  its  existence  the  Pandya  kingdom  was  distinguished  by  a 
brave  and  warlike  spirit.  It  was  continually  at  variance  with  its  southern  neigh- 
bours (the  Singhalese)  and  also  with  the  Chola  in  the  north.  Generally  speaking, 
its  civilization  was  far  in  advance  of  that  possessed  by  any  other  State  of  Southern 
India. 

The  northeastern  neighbour  of  this  most  southerly  State  was  the  State  of  the 
Chola  (the  name  of  the  Koromandel  coast  is  a  corruption  of  Chola  mandalam  or 
Chola  kingdom),  a  tribe  of  almost  equal  antiquity  to  the  Pandya.    Ptolemy  speaks 


388  HISTORY    OF     I'HE    WORLD  [Chapter  TV 

of  the  nomadic  Sorai  of  this  district,  of  tlie  \vaudeiinj:j  L'hola.  The  chief  trihe  was 
that  of  the  Kurumha,  a  nomadic  race  of  shepherds,  and  their  restless  life  ])erhaps' 
explains  those  warlike  tendencies  which  brought  them  into  continual  discord  with 
neighbouring  tribes.  They  were  also  constantly  involved  iu  liostile  undertakings 
agaiust  tlie  more  distant  Ceylon.  Their  capital  has  often  cliaiiged  its  position ; 
Comba  =  Conum,  Trichinopoly,  Tanjore,  now  occupy  the  sites  of  their  earlier  capi- 
tals. The  northern  frontier  originally  lay  more  to  the  southward,  but  was  extended 
in  course  of  time  to  include  part  of  the  district  of  tlie  Telugu  languages.  From 
this  point  as  far  northward  as  the  Kistna  (Krishna)  succeeded  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent tribes,  the  most  important  of  which  were  the  I'allava.  Beyond  the  Kistna 
as  far  as  Orissa  extended  the  primeval  Dravidian  Kalinga  kingdom. 

In  the  south  of  the  peninsula  the  kingdom  of  the  Chera,  the  third  of  the 
Dravidian  kingdoms,  occupied  the  coast  of  Malabar  from  abnut  Calicut  to  Cape 
Comorin,  though  its  frontiers  at  difl'erent  periods  extended  eastward  beyond  the 
ghats  (Mysore,  Coimbatore,  Salem),  wliile  during  other  periods  portions  even  of 
the  district  on  the  Malabar  coast  were  occupied  by  the  Pandya  kings.  On  the 
whole,  this  branch  of  the  Dravidian  States  was  more  peacefully  inclined  than  its 
eastern  neighbours.  The  feitile  character  of  the  Malabar  coast  favoured  a  more 
restful  course  of  development,  and  rather  inclined  the  inhabitants  to  tranquillity. 
The  vernacular  diverged  from  the  Tamil  as  lately  as  one  thousand  years  ago,  and 
must  now  be  considered  a  special  language,  though  the  old  Tamil  alphabet,  the 
Vattezhat  (p.  387),  still  remains  in  use. 

(8)  The  Advance  of  Brahvianism  to  the  Malabar  Coast.  —  Upon  the  north  of 
the  Chera  Kingdom  Brahman  civilization  at  an  early  period  exercised  a  deeper 
influence  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  Malabar  coast  than  in  any  other  part  of 
Southern  India.  Wiile  the  age  of  chivalry  was  at  its  height,  the  Aryans  had 
advanced  as  far  as  Gujerat  on  the  Gulf  of  Cambay  (p.  371) ;  from  this  point  Aryan 
influence  extended  eastward.  Between  the  native  independent  States  of  the  Bhilla 
(Bhil)  colonists  were  continually  advancing,  and  Aryan  manners  were  extended 
over  the  west  of  Central  India  (Malwa,  reaching  the  land  of  the  IMahrattas  iu 
course  of  time).  The  triumphant  colonisation  of  the  west  coast,  known  by  the  San- 
scrit name  of  Kerala  (the  land  of  the  Chera),  belongs  to  the  later  period  of  Brahman 
predominance.  In  the  northern  lialf  of  this  district,  especially  in  the  muilern 
Kanara  and  Malabar,  a  federation  of  sixty-four  cantons  seems  to  have  existed 
before  the  Brahmans  entered  the  country.  The  military  protection  of  the  country 
was  intrusted  to  a  sixth  part  of  the  members  of  this  federation  (ten  and  a  half 
cantons),  while  the  government  was  carried  on  by  a  council  of  five  ministers,  who 
were  re-elected  every  four  years.  "When  tlie  Brahmans  pressed  into  this  fruitful 
territory  in  greater  numbers,  they  maintained  the  existing  constitutional  forms 
while  securing  their  own  recognition  as  the  royal  masters  of  the  country.  A 
legend  of  Brahman  origin  ascribes  their  arrival  to  the  help  of  the  Braliman  god, 
Vishnu,  incarnate  as  RSma,  with  the  battle  axe  (Parasu  Kfvma,  p.  373).  The 
legend  represents  him  as  a  son  of  the  Brahman  sage,  JamadagnL  During  the 
absence  of  this  latter,  a  sacrificial  calf  was  stolen  from  his  cell  by  the  Kshalriya 
Prince  Kartavirya,  and  the  son  avenged  his  father  by  killing  the  Kshatriya.  In  the 
feud  which  resulted,  Jamadagni  fell  a  victim,  and  ESma  swore  vengeance  upon 
the  whole  order  of  the  Kshatriya,  and  exterminated  them  ("  He  purified  the  earth 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  389 


twenty-one  several  times  of  the  Kshatriya,"  op.  cit.).  The  gods  rewarded  him  for 
his  piety  with  a  promise  that  the  country  should  be  his  as  far  as  he  could  hurl  his 
battle  axe.  The  weapon  flew  from  Gokaiua  to  Cape  Comorin.  Thus  the  whole  of 
the  Malabar  coast  was  gained  and  settled  by  the  Brahmans,  to  whom  Para.4u  llama 
presented  the  district.  At  the  present  day  the  Malabar  chronology  begins  with 
that  throwing  of  the  axe  and  the  creation  of  the  country,  which  is  dated  1176  B.  c. 
The  legend  was  invented  as  a  foundation  for  the  claims  which  the  Brahmans 
raised  upon  entering  the  country.  Their  theory  was  they  were  the  actual  pos- 
sessors of  the  land  which  they  had  restored  to  its  old  masters  only  upon  lease,  and 
that  therefore  the  warriors  must  reverence  them  and  swear  to  them  oaths  of  alle- 
giance. Even  at  the  present  day  the  superior  Brahman  castes  on  the  whole  of  the 
Malabar  coast  enjoy  a  far  higher  position  than  those  upon  the  east  coasts  of  the 
peninsula.  The  Namburi  Brahmans  on  the  west  coast  jealously  maintain  the  purity 
of  their  Aryan  blood,  and  look  scornfully  upon  the  other  dark-complexioned 
Brahmans  of  Southern  India,  though  these  also  are  girdled  with  the  sacred  band. 

(d)  Buddhism  in  India.  —  An  examination  of  the  state  of  India  about  the 
middle  of  the  first  millennium  B.  C.  shows  the  prevading  conditions  to  have  been 
as  follows :  The  Aryans  had  risen  to  a  high  prosperitj%  their  social  life  had  rapidly 
developed,  States  large  and  small  had  been  formed,  populous  towns  were  adorned 
by  the  splendour  of  their  royal  courts  and  by  the  wealth  of  the  inhabitants ;  agri- 
culture, industry,  and  trade  were  flourishing.  National  feeling  among  the  ruling  race 
had  also  undergone  a  change,  and  in  some  respects  a  change  for  the  worse ;  the  bright 
spirit  of  youth,  the  sense  of  power,  the  pride  of  freedom  are  things  of  the  past. 
Society  was  divided  or  cleft  asunder  by  the  institution  of  caste.  Any  feeling  of 
equality  has  given  way  to  the  spirit  of  caste,  which  induces  the  lofty  to  look  down 
with  contempt  upon  the  humble,  which  precludes  all  possibility  of  common  action 
for  the  public  good,  which  therefore  makes  national  feeling  impossible.  For  every 
caste  its  every  action  is  accurately  prescribed,  while  the  highest  activities,  those  of 
thought,  are  monopolised  by  the  Brahmans.  The  latter  claimed  to  have  sprung 
from  the  head  of  the  first  man  (p.  375),  and  in  actual  practice  were  they  the  head 
of  society.  But  speculation  had  undergone  a  fundamental  change  since  the  period 
of  Aryan  immigration.  The  priests  continued  to  offer  formal  prayers  to  the  old 
gods  in  which  no  one  any  more  believed.  A  deep  sense  of  the  futility  of  existence 
penetrated  every  thinking  mind,  while  opinions  were  divided  as  to  the  means  which 
should  be  adopted  to  gain  release  from  existence.  Schools  and  orders  multiplied 
continually.  It  was  as  if  one  of  the  fierce  cyclones  of  Bengal  had  burst  upon  the 
forest.  The  giant  forms  of  the  ancient  gods  lay  dead  upon  the  ground,  and  from 
this  devastation  new  cults  were  rising,  each  struggling  with  the  other  for  air,  light, 
and  space.  Of  these,  one  alone  was  fated  to  become  a  mighty  tree,  collecting 
almost  the  whole  of  Central  and  Eastern  Asia  beneath  its  branches  —  Buddhism. 

The  centres  of  Indo-Aryan  development  slowly  changed  in  the  course  of  ages 
from  west  to  east.  Advancing  over  the  northwest  passes  in  the  third  millennium 
B.  C,  the  Aryans  occupied  Five  River  District  during  the  second  millennium  ;  about 
the  middle  of  this  epoch  may  have  occurred  those  struggles  on  the  frontier  between 
the  Punjab  and  the  Ganges  district,  when  King  Sudas  defeated  the  allied  tribes 
of  the  west.  The  end  of  this  epoch  may  be  considered  to  include  the  flourishing 
period  of  the  principalities  on  the  Jumna  and  the  upper  Ganges,  whose  struggles 


300  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter iv 

have  provided  a  fouiulaliou  uf  historical  k>geud  for  the  gieat  heroic  poem  of  the 
Bharata.  Another  live  hundred  years  and  the  centre  of  gravity  has  again  moved 
eastward  to  the  countries  which  end  where  the  Ganges  deUa  begins  and  where  the 
town  of  Benares  rises.  Here  about  this  jieriod  were  formed  a  numbiTof  principali- 
ties and  free  States,  among  them  the  powerful  kingdom  of  Magadha  with  the  old 
capital  of  llajagriha  (in  that  district  of  the  modern  Behar,  which  lies  to  the  south 
of  tlie  (Janges).  We  should  know  but  little  of  the  difl'ereut  petty  States  on  the 
nortliem  side  of  the  Ganges  opposite  Magadha  were  it  not  for  tlie  fact  that  here 
was  the  home  of  that  religious  teacher,  Buddha,  whose  doctrine  is  to-day  accepted 
by  hundreds  of  millions  of  men.  Upon  the  spurs  of  the  Himalaya,  on  the  stream 
of  the  Kohiui,  the  modern  Kohani,  had  settled  the  tribe  of  the  Sakya  within  which 
the  Kshatriya  nobility  still  played  an  important  part  iu  the  continual  friction  that 
occurred  with  the  neighbouring  jietty  States.  To  this  class  belonged  the  chieftain 
of  the  tribe  Suddohana  of  the  Gautama  family,  the  father  of  Buddha,  who  resided 
in  the  capital  of  the  country,  Kapilavatthu.^ 

(a)  The  Life  of  Buddha.  —  According  to  the  Buddhist  legend,  6uddhodana 
had  married  two  daughters  of  the  neighbouring  Kolya  prince  (on  the  other  bank  of 
the  Koliini),  who  was  also  a  Kshatriya.  For  a  long  time  he  remained  childless, 
but  in  his  forty-fifth  year  the  elder  of  his  wives,  Maya,  became  with  child.  As, 
according  to  tlie  custom  of  the  period  and  of  her  order,  she  was  journeying  home- 
ward to  her  father's  house,  there  to  await  her  contiuement,  she  was  surjirised  on 
the  way  in  the  grove  of  Lumbiui  by  tlie  birth  of  a  sou,  who  was  named  SiddhSrtha. 
This  is  the  personal  name  of  Buddha,  who  is  often  known  by  his  family  name 
of  Gautama  (Gotama).  All  his  other  titles  are  additional  names,  the  number  of 
which  is  proportionate  to  the  reverence  and  admiration  of  his  devotees.  In  every 
case,  like  the  titles  of  Redeemer,  Christ,  etc.,  applied  to  Jesus,  they  are  merely 
descriptions  of  his  per-sonal  characteristics.  For  instance,  Sakya  Muni  means  the 
sage  of  the  Sakya  family ;  Sakya  Simlia  means  the  Sakya  lion  ;  Bliagavat  means 
the  reverend;  Sattha,  the  teacher;  J iua,  the  conqueror,  etc.  Buddha  also  is  but 
one  of  tliese  titles  meaning  "  The  Enlightened  "  (see  the  lower  half  of  plate,  "  Early 
Indian  Sculpture  "). 

The  birth  of  Siddhftrtha  is  placed  with  some  probability  between  the  years  560 
and  557,  and  his  death  between  480  and  477  B.  c.  On  the  seventh  day  after  his 
birth  his  mother  died,  the  child  being  now  carefully  tended  and  brought  up  by 
his  aunt,  Prajapati  (PSli:  Pajapati).  According  to  the  custom  of  the  time,  the 
young  Siddhartlia  was  married  in  his  nineteenth  year  to  his  cousin,  Wasodhara,  a 
daughter  of  the  Kolya  prince,  and  their  imiou  was  blessed  by  the  birth  of  a  son, 
Ilahula,  after  ten  years.  Any  other  man  would  probably  have  been  contented  and 
happy  in  the  position  of  Siddhartlia.  He  had  everything  and  was  everything  which 
a  noble  Kshatriya  could  desire  to  have  or  to  be.  But  in  his  twenty-ninth  year  a  sense 
of  dissatisfaction  came  upon  him.  Amid  all  his  external  prosperity,  his  lofty  and 
serious  mind  could  not  refrain  from  the  contemplation  of  the  futility  of  existence. 
His  thoughts  upon  the  misery  of  tlie  world  and  the  meaus  of  liberatitm  therefrom 
take  in  the  legend  a  i)ersonal  and  objective  figure.  A  god  appears  to  him  first  as  au 
old  man  in  his  second  childhood,  then  as  a  stern  tyrant,  again  as  a  corrupting  corpse, 


'  This  is  the  P&li  form  of  the  name  ;  Sanscrit,  Vapilavastu. 


The  god  Siva,  dancing  upon  corpses  and  decorated  with  a  garland  of  death's  lieads.     Brahman 

sculpture  in  relief  at  Ellora. 

(From  a  photograph.) 


Buddha  :  (a)  In  clay 


(b)  Stone  sculpture.    Both  after  A.  Giunwciiel. 


Early  Indian  Sculpture 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  391 


and  finally  as  a  reverend  hermit.  It  was  the  birth  of  his  sou  which  determined 
him  to  put  into  execution  a  long  preconceived  resolve.  He  saw  in  the  child  a  new 
bond  which  would  fetter  him  to  the  world.  The  story  of  Siddhartha's  flight  is  the 
most  moving  picture  in  the  whole  legend  of  his  life.  Only  once  was  he  willing  to 
look  upon  that  which  is  tlie  dearest  thing  in  this  world,  only  once  would  he  press 
his  new-born  son  to  his  heart.  Quietly  he  glided  into  the  bedroom  where  his  wife 
and  child  were  resting ;  but  the  mother's  hand  lay  upon  her  child's  head  and  he 
could  not  take  the  child  in  his  arms  without  waking  her. 

Thus  he  left  wife  and  child  without  a  word  and  went  out  into  the  night  with 
no  companion  but  his  charioteer,  whom  he  presented  with  all  his  ornaments  and 
ordered  to  inform  his  family  of  his  resolve.  He  then  cut  his  hair  short,  exchanged 
his  rich  garments  for  the  rags  of  a  passing  beggar,  and  made  his  way  alone  to  the 
capital  of  the  Magadha  kingdom,  Kajagriha,  near  which  pious  hermits  had  settled 
in  the  caves  of  the  rock.  To  these  he  joined  himself,  hoping  to  learn  from  them 
the  solution  of  the  great  riddle  of  existence.  But  Brahman  metaphysics  brought 
no  consolation  to  his  soul.  Neither  from  Alara  Kalana  nor  from  Uddaka  Rama- 
putta  could  he  obtain  the  object  of  his  search,  —  the  path  to  freedom  from  the 
pain  of  existence.  He  left  both  teachers  and  turned  to  the  forests  of  Uruvela 
(near  the  modern  Buddha-gaya),  in  which  five  Brahman  hermits  were  already 
living  a  life  of  asceticism.  For  six  years  he  surpassed  them  all  in  the  cruelty  of 
his  penances  imtil  his  former  powerful  and  beautiful  frame  had  been  worn  to  a 
shadow.  The  reputation  of  his  extraordinary  self-torture  spread  far  and  wide,  but 
he  himself  became  the  more  unhappy  in  proportion  as  others  esteemed  him  far 
advanced  upon  the  road  to  salvation. 

He  fell  in  a  swoon  from  weakness,  but  on  his  restoration  to  consciousness 
he  had  found  strength  to  leave  the  path  of  error.  When  he  again  began  to 
take  food  like  other  men  he  lost  the  belief  and  respect  of  his  five  companions. 
They  left  him  and  turned  to  the  holy  town  of  Benares  to  accomplish  their 
purification  in  more  sacred  surroundings.  The  man  they  left  behind  had  now 
to  undergo  a  severe  mental  struggle.  Buddhist  legend  represents  the  conflict 
between  his  intellect  and  his  sympathies  as  a  battle  between  bright  and  dark 
spirits  who  struggled  in  conflict  so  that  the  world  trembled  and  was  almost  moved 
from  its  foundation.  Meanwhile  Siddhartha  was  wrestling  for  enlightenment  by 
the  banks  of  the  Nairanjara.  The  prospect  cleared  and  the  mysteries  of  suffering 
and  of  the  road  to  salvation  were  laid  open  before  him.  He  had  now  become 
"  The  Buddha,"  the  Enlightened,  who  had  attained  knowledge  of  redemption  not 
only  for  himself  but  for  the  whole  world.  For  seven  days  Buddha  remained  in 
extreme  exaltation  of  mind,  in  holy  glorification  imder  the  sacred  fig  tree  (Jicus 
religiosa;  in  Singhalese,  Bo  tree,  the  tree  of  knowledge ;  in  Sanscrit,  Bodhi).  A  pair 
of  benevolent  men  brought  him  rice  cakes  and  honey,  and  he  in  return  gave  them 
his  greatest  gift,  his  teaching.  These  two  men,  Tapussa  and  BhalUka,  were  his 
first  converts,  who  took  "  refuge  with  Buddha  and  knowledge."  Doubt  then  came 
upon  the  enUghtened  sage  as  to  whether  the  coarse  mind  of  the  masses  was  capable 
of  realising  the  great  truths  he  taught.  But  the  world  god  Brahman  urged  him 
to  preach  his  doctrine  and  Buddha  gave  way.  He  went  to  that  very  forest  where 
the  five  companions  of  his  former  penance  were  staying  and  explained  the  main 
features  of  his  doctrine  to  them  in  the  "  Sermon  of  Benares."  Neither  a  life  of 
pleasure  nor  the  extirpation  of  all  pleasure  could  lead  to  the  goal,  the  true  way 


302  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         la.apt.riF 

Ivin"  midway  belween  tlu'se  extremes.  In  broad  outline  he  sliows  them  the  truth 
upou  the  question  of  sutVering  and  the  eight  fohl  mad  to  liberation. 

From  this  point  ouwai-d  the  life  of  Duddha  is  entirely  oecupied  witli  the 
teaching  and  conversion  of  the  people.  The  persuasion  of  live  nobles  of  Benares 
brought  about  a  rapid  increase  in  his  scanty  congregation,  to  which  fifty  adherents 
were  shortly  added.  The  reputation  of  the  new  doctrine  spread  far  and  wide;  the 
people  tlirouged  from  every  direction  and  from  distant  settlements  to  hear  his 
teaching.  Buddha  sent  out  his  sixty  disciples  as  apostles:  " Go  forth,  ye  mendi- 
cants, upon  your  way,  for  the  salvation  of  the  people,  for  the  good  of  tlie  people, 
for  the  salvation,  the  advantage,  and  the  prosperity  both  of  gods  and  men."  The 
Enlightened  One  did  not  remain  alone  after  despatching  his  apostles.  Shortly 
afterward  thirty  rich  youths  accepted  his  doctrine,  who  were  followed  by  one  thou- 
sand tire  worshippers.  Tiie  most  important  convert,  however,  was  Bimbisfira,  king 
of  the  great  Magadha  kingdom.  In  him  Buddhism  gained  a  powerful  patron,  and 
the  conversions  of  lay  brotliers  immediately  due  to  this  success  were  numbered  by 
tens  of  thousands.  Even  more  important  converts  were  the  two  most  famous 
])upils  of  the  master,  Sariputta  and  ]Mogallana. 

The  conversion  of  King  Bimbisara  marks  the  first  step  of  that  policy  which 
was  characteristic  of  this  religion  in  its  later  developments,  namely,  the  policy 
of  entering  into  relations  with  the  ruling  powers  and  invoking  their  protection. 
Henceforward  Buddhism  rises  and  falls  in  the  several  States  as  their  ruling 
dynasties  prosper  or  decay.  The  same  phenomenon  appears  in  Ceylon,  where 
the  Buddhist  communities  attained  to  extraordinary  prosperity  under  powerful 
and  fortunate  kings,  while  the  political  disasters  resulting  from  the  war  with  the 
Dravidians  repeatedly  brought  the  doctrine  to  the  point  of  amiihilation.  Toward 
its  patrons  Buddhism  invariably  displayed  a  considerable  amount  of  adaptability. 
Its  first  chief  patron,  Bimljisara,  secured  the  introduction  into  the  monastic  com- 
munities of  the  monthly  i)enances  formerly  practised  by  many  Brahman  monks 
(the  strict  observance  of  the  four  quarters  of  the  moon;  the  Poya  days  of  the 
modern  Singhalese),  and  also  of  the  Uposadha  days.  "Wlien  Buddha  returned, 
during  his  later  wanderings,  to  his  native  town,  where  his  son  Kaliula  entered  the 
community,  at  the  re(piest  of  the  old  prince  he  added  to  the  rules  of  the  commu- 
nity the  regulation  that  no  son  should  become  a  monk  without  his  father's  consent. 
The  fundamental  objections  of  Buddlia  to  the  institution  of  onlers  of  nuns  were 
only  overcome  by  the  influence  of  his  foster  mother,  Prajapati,  who  was  of  royal 
race  and  desired  to  found  such  an  order.  On  the  other  hand,  the  new  doctrine 
thus  powerfully  supported  gained  not  only  ])opular  approval,  but  also  material  help. 
Poverty  was  as  a  rule  obligatory  only  upoil  individual  monks,  and  from  the  outset 
the  order  was  always  glad  to  receive  rich  presents.  The  first  of  such  foundations 
was  that  of  the  Bamboo  Grove,  near  the  capital  of  IMagadha ;  and  e\en  during  the 
lifetime  of  the  master,  princes  and  rich  men  rivalled  one  another  in  making  similar 
offerings.  A  long  list  of  large  gardens  and  parks  were  e\en  then  assigned  to  the 
order,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  these  being  the  garden  of  .fetawana  at  Sawatthi. 
In  Ceylon,  where  the  history  of  Buddhism  is  more  easily  followed,  the  larger  and 
more  valuable  part  of  all  the  arable  land  eventually  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
order. 

Among  the  pupils  who  gathered  round  the  person  of  Buddha,  one  of  the  most 
human  figures  is  his  cousin  .\nanda,  who,  though  not  distingui-shed  for  intellectual 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  393 


power,  engages  our  S3'mpathy  by  his  loving  devotion  to  his  master.  But  even  in 
that  narrow  circle  which  gathered  round  the  enlightened  one,  the  element  of  evil 
was  to  be  found,  even  as  in  the  apostolic  band  of  Jesus.  Devadatta,  a  personality 
swollen  with  pride  and  dominated  by  immeasurable  ambition,  is,  during  the  time 
of  Buddlia,  a  type  of  that  sectarian  spirit  which  resulted  in  the  repeated  schisms 
of  later  years ;  even  during  the  master's  life  time  many  believers  were  led  astray 
by  him.  And  as  at  a  later  period  one  sect  invariabl}-  abuses  and  maligns  another, 
so  here  legend  even  reproaches  the  ambitious  disciple  with  attempts  upon  his 
master's  life. 

For  forty-five  years  after  his  "  enlightenment "  Buddha  traversed  the  country 
preaching  his  doctrine  and  making  tliousands  of  converts  ;  at  length  a  severe  ill- 
ness reminded  him  that  the  end  of  his  life  was  approaching.  In  deep  anxiety  his 
congregation  asked  who  was  to  follow  him  as  their  leader.  But  the  master  refers 
them  to  their  own  knowledge :  "  Be  your  own  illumination,  be  yourselves  your 
refuge,  have  no  other  refuge ;  for  the  doctrine  shall  be  your  light,  the  doctrine 
shall  be  yoiu-  refuge,  and  have  no  other  refuge."  By  sheer  will-power  the  sick 
man  was  cured  for  the  time ;  but  he  himself  prophesied  his  death  at  the  end  of 
three  months.  The  last  days  of  Buddha  are  related  by  the  legend  with  details  so 
realistic  that  it  is  probable  they  contain  some  substratum  of  historical  truth.  He 
is  said  to  have  gone  to  Pawa  with  his  favourite  pupil  Ananda,  where,  with  other 
monks,  he  received  hospitality  from  Kunda  the  smith.  Tainted  pork  was  set  upon 
the  table  at  their  meal,  and  after  partaking  of  this  he  fell  ill.  However,  he  con- 
tinued his  journey.  But  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kusinara  his  strength  failed  him, 
and  lying  down  under  two  beautiful  amyris  trees  he  awaited  death.  He  thanks 
his  faithful  Ananda  for  all  his  love  and  devotion,  asks  the  monks  gathered  round 
him  three  times  whether  any  feels  doubt,  and,  when  all  have  asserted  their  faith, 
he  speaks  his  last  words,  "  Of  a  truth,  O  monks,  I  say  unto  you,  all  that  is  must 
decay ;  strive  for  perfection  and  faint  not."     Then  his  life  passed  into  nirvana. 

"  As  the  mortal  remains  of  the  King  of  Kings  are  treated,  so  shall  one  treat 
the  remains  of  him  who  has  been  perfected,"  so  runs  the  saying  of  Ananda  when 
the  Mailers  of  Kusinara  questioned  him  upon  the  form  of  burial.  The  prepara- 
tions lasted  for  six  days,  after  which  the  funeral  pyre  was  lighted  with  the  utmost 
pomp.  The  ashes  of  the  great  departed  were  collected.  Constant  demands  for 
relics  came  in,  with  proposals  to  guard  them  in  fitting  memorials  (stupas)  ;  and  it 
was  at  last  arranged  that  the  remains  should  be  divided  into  eight  parts  and 
presented  to  the  eight  most  important  States  in  which  Buddha  had  lived  and 
worked. 

(/3)  TJie  "  TJiree  Councils."  —  Later  tradition  relates  that  immediately  after 
the  funeral  the  most  important  monks  met  together  in  Rajagaha,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Kasyapa  (Pali,  Kassapa),who  defined  as  accurately  as  possible  the  form- 
ulne  of  the  doctrine  (the  first  coimcil  of  Eajagaha).  It  is  said  that  tlie  sayings  of 
Buddha  relating  to  the  discipline  of  the  order  (Winaya)  were  related  by  I'pali, 
while  the  general  teaching  (sutra ;  Pali,  sutta)  upon  the  daily  life  of  all,  including 
the  lay  adherents,  was  recited  by  Ananda ;  this  teaching  was  then  committed  to 
memory  by  five  hundred  monks,  and  by  them  handed  down  to  tradition.  Exactly 
two  hundred  years  after  the  death  of  the  master  it  became  necessary  to  call  a 
second  council,  that  of  Vesali  (Vaisali).     As  a  number  of  monks  had  supported 


3'J4  HISTC)R\'    OF     THE    WORLD  lch„phrir 

^'iews  wliich  diverged  in  detail  from  the  original  doctrine,  a  committee  met  at 
Vesfili  and  determined  the  direction  of  Buddhist  doctrine   for  the  future. 

The  first  council  of  historical  authenticity  is  the  tliird,  that  of  Patna  (about 
250  B.  c).  DipawariiAa,  the  earliest  chronicle  of  Ceylou,  reports  upon  this  as 
follows :  "  With  the  object  of  destroying  inlidelity  many  of  the  pupils  of  IJuddha, 
sixty  thousand  sons  of  Jina,  met  together  in  council.  Over  this  assembly  pre- 
sided Tissa  ilogalliputta  (also  Moggaliputta,  son  of  Mogalli).  For  the  purpose 
of  purifying  the  faith  and  formulating  the  doctrine  for  the  future  the  president, 
Tissa,  appointed  one  thousand  Arahats,  choosing  the  best  members  of  the  assembly, 
and  held  a  synod.  The  third  council  was  brought  to  an  end  after  a  space  of  nine 
montlis  in  the  monastery  of  ASokarfima,  built  by  King  DhammS^oka."  In  order 
that  the  doctrines  of  the  master  might  be  the  better  transmitted  to  the  disciples, 
the  council  formulated  his  teaching  in  the  canonical  books  of  the  tripitaka  ("  three 
baskets  ").  This  council  was  also  responsible  for  the  despatch  of  numerous  mis- 
sionaries who  introduced  Buddhism  into  Ceylon  amongst  other  places  ;  from  this 
period  begin  the  monastic  annals  of  the  Singhalese  which,  at  a  later  period,  were 
■worked  into  the  chronicles.  In  these  there  is  mention  made  of  the  names  of  some 
of  the  missionaries  who  were  tlien  despatched,  and  the  credibility  of  the  chronicles 
has  been  considerably  strengthened  by  the  discovery  of  the  tomb  of  one  of  those 
missionaries  (Madochhima)  in  North  India. 

Granted  that  the  council  of  Patna  is  historically  authentic,  the  same  can  by  no 
means  be  said  of  the  two  preceding  councils.  It  is  indeed  true  that  the  council 
of  VesSli  was  held  two  hundred  years  after  the  death  of  Buddha,  —  that  is  to  say, 
less  than  fifty  years  before  the  conversion  of  Ceylon,  and  we  may  therefore  sup- 
pose that  later  tradition  was  upon  the  whole  well  informed  of  the  events  of  that 
time.  But  the  narratives  of  Ceylon  make  it  plain  that  that  council  was  not  called 
to  formulate  the  doctrines  of  Buddhism,  but  was  merely  a  gathering  of  Buddhist 
monks  from  a  limited  area  to  settle  certain  points  of  detail  concerning  monastic 
morality.  Individual  monks  had  put  questions  to  the  meeting,  as  for  instance, 
whether  it  were  lawful  to  eat  solid  food  only  at  midday,  or  also  in  the  afternoon 
until  the  sun  had  cast  a  shadow  two  ells  in  length,  whether  it  was  lawful  to  keep 
salt  in  buffalo  horns,  whether  it  was  lawful  to  sit  upon  a  chair  covered  with  a 
plain  cloth,  etc.  We  can  readily  understand  that  such  a  gathering  of  monks  may 
have  ultimately  grown  to  be  considered  a  council,  remembering  the  Buddhist 
method  of  emphasising  important  facts  by  the  multiplication  of  them.  Thus,  ac- 
cording to  later  legends,  there  was  not  one  Buddha  only,  but  as  many  as  twenty- 
four  before  him ;  the  Buddha  of  the  present  age  had  not  visited  Ceylon  once,  but 
three  times,  and  so  on.  Thus  the  canonical  teaching  required  not  one  but  several 
formulations,  and  it  was  not  enough  to  magnify  the  synod  of  Vesali  into  a  council ; 
it  was  necessary  to  presuppose  another  council  held  immediately  after  the  death 
of  Buddha,  that  of  PiSjagaha.  This  council  indeed  is  mentioned  only  in  appendices 
which  were  apparently  added  to  the  canonical  writings  at  a  much  later  date. 

(7)  TJie  Historical  Personality  of  Buddha.  —  As  the  history  of  the  Buddha 
doctrine  previous  to  Asoka  is  thus  uncertain,  we  are  justified  in  asking  what 
amount  of  historical  truth  is  contained  in  the  legends  upon  the  personality  of  its 
founder.  The  attempt  has  been  made  to  deny  the  personal  existence  of  Buddha  ; 
and  this  view  has  been  justified  by  the  allegorical  meaning  of  the  chief  names  in 


/nH  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  395 

the  personal  history  of  Gotama.  Suddhodana  (p.  390)  means  "  The  man  whose 
food  is  pure,"  Maya  means  illusion  (Vedfmta  philosophy),  Kapilavastu  means  the 
town  of  Kapila,  the  founder  of  the  Saiikhya  philosophy,  Siddharta  means  "  He  who 
has  fulfilled  his  task."  Such  scepticism  is,  however,  far  too  sweepinc.  In  March, 
1895,  in  the  Terai  of  Nepal,  near  the  village  of  Nigliwa  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Gorakhpur,  about  ten  miles  distant  from  the  ruins  of  a  memorial  mound  (stupa), 
an  inscription  of  King  (Asoka)  Piyadasi  (the  "Pious;"  cf.  p.  406)  was  discovered 
upon  a  pillar.  This  inscription  states  that  Asoka  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  his  rei^n 
(225  B.  c.)  had  set  up  for  the  second  time  the  stupa  of  the  Konagamana  Buddha 
(the  mythical  predecessor  of  the  historical  Buddha),  and  in  the  twenty-first  year 
of  his  reign  (249  b.  c.)  had  himself  visited  the  spot  and  there  performed  his  devo- 
tions. The  Chinese  Hiuen  Tsang  (Yen  tsung),  who  visited  the  shrines  of  the 
Buddhists  about  636  a.  d.,  mentions  the  stftpa  and  the  inscription  on  the  pillar. 
Moreover,  on  the  1st  of  December,  1896,  a  pillar  was  examined  near  the  village  of 
Paderia  (thirteen  miles  from  Nigliwa).  This  pillar  had  also  been  seen  by  Hiuen 
Tsang.  It  rose  nine  feet  above  the  ground,  was  covered  with  inscriptions  made  by 
pilgrims,  while  upon  the  three  feet  of  it  below  the  level  of  the  ground  was  found 
an  inscription  written  in  very  ancient  characters  in  the  "  Brahmi  "  (formerly  and 
erroneously  known  as  the  "  Maurya  "  or  "  Asoka  ")  alphabet,  dating  at  least  from 
the  year  800  A.  d.  The  purport  of  the  inscription  was  that  Priyadar^in  (Pali, 
Piyadasi)  after  a  reign  of  twenty  years  here  makes  his  prayer  in  person,  expresslj- 
designates  the  spot  a  birthplace  of  Buddha,  and  makes  the  fact  known  bj-  the  erec- 
tion of  a  stone  pillar.  At  the  same  time,  he  remits  the  taxes  due  from  the  village 
of  Lummini  (Pali,  Lumbint :  [p.  390]  the  modern  Eumm-dei),  and  makes  presents 
to  the  inhabitants.  Finally,  William  Caxton  Pepp^  while  making  excavations  in 
January,  1898,  on  his  property  at  Piprawa  in  the  Terai,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  imme- 
diate neighbourhood  of  Kapilavastu,  opened  an  ancient  stfipa  and  discovered  a 
finely  worked  sandstone  chest  covered  by  a  giant  slab,  which,  together  with  other 
objects,  contained  bone  fragments  in  an  urn,  and  bore  the  following  inscription : 
"  This  resting  place  for  the  remains  of  the  exalted  Buddha  is  the  pious  offering  of 
the  SakySs,  the  brother  with  his  sisters,  children  and  wives."  There  is  no  reason 
whatever  for  casting  doubt  upon  the  authenticity  of  the  inscription,  and  therefore 
we  may  consider  that  this  latter  discovery  (the  objects  are  now  iu  the  museum 
of  Calcutta,  while  the  bone  fragments  were  given  to  the  king  of  Siam)  included 
the  actual  remnants  of  Buddha  himself,  that  is  to  say,  one  of  the  eight  parts  iuto 
which  the  carefully  preserved  remnants  of  the  enlightened  one  were  divided,  which 
was  handed  over  to  the  t^akyas  of  Kapilavastu  after  the  death  of  Buddha  and  the 
cremation  of  his  corpse  (cf.  E.  Pischel,  die  Echtheit  der  Buddha-reliquien ;  sup- 
plement to  the  "  Allgemeine  Zeitung "  of  January  7,  1902).  It  is  but  a  few 
years  since  methodical  investigation  into  the  field  of  Indian  epigraphy  was  begun, 
and  researches  in  this  direction  will  no  doubt  speedily  bring  yet  more  valuable 
information  to  light. 

For  the  rest  of  tlie  life  of  Buddha  we  are  forced  to  depend  upon  the  mterual 
probability  of  the  legendary  stories.  Of  tliese,  the  main  features  are  far  too  sim- 
ple and  natural  to  have  been  evolved  by  the  riotous  imagination  of  later  times. 
Especially  is  this  true  of  the'  stories  of  his  birth  from  a  noble  famdy,  and  his  edu- 
cation, his  early  marriage,  his  sympathy  with  the  general  sense  of  the  futility  of 
life,  his  retirement  from  the  world,  the  penances  which  he  underwent,  his  renuncia- 


39G  HISTORY    OF    Till':    WORLD         [c/,„,,i.r /r 

tiou  of  Brahmanisni,  and  his  death.  His  iieisoiiality  is  uiulovibtedly  to  be  uoiieeived 
iu  strict  accordance  with  tradition,  for  to  that  personality  the  new  doctrine  undoubt- 
edly owed  a  great  deal  of  its  success.  Especially  credible  is  that  part  of  the  legend 
which  tells  us  of  his  dignified  bearing,  of  his  high  intellectual  endowments,  of  his 
penetrating  glance,  the  tirmness  of  his  convictions,  his  oratorical  power,  his  gentle- 
ness, kindness,  and  liberality,  and  the  attractiveness  of  his  character.  When  Ananda 
informed  his  master  of  the  fact  that  the  Mailer  I'oya  was  an  influential  man  whose 
conversion  would  be  highly  advantageous  to  their  party,  "  He  poured  such  a  flow  of 
love  upon  the  Mailer  that  he  could  not  but  follow  the  teacher  as  the  calf  follows 
the  cow." 

The  benevolence  of  Buddha's  character  more  than  anything  else  drew  the 
hearts  of  mankind  toward  Iiim.  He  had,  no  doubt,  a  carefully  thought-out  meta- 
physical system  of  his  own;  he  made  many  rules  to  govern  the  life  of  his  apostles, 
which  were  either  borrowed  from  Brahman  orders  or  were  innovations  of  his  own, 
but  it  was  not  to  these  that  he  owed  his  success.  The  great  difference  between 
him  and  the  Brahmaus  was  the  deep  warm  love  which  he  bore  for  his  neighbours. 
In  his  system  under  its  later  form,  which  still  continues  in  Ceylon,  we  see  only 
the  lifeless  labours  of  his  successors.  In  Buddha  himself  lived  and  worked  the 
originality  of  a  high  and  lofty  mind,  coupled  with  the  benevolent  power  of  purity 
and  warmth  of  heart.  The  influence  of  these  characteristics  continued  for  at  least 
a  century  after  his  death,  as  is  proved  by  the  edicts  of  Asoka.  This  man  was  not  a 
Buddliist  when  he  assumed  the  government  of  the  powerful  kingdom  of  Magadha 
(269  B.C.).  About  261  he  was  converted,  though  he  did  not  make  public  profes- 
sion of  his  faith  before  259.  The  humanilarianism  of  his  master  finds  a  strong  echo 
in  the  decrees  dictated  by  the  glowing  enthusiasm  of  his  royal  convert.  Asoka 
gives  expression  of  his  warm  love  for  the  whole  of  humanity.  "  All  men  are  to 
me  as  my  children.  As  I  wish  my  children  welfare  and  prosperity  in  this  and 
the  next  world,  so  I  do  to  men."  Many  of  his  numerous  inscriptions  on  rocks 
or  pillars  are  intended  for  the  instruction  of  his  people  upon  the  nature  of  true 
religion.  "  Wiiat  is  Dhamma  ?  It  is  to  flee  from  the  evil  and  do  the  good,  to  be 
loving,  true,  patient,  and  pure  in  life."  The  king  forgets  none  of  the  essential  vir- 
tues, moral  purity,  truth,  nobility  of  heart,  kindness  in  word  and  deed,  goodness  to 
all,  respect  and  obedience  to  parents,  love  to  children,  tenderness  to  the  weak, 
kindness  to  all  creatures,  reverence  to  the  priests,  the  utmost  toleration  for  other 
faiths,  liberality  in  almsgiving,  the  avoidance  of  anger,  passion,  and  cruelty.  How 
changed  is  Buddha's  teaching  in  the  dead  conventionalism  of  its  modern  form ! 

One  of  Asoka's  edicts,  perhaps  the  last,  gives  us  .some  indication  of  the  date 
when  Buddha's  doctrines  flrst  became  stereotyped.  This  is  the  inscription  of  BairSt 
or  Bhabra  discovered  in  1840  and  assigned  by  Edmund  Hardy  to  the  year  249  n.  c. 
Here  the  later  teaching  first  makes  itself  lieard,  and  in  this  inscription  only  occur 
the  later  expressicjus  concerning  Iluddha,  his  doctrine  and  the  coninmnity  of  his 
believers,  together  with  the  phrase,  "  Everything  that  has  been  said  by  the  exalted 
Buddha  is  well  said."  Here  alone  is  there  any  reference  to  the  articles  of  a  legal 
code.  According  to  E.  S.  Copleston,  the  decree  of  Bhabra  was  issued  after  the 
(Jouncil  of  Patna,  by  which  it  was  influenced,  and  in  this  council  liuddhist  teach- 
ing was  definitely  formulated.  The  theory  is  further  supported  by  the  dcsjiatch  of 
many  missionaries  shortly  after  the  conclusion  of  the  council.  A  probable  cause 
of  this  step  was  the  reformulation  of  the  doctrine.     Thanks  to  this  mission  and 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  397 


especially  to  that  of  Mahioda,  the  son  of  Asoka  himself  (p.  501)  to  Ceylon,  where 
the  doctrine  has  remained  unchanged  in  all  essentials,  later  Buddliism  and  its 
history  are  fairly  plain  to  us. 

(S)  Buddhism  in  the  Period  after  Asoka.  —  Buddhism  after  i\soka,  like  the 
doctrines  of  the  Brahmans,  is  founded  upon  a  metaphysical  basis.  The  funda- 
mental principle  of  every  Buddhist  doctrine  is  Bodhi  (Budh  =  knowledge).  The 
connotation,  however,  of  this  term  is  in  no  way  profound  or  comprehensive.  The 
Buddhist,  unlike  the  Brahman,  philosophy  does  not  seek  to  probe  the  reason  of  all 
existence,  but  while  recognising  that  all  life  is  suffering  and  that  everj^  act  of  suf- 
fering involves  fresh  suffering,  it  confines  itself  to  the  discovery  of  release  from 
suffering.  The  fimdamental  pessimism  thus  characteristic  of  Buddhism  is  the 
natural  product  of  the  age.  The  doctrine,  however,  is  content  with  the  fact  of 
suffering  as  it  is.  It  does  not  seek  to  advance  to  the  conception  of  a  supreme  being, 
or  even  to  the  thought  of  an  original  world  soul  in  a  state  of  passivity.  It  does  not 
seek  to  explain  suffering  as  did  the  Brahmans  by  supposing  a  descent  on  the  part 
of  the  supreme  being  to  the  lower  levels  of  action.  Questions  of  this  kind  are 
beyond  the  sphere  of  that  knowledge  which  it  desires.  Hence  there  is  for  Bud- 
dhism no  supreme  divinity.  Gods  certainly  exist,  but  far  from  being  able  to  help 
men,  they  suffer  as  men  suffer.  Thus  for  Buddha  there  are  no  thanks  to  be  paid 
to  God,  no  prayers  or  requests,  and  consequently  no  mediator  between  God  and 
man,  no  priest,  no  sacrifice,  no  worship.  The  fact  of  a  divine  existence  has  been 
banished  from  the  philosophy  of  this  religion.  The  problem  of  life  none  the  less 
remains  to  its  adherents.  What  is  the  individual  life  ?  What  is  the  process  of  its 
continuance  by  reincarnation  ?     How  can  the  suffering  of  life  come  to  an  end  ? 

At  this  point  Buddhist  philosophy  diverges  from  the  Brahman  system,  which 
posited  an  actual  existence  for  the  individual  soul.  According  to  Buddhism,  there 
is  no  being  which  passes  into  another  upon  death.  Personal  existence  is  brought 
about  by  the  conjuncture  of  a  number  of  different  elements  which  in  themselves  and 
separately  have  no  personality  or  soul.  These  five  elements  of  life  are  matter, 
feeling,  imagination,  will,  and  consciousness.  The  union  of  these  is  life,  the  divi- 
sion of  them  death.  Upon  death,  one  thing  alone  survives,  the  moral  consequence, 
the  final  account  of  the  good  and  the  bad  that  has  been  done  during  life,  the 
Kamma,  an  element  of  impulse  driving  the  other  elements  to  reunite  after  death 
and  form  another  life.  Like  the  beam  of  the  scales,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
final  reckoning,  the  reunited  elements  rise  or  fall,  to  the  formation  of  higher  or 
lower  beings.  Thus  not  to  be  born  again  implies  the  extinction  of  that  jearniug  for 
existence.  The  Kamma  being  the  consequence  of  actions  performed  in  life,  it  can 
only  be  destroj^ed  if  during  life  man  avoids  all  temptation  to  action,  that  is, 
renounces  all  desire. 

At  this  point  knowledge  comes  by  her  own ;  he  only  who  has  this  perfect  in- 
sight into  the  true  connection  of  life  and  suffering  can  reach  this  height ;  igno- 
rance at  the  other  end  of  the  scale  leads  to  continued  action,  to  reincarnation  and 
further  suffering.  Thus  the  most  important  point  is,  according  to  the  Buddhist 
formula,  the  knowledge  of  the  "  four  sacred  truths."  These  embrace  all  that 
Buddha  meant  by  knowledge.  They  are  most  concisely  stated  in  the  sermon  of 
Benares  (p.  391):  "This,  ye  monks,  is  the  sacred  truth  of  suffering;  birth  is 
suffering,  age  is  suffering,  sickness  is  suffering,  death  is  suffering ;  to  be  joined  to 


398  HISTORY    OF    THH    WORLD         [cho/,ter  iv 

one  thou  dost  not  love  is  sutleiing,  to  be  divided  from  thy  love  is  sutl'ering,  to  fail 
of  thy  desire  is  sull'ering;  in  sliort,  the  fivefold  boniis  that  unite  us  to  earth  (tliose 
of  the  five  elements)  are  suflering.  This,  ye  monks,  is  the  sacred  truth  upon  the 
origin  of  suffering ;  it  is  a  yearning  (for  existence)  which  leads  from  new  birth  to 
new  birth,  which  finds  its  desire  in  dillerent  directions,  tlie  desire  for  pleasure, 
the  desire  for  existence,  the  desire  for  power.  This,  ye  monks,  is  the  sacred  truth 
concerning  the  release  from  suffering;  this  desire  must  be  extirpated  by  the  entire 
destruction  of  inclination,  which  must  be  avoided,  put  away,  left  beliind,  and  driven 
out.  This,  ye  monks,  is  the  sacred  truth  couccriiing  the  way  to  release  from  suller- 
iiig;  it  is  this  sacred  eightfold  path  of  right  lielief,  right  resolve,  right  speech,  right 
action,  right  life,  right  desire,  right  tliought,  and  right  self-al (sorption." 

He  who  seeks  relief  in  "Enlightenment"  must  first  of  all  be  convinced  of  the 
truth  about  sufl'ering,  and  must  abhor  all  temporal  attractions.  Typical  for  him 
must  be  the  horror  which  seized  Buddha  upon  his  flight  from  the  world  at  the 
appearance  of  the  old  and  broken  man,  of  the  man  with  a  deadly  disease,  and  of 
the  putrefying  corpse  (p.  390).  This  feeling  the  lUiddhist  must  carefully  cherish. 
He  must  cultivate  the  habit  of  introspection  by  contemplation  of  the  thirty-two 
elements  in  the  human  body  which  arouse  disgust,  and  by  meditation  on  death 
and  corruption,  for  by  these  means  only  will  he  be  brought  to  that  frame  of  mind 
for  which  temporal  affairs  have  u(j  attraction.  He  alone  who  retires  from  the  world 
—  that  is  to  say,  the  monk  —  can  become  a  perfect  Buddhist. 

(e)  Buddhist  Moiiasticism.  —  Buddhi-st  monasticism  is  in  immediate  connec- 
tion with  the  Brahman  monastic  system ;  as  in  the  latter  case  a  baud  of  learners 
gathers  roimd  a  famous  hermit,  so  also  in  the  former.  The  yellow  garment,  the 
shaven  head,  the  alms  pot  are  borrowings  from  an  earlier  period,  as  also  are  the 
days  of  strict  retirement  during  the  phases  of  the  moon,  together  with  the  solemn 
penances  (Uposadha)  and  the  cessation  from  activity  during  the  three  months  of 
the  rainy  season.  However  from  the  very  first  the  organisation  of  the  order  was 
as  weak  and  loosely  connected  as  that  of  Brahman  monasticism.  Here,  too,  the 
master  left  his  pupils  to  their  own  resources,  a  jn-ocess  which  might  prove  suc- 
cessful provided  that  some  clear  mind  or  powerful  iBtellect  could  be  found  to 
command  universal  respect.  This,  however,  was  by  no  means  invariably  the  case, 
and  the  looseness  with  which  the  order  was  organised  resulted  not  only  in 
schism,  the  chronic  weakness  of  Buddhism,  Init  also  in  its  ultimate  defeat  upon 
the  revival  of  Indian  Brahmanism. 

A  necessary  preliminary  to  the  constitution  of  a  monastic  order  was  the  exist- 
ence of  non-monastic  friends  of  the  Buddhist  teaching  —  the  l']iasakas.  Any  form 
of  human  activity  was  in  some  way  a  contradiction  (jf  the  cimimaud  to  leave  the 
Kamma  in  complete  passivity.  The  laity  could  thus  never  become  Buddliists  in 
the  full  sense  of  the  term,  and  belonged  only  to  the  second  class  of  the  order ;  the 
community  properly  so  called  consisted  only  of  mendicant  monks  who  de])ended 
for  a  living  upon  the  benevolence  of  others,  and  who  considered  their  name  of 
beggar,  or  Bhikshu  (Pali,  Bhikkhu),  as  a  laudatory  title.  In  the  course  of  time 
certain  rules  of  conduct  were  formulated  for  this  class  and  stereotyped  according 
to  the  usual  Buddliist  method ;  they  are  characterised  by  a  spirit  wholly  alien  to 
the  strong  humanitarianism  which  pervades  tlie  teaching  of  Buddha  himself.  Ten 
chief  commands  were  binding  upon  the  monk ;  it  was  unlawful  to  kill  any  living 


/"H  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  399 

thing  ("either  worm  or  ant");  nothing  should  be  taken  except  what  was  given 
(•'  not  even  a  blade  of  grass  ")  ;  falsehood  was  forbidden  and  the  use  of  intoxicating 
liquors ;  family  ties  were  to  be  renounced  ("  a  hateful  thing  ")  ;  food  was  not  to 
be  taken  at  the  wrong  time  or  at  night ;  wreaths  or  scents  were  not  to  be  used, 
and  the  monk  was  to  sleep  upon  a  mat  spread  upon  the  ground ;  dancing,  music, 
singing  or  theatrical  performances  were  to  be  avoided,  and  gold  and  sdver  were  not 
to  be  used. 

The  order  was  open  to  any  who  desired  to  enter  it  (disqualifications  were  in- 
fectious diseases,  such  as  leprosy,  etc.,  slavery,  official  posts,  the  lack  of  parental 
consent,  etc.).  The  would-be  monk  must  be  more  than  twelve  years  old,  was 
obliged  to  pass  a  novitiate  and  receive  full  iustmction  upon  the  doctrine  and 
morality  under  a  monk  in  full  orders ;  ordination,  Upasampada,  could  not  be  un- 
dergone before  the  twentieth  year.  The  discipline  imposed  upon  the  monk  the 
"Middle  way,"  as  Buddha  had  already  taught  in  the  sermon  of  Benares  (p.  391); 
that  is  to  say,  his  life  was  not  to  be  a  course  of  mortification,  but  everything  was 
to  be  excluded  which  passed  the  satisfaction  of  the  simplest  needs,  or  could  in  any 
way  lead  to  strengthen  the  ties  binding  the  monk  to  the  world.  The  habitation 
was  not  to  be  placed  too  near  villages  or  towns,  the  noise  of  which  might  disturb 
contemplation,  though  at  the  same  time  it  was  to  be  near  enough  to  enable  the 
mendicants  to  gain  what  they  required.  It  was  but  rarely  that  a  monk  dwelt  alone 
in  a  "  Pansala ; "  in  most  cases  several  monks  lived  together.  Dm'ing  the  flourish- 
ing period  of  the  order  great  monasteries  often  sheltered  a  considerable  number  of 
Bhikkhus  within  their  walls.  The  clothing  (the  upper  garment  of  yellow)  was  to 
be  entirely  simple,  and  food  was  to  be  received  in  the  alms  dish  from  those  who 
were  benevolent  enough  to  give  to  the  beggar.  The  first  half  of  the  day  was  to  be 
occupied  in  the  task  of  mendicancy,  and  for  the  rest  of  the  time  the  monk  was  to 
devote  himself  to  introspection  and  pious  exercises.  Twice  dm-ing  the  month,  at 
the  full  and  the  new  moon,  the  monks  living  within  any  one  district  collected  for 
their  solemn  confession ;  the  articles  of  confession  (Patimokkha)  were  then  read 
aloud,  and  an  opportunity  was  thus  given  to  individuals  to  confess  their  trans- 
gressions of  Buddha's  commands ;  in  these  assemblies  new  monks  were  ordained 
and  business  questions  discussed.  Dm'ing  the  three  months  of  the  rainy  season 
(warsha ;  Pali,  wassa)  the  monk  was  not  to  wander  about,  but  to  remain  quietly  in 
one  place,  either  in  his  monastery  or  with  some  prosperous  patron. 

Gautama  consented  with  much  unwUlingness  to  the  foundation  of  a  female 
order  (p.  392),  considering  that  it  involved  great  dangers  to  his  doctrine.  The 
superxision  of  the  nuns  and  the  ordinances  binding  upon  them  were  much  stricter 
than  in  the  case  of  the  monks  who  exercised  a  certain  authority  over  the  nuns. 
The  inscriptions  of  Asoka  make  mention  of  many  nuns ;  and  under  his  govern- 
ment the  female  order  was  transferred  to  Ceylon  by  his  daughter  SariighamittS. 
However,  it  attained  to  no  great  importance,  either  in  Ceylon  or  in  India.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Singhalese  chronicles,  it  seems  to  have  entirely  disappeared  from  the 
island  as  early  as  the  end  of  the  fii-st  millennium  A.  D. 

(8)  Buddhism  in  its  TmjMj-tance  to  Indian  Civilization.  —  An  attempt  to  esti- 
mate accurately  the  importance  of  Buddhism  with  reference  to  Indian  civilization 
must  begin  by  answering  these  two  questions,  Has  this  doctrine  satisfied  the  reli- 
gious requirements  of  the  people  ?     "Wliat  has  been  the  influence  of  its  moral 


400  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Icha^terir 

teaching?  The  BiuUUiist duclriue  of  liberation  could  bring  tnniiiK'te  salisfactioa 
only  10  a  few  doniinaul  miuds.  It  is  a  doctrine  of  cold  and  imsymjjaLhetic  nature, 
inasmuch  as  it  offers  no  recompense  for  the  infinite  suffering  of  which  the  true 
Buddliist  must  feel  the  sway.  It  oflers  no  sujn-eine  l>eing  which  can  sympathise 
with  and  relieve  the  miseries  of  human  existence ;  it  can  promise  no  state  of 
beatitude  where  man  will  be  recompensed  for  his  sufferings  upon  earth ;  it  can 
promise  only  mere  annihilation  and  nonentity.  The  doctrine  was  of  too  abstract  a 
character  to  satisfy  the  great  mass  of  the  people  who  desire  gods  made  in  the 
image  of  man  and  yearn  for  some  supreme  object  of  adoration  which  is  at  least 
comprehensible  to  mankind. 

The  immediate  consequence  of  these  desires  was  the  transformation  and  elabo- 
ration of  the  legend  concerning  Buddiia's  life.  It  was  not  enough  to  attribute  to 
Buddha's  supreme  wisdom,  almighty  power,  and  thousands  of  miracles  ;  his  person- 
ality was  also  multiplied  (see  pp.  187,  394).  When  the  true  doctrines  have  fallen 
into  decay  and  mankind  has  become  evil,  there  appears  at  long  intervals  a  new 
Buddha  to  resume  the  teacliing  of  the  same  doctrines  of  salvation.  The  Buddha 
Siddhartha  (Pali,  Siddhattha)  is  said  to  have  been  preceded  by  as  many  as  twenty- 
four  Buddhas,  the  last  of  which  was  Kasyapa  ;  and  five  thousand  years  after  the 
passing  of  Buddha  into  Nirvana  a  new  Buddha,  Maitre^'a,  will  arise.  Of  these 
personalities  legends  innumerable  exist ;  the  worshipper  demands  to  see  them  in 
concrete  form,  and  hence  every  Buddhist  temple  and  palace  is  adorned  with  their 
likenesses  and  portraits,  and  especially  with  reproductions  of  Gautama  (see  the 
plates  "  Early  Indian  Sculpture "  and  "  Buddha  and  liis  Disciples,"  p.  390  and 
p.  519).  This  desire  for  some  tangible  object  of  veneration  appeared  immediately 
upon  the  death  of  the.  master.  A  general  demand  arose  for  some  sacred  relic  of 
the  deceased,  and  his  earthly  remains  were  collected  from  tlie  ashes  of  the  funeral 
pyre  and  divided  ;  in  course  of  time  tlie  demand  for  relics  increased  in  proportion 
to  the  distribution  of  the  doctrine,  and  in  every  country  of  Buddhist  faith  there 
arose  many  thousands  of  shrines  containing  relics,  stupas,  or  DSgobas  (see  the  plate, 
p.  501)  the  goal  of  millions  of  pious  pilgrims. 

These  relics  were,  however,  purely  symbolical.  Buddha  himself  had  entered 
the  Nirvftna,  into  nothingness;  the  people,  however,  demanded  li\-ing  gods  and 
Buddha  himself  had  not  denied  the  existence  of  these.  The  peojUe  as  a  wliole 
were  not  so  penetrated  with  the  sense  of  the  great  suffering  of  existence,  as  were 
the  philosophical  monks,  although  they  suffered  more  than  these  from  the  petty 
cares  of  life  and  their  daily  occurrences.  Their  old  gods  were  called  in  to  lielp  in 
this  department.  The  Buddliist  mechanically  repeats  his  formula  of  refuge  ;  but 
in  practice  that  refuge  is  made  with  the  Aryan,  Brahman,  and  Dravidian  gods,  in- 
cluding the  sacred  figtree  and  the  Naga  snake,  the  sun  and  the  stars,  the  evil 
demons  of  the  Dravidian  faith  and  the  bright  forms  of  Vi.shnu  or  Siva.  All  of 
these  deities,  together  with  (iautama,  find  a  i)lace  in  the  broad  creed  of  the  Bud- 
dhist devotee,  and  during  a  solemn  procession  their  grotes(jue  images  are  carried 
side  by  side  with  the  benevolent  features  of  the  Enlightened.  In  reality  the 
earthly  fate  of  the  Buddhist  is  still  guided  by  those  old  gods  whom  the  master 
thought  to  .set  aside  as  of  secondary  importance.  The)'  are  no  doubt  mere  me- 
chanical additions  to  the  Buddhist  faith  in  tlie  southern  districts  of  Buddhism,  as 
for  instance  in  Southern  India  about  the  year  1000  a.  d.  and  in  Ceylon,  Burniah, 
and  Siam  at  the  present  day  (see  the  plates,  pp.  .^01  and  510)  :  on  llie  other  band 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  401 


in  northern  Buddhism  (Tibet,  Mongolia,  etc.)  the  doctrine  with  which  they  have 
been  incorporated  has  been  so  entirely  transformed  by  their  influence  that  the 
original  system  of  Gautama  is  scarcely  recognisable. 

The  ethical  teaching  of  Buddhism  is  not  based  upon  divine  authority  but  upon 
individual  egoism ;  moral  duties  or  virtues  as  such  are  non-existent,  utilitarianism 
being  the  guiding  principle.  This  principle  indeed  inspires  the  commands  respect- 
rag  personal  behaviour,  self-restraint,  the  government  of  the  senses,  self-suthciency, 
vigilance.  Indeed  every  command  explaining  a  man's  duty  to  his  neighbour,  such 
as  the  exaggerated  care  against  the  taking  even  of  animal  life,  the  exhortations  to 
sympathy,  kindness,  and  benevolence,  etc.,  spring  not  from  the  ground  of  the  heart, 
but  from  the  purely  selfish  desire  to  advance  by  their  fulfilment  toward  the  idti- 
mate  goal  of  liberation.  The  moral  teaching  of  Buddha,  as  regards  the  manner  in 
which  it  makes  kindness  and  love  binding  upon  all  men,  is  high  above  the  ethical 
system  of  the  Brahmans  and  far  below  the  purity  and  nobility  of  Christianity. 
Especially  is  it  lacking  in  moral  force.  How  indeed  could  a  religion  provide  a 
strong  and  energetic  ethical  system  when  its  chief  duties  consisted  in  the  entire 
avoidance  of  action  and  its  highest  aim  in  total  extinction  (Xirvana).  The  indo- 
lence of  the  system  has  been  stamped  upon  the  whole  Buddhist  world;  stricken 
with  fear  at  the  thought  of  suffering,  its  strength  lies  rather  in  endurance  and. 
passivity  than  in  action.  In  a  people  enervated  by  such  beliefs  it  is  impossible  to 
expect  any  powerful  bond  of  union,  any  feeling  for  the  greatness  of  race  or  state, 
any  sense  of  patriotism.  We  do  not  forget  what  the  princes  did  for  their  people, 
b,ut  at  the  same  time  this  could  only  be  a  drop  in  the  ocean ;  they  cared  for  the 
poor  and  tlie  sick,  planted  fruit  trees  on  the  roads,  constructed  gi-eat  works  of  irri- 
gation, were  liberal,  especially  toward  the  monastic  orders.  But  this  very  liber- 
ality was  a  cause  of  further  weakness ;  the  best  and  the  richest  districts  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  orders,  and  many  strong  arms  were  thereby  condemned  to  inac- 
tivity. Meanwhile  the  people  became  impoverished,  and  bore  their  sad  existence 
with  resignation  or  indifference. 

The  caste  system  (p.  374)  Buddha  no  more  attempted  to  set  aside  than  the 
gods ;  in  his  view  both  of  these  were  necessary  institutions  as  existing  from  the 
creation  of  the  world.  Tlie  gi-eat  difference  between  his  teaching  and  that  of 
the  Brahmans  consists  in  the  fact  that  he  meant  his  precepts  of  humanitarianism 
to  be  binding  upon  all  the  castes.  His  followers  were  to  be  kind  and  benevolent 
even  to  the  low-born  Sudra,  and  were  not  forbidden  even  to  accept  food  from  this 
caste.  At  the  same  time  a  caste  feeling  was  deeply  rooted  in  Buddha  and  the 
whole  of  his  order ;  though  we  often  hear  of  the  reception  of  distinguished  mem- 
bers of  the  higher  and  the  highest  castes  by  the  master  during  his  lifetime,  in- 
stances of  such  treatment  of  the  Sudra  Buddliists  do  not  occur.  Even  at  the 
present  day  the  collective  Buddhist  sects  of  Ceylon  are  recruited  solely  from  the 
highest  castes. 

Buddhism  is  also  open  to  the  further  reproach  of  having  done  nothing  to  raise 
the  social  position  of  the  woman.  The  founder  showed  the  greatest  reluctance, 
and  was  induced  only  by  a  strong  pressure  from  without  to  admit  the  woman 
within  his  community,  and  even  then  she  was  not  placed  upon  an  equality  with  the 
man.  Generally  speaking,  the  only  consolation  he  had  to  give  to  the  woman  in  her 
subordinate  position  was  that  she  must  bear  her  burden  because  it  was  appointed 
by  the  order  of  things  in  the  same  way  as  the  burden  of  a  Sudra  or  of  a  worm. 


VOL.  II  — 2G 


402  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chajjterjr 

Severe  but  true  is  Bishop  Copleston's  criticism  of  Buddhism,  —  that  it  lowers 
mankind  by  the  very  assertion  of  man's  supremacy. 

(t])  Jainism.  —  Buddliism,  though  the  most  successful,  was  not  the  only  reli- 
gious system  which  rose  during  that  period  of  intellectual  movement.  Contempo- 
rary with  Gautama  was  that  personality  to  whom  the  now  existing  sect  of  the 
Jains  refers  the  origin  of  its  religion ;  his  name  was  NAtaputta  (Sanscrit,  Jilfitri- 
putra)  though  he  was  known  by  his  adherents  as  Mahiivira  Wardhiimana  or  the 
revered  Jina  (world  conqueror;.  He  too  had  his  origin  in  that  centre  of  intellec- 
tual movement  on  the  lower  Ganges,  and  his  life  and  teaching  are  marked  by  many 
poiuts  of  resemblance  to  his  more  important  contemporary.  Like  Buddlia  he  was 
the  son  (boru  599  b.  C.)  of  a  distinguished  Ksliatriya,  by  name  Siddharta,  who  was 
apparently  governor  of  the  outlying  town  of  Kandapura  of  Vesfdi  (p.  893)  where 
the  feudal  aristocracy  was  as  predominant  as  among  the  Sakya.  On  his  mother's 
side  lie  was  related  to  King  Bimbisara  of  Magadha  (p.  391)  and  like  Gautama  he 
found  in  this  kiug  a  patron  of  his  doctrine ;  indeed  these  two  religious  systems 
owe  their  prosperity  primarily  to  the  existence  of  that  great  kingdom  and  its  ruler. 
Until  his  twent}--eightli  year  Nataputtix  lived  with  his  parents ;  then,  however, 
like  Gautama,  he  joined  the  Brahman  ascetics  and  lived  for  twelve  years  under 
their  rules,  surpassing  all  but  one  of  these  in  the  severest  penances  as  a  naked 
ascetic  (gymnosophist).  Thus  he  arrived  at  supreme  knowledge  or  Kewala  and  so 
acquired  for  his  soul  freedom  from  its  earthly  trammels.  The  last  thirty  years  of 
his  life  (until  527)  were  devoted  to  the  dissemination  of  his  teaching  and  to  the 
organisation  of  the  community  he  founded. 

His  honorary  title  of  Jina  has  been  taken  by  the  sect  which  he  founded,  the 
Jaius.  They  believe  in  a  great  number  of  prophets  of  their  faith  anterior  to  Nilta- 
putla,  and  pay  special  reverence  to  the  last  of  these,  I'arsva,  or  ITusvanfttha. 
Herein  they  are  correct,  in  so  far  as  this  latter  personality  is  more  than  mythical. 
He  was  indeed  the  royal  founder  of  Jainism  (776  ?),  while  his  successor,  JIahavira, 
was  younger  by  many  generations,  and  can  only  be  considered  as  a  reformer.  As 
early  as  the  time  of  tiautania,  the  religious  confraternity  founded  by  Parsva,  and 
known  as  the  Nigantha  (Sanscrit,  Xigrantha),  was  a  formally  established  sect,  and, 
according  to  the  Buddhist  chronicles,  threw  numerous  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the 
rising  Buddhism.  The  numerous  poiuts  of  correspondence  between  Buddliism  and 
Jainism  are  sutlicienlly  explained  by  the  fact  that  both  systems  originated  in 
Bralimaa  teaching  and  practice.  The  formation  of  the  Jain  canon  dates  from  the 
fifth  century  A. D.,  during  which  period  the  "holy"  scriptures  were  establislied  at 
the  Council  of  Valabht,  under  the  presidency  of  Devarddhiganin.  But  A.  F.  11. 
Hoernle  puts  this  council  as  early  as  154;  and  according  to  Hermann  Jacobi  the 
writings  from  which  the  canon  has  been  formed  are  as  early  as  the  first  and  per- 
haps the  second  or  third  centuries  n.  c. 

The  Jains,  like  the  Buddhists,  accept  the  Braliman  theor}-  of  the  miseiy  of 
existence  and  the  necessity  for  liberation.  Wheie,  however,  the  Buddhist  philoso- 
phy diverges  from  the  Brahman,  they  follow  the  older  creed.  According  to  their 
system,  the  soul  has  a  real  and  self-contained  existence;  during  life  it  is  fettered 
to  the  base  elements  of  the  material  liody,  which  it  leaves  upon  death.  Tiie  soul 
is  then  enclosed  in  a  form  of  ethereal  lightness  until  the  Karma  (Kamma,  p.  397), 
the  ethical  resultant  of  the  actions  performed  in  life,  obliges  it  to  become  reincar- 


HXl'I.AXATIoX    OF    TIIK    I'lCTrUK    OVKK'LKAF 

Aim  is  a  lofly  inouiitaiii  aljtmt  live  thousaiul  feet  lii,t,'li,  in  Simlii,  mu'  of  tin-  twi'iitv  States  of 
tlie  Kajputana  ilistrict  in  Northwest  Imlia,  lying  on  the  northwest  border  of  the  Aravali  ihain, 
well  known  for  its  mineral  wealth.  Here,  together  with  the  summer  (jnarters  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment ;igent,  are  situated  live  tem|iles,  forming  one  . if  the  most  sacred  spots  visited  by  the  .Iain 
pilgrimages;  two  of  these,  built  in  white  marble  and  erected  in  1031  and  1200  A.  D.  respectively, 
an-  i-ankeil  among  the  most  beautiful  examples  of  fndian  architectural  skill. 


fO'a]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  403 

nate  and  to  resume  the  burden  of  suflermg.  Buddhist  philosophy  culminates  in 
the  release  from  this  necessity  of  reincarnation,  —  that  is  to  say,  in  nonentity; 
whereas  the  Jains  assumed  the  existence  of  an  elaborate  system  of  higher  and 
highest  beings  which  claim  veneration  fi-om  mankind.  In  the  different  regions 
occupied  by  these  dixine  personalities,  the  Jina,  or  all-conquerors,  take  the  highest 
place.  They  alone,  released  from  death  and  from  new  birth,  live  in  eternal  and 
absolute  purity.  They  are  the  souls,  freed  from  all  earthly  trammels,  of  the  great 
prophets,  who  are  far  more  numerous  in  this  religion  than  in  Buddhism.  Time  is 
divided  into  three  parts,— present,  past,  and  future;  and  in  each  of  these  divisions 
twenty-four  Jiuas  appear  at  long  intervals  to  bring  knowledge  to  the  world  of  those 
lofty  truths  leading  to  salvation.  The  twenty-third  Jina  of  the  present  earthly 
period  was  Piirsvanatha,  and  the  twenty-fourth,  Mahavira.  All  of  these,  by  precept 
and  example,  have  shown  to  the  world  the  path  to  liberation,  which  consists  in 
purity  of  faith,  in  true  insight,  and  in  vu-tue  undefiled. 

True  faith  consists  in  belief  in  the  Jina  and  in  the  whole  system  of  higher 
beings ;  true  insight  is  provided  I  ly  tlie  philosophical  system  of  the  Jains.  Accord- 
ing to  this  system,  Isoth  the  world  and  the  soul  have  an  eternal  objective  existence. 
The  misfortune  of  the  soul  consists  in  its  connection  with  the  body,  and  when  its 
desire  for  action  is  extinguished  it  becomes  free.  The  precepts  of  pure  virtue  coin- 
cide almost  entirely  with  those  of  the  Buddhist  teaching.  The  five  fundamental 
precepts  of  the  Jain  monks  are  the  same  as  the  first  four  of  the  Brahmans,  and  run 
as  follows :  Thou  shalt  not  kill  any  living  being ;  thou  shalt  not  lie ;  thou  shalt 
not  take  what  has  not  been  given  to  thee ;  thou  shalt  refrain  from  intercourse  with 
worldly  relations.  The  fifth  precept  includes  within  itself  the  remaiuing  precepts 
of  the  Buddhist  monks :  thou  shalt  renounce  all  eartlily  possessions,  and  chiefly 
shalt  call  nothing  thine  own.  While  insisting  upon  the  importance  of  these  com- 
mandments, the  Jain  teaching  also  recognises  the  value  of  asceticism  in  its  severest 
form  as  an  aid  to  liberation.  About  the  year  80  A.  D.  this  point  led  to  the  schism 
between  the  two  main  sects  of  this  religion,  which,  however,  agree  upon  funda- 
mental principles,  —  the  Digambara,  "  those  who  are  clothed  with  the  vaidt  of 
heaven"  (that  is,  the  naked),  and  the  Svetfimbara,  "those  clothed  in  white." 

Centres  and  objects  of  worship  are  numerous,  as  might  be  expected  from  the 
high  importance  attached  to  the  divine  beings.  All  Jain  temples  are  placed  by 
preference  upon  lofty  mountains,  such  as  Mount  Abu  (see  the  plate,  "  The  Interior 
of  a  Jain  Temple  at  Mount  Abu  ^  in  Eajputana  "),  Mount  Girnar  in  Gujerat,  etc. 
These  buildings  are  adorned  with  rich  decoration,  and  with  a  wealth  of  designs 
representing  the  different  Jinas  with  their  tokens  (the  ox,  the  ape,  the  fish,  etc.). 

This  religion  is  in  existence  at  the  present  day,  and  has  enjoyed  great  prosperity 
at  different  periods,  as,  for  instance,  during  the  fifth  centmy  a.  d.  in  the  Deccan, 
the  sixth  century  in  Gujerat,  etc.  According  to  the  last  census  (that  of  1891), 
1,417,000  Jains  are  found  in  India,  nearly  half  per  cent  (0.49)  of  the  whole  popu- 
lation. They  are  also  represented  in  places  where  a  large  number  of  Hmdoos 
have  immigrated,  as  in  East  Africa.  Everywhere  they  enjoy  the  reputation  of 
honourable  and  cafiable  men.  In  the  larger  towns  of  Northern  India  and  also  in 
the  Deccan  their  reliability  and  commercial  industry  has  enabled  them  to  awiuire 
prosperity  and  often  great  wealth.     Their  benevolence  often  borders  on  the  ludi- 


1  Temple,  named  Vimala  Sah,  erected  in  1032,  according  to  Fergusson. 


404  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chopte,- iv 

crous.  We  refer  to  luauy  of  the  liosiiiials  fur  auiiiials  which  tliey  have  founded, 
in  their  custom  of  wearing  a  resinrator  and  carrying  a  small  broom  to  avoid  killing 
even  insects  by  involuntarily  swallowing  or  crushing  them. 

(c)  The  Period  from  the  Expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great  to  the  Entrance  of 
Mohammedanism.  —  From  the  earliest  times  the  inexhaustible  natural  riches  of 
the  great  plains  of  the  Ganges  have  been  a  source  of  prosperity  and  of  misfortune 
to  India.  In  every  age  this  district  has  proved  a  strong  attraction  to  foreign 
peoples.  The  great  Aryan  immigration  was  the  first  movement  of  tlie  kind  of 
which  we  hear,  but  by  no  means  the  last.  Ktesias,  Arriau,  and  others  relate 
legends  which  speak  of  the  invasion  of  Assyrian  rulers,  of  Niuus  and  Semiramis ; 
and  though  these  may  be  purely  mythical  figures,  yet  those  legends  undoubtedly 
rest  upon  some  historical  foundation.  Diodorus  quotes  the  name  of  an  Indian 
king  (iL  19),  Stabrobates  (the  lord  of  draught  animals).  It  is  true  that  this  name 
appears  rather  Iranian  than  Indian.  However,  upon  Assyrian  monuments  (for 
example,  the  obelisk  i)f  Salmanassar  II  belonging  to  the  year  842  i?.  c.)  are  repre- 
sentations of  the  Indian  elejihant  and  the  rhinoceros  which  were  led  before  the 
victorious  king,  together  with  liis  prisoners.  At  a  later  period  the  Peisian  Cyrus 
is  said  to  liave  undertaken  a  fruitless  campaign  to  India,  and  upon  his  defeat  to 
have  retired  to  the  same  desert  of  Gedrosia  (see  Vol.  Ill,  p.  137)  througli  which 
Alexander  retreated  with  his  Macedonians.  Tliere  is  no  doubt  that  Darius  Hys- 
taspes  subdued  the  races  north  of  the  Cabul  River  and  west  of  the  Indus,  and 
explored  the  course  of  this  latter  stream  (about  510  n.  c).  Those  tribes  formed  a 
special  satrapy  of  Persia  (see  Vol.  Ill,  p.  14."!),  and  their  contingents  are  said  by 
Herodotus  to  have  fought  under  Xerxes  against  the  Greeks. 

(a)  Alexander's  Expedition  against  India.  —  The  Indian  expedition  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  (.see  VoL  IV,  p.  126)  is  the  earliest  established  chronological  fact 
in  the  historj'  of  India.  In  the  year  327  b.  c.  he  started  from  Sogdiana  and  Bactria 
with  about  one  hundred  thousand  warriors.  Advancing  along  the  Cal)ul  Itiver  he 
was  repeatedly  obliged  to  wage  desperate  conflicts  with  the  bold  mountain  races 
and  to  destroy  many  of  tlieir  fortified  posts,  but  he  arrived  in  tlie  spring  of  tlie 
following  year  at  the  Indus  frontier  of  the  rich  district  of  Five  River  Land. 

The  peoples  there  settled  had  changed  but  little  since  the  time  when  their 
brothers  had  marched  eastward  into  the  Gauges  district,  had  there  founded  States 
(p.  371),  and  had  struggled  with  the  rising  power  of  Brahmanism,  with  which  they 
liad  eventually  comjjromised  (p.  373).  At  that  time  the  population  was  divided 
into  a  number  of  smaller  tribe.*,  tlie  wairior  caste  holding  the  predominant  posi- 
tion. Here  Alexander  met  with  a  wholly  unexpected  resistance.  Plutarch  says 
of  them  that  the  bravest  and  most  warlike  of  the  Indians  were  the  "  mercenaries, 
who  marched  from  one  town  to  another  defending  each  position  to  the  last,  and 
inflicting  great  loss  upon  Alexander."  So  intense  was  the  animosity  of  the  con- 
queror to  this  caste  that,  after  promising  unmolested  retirement  to  the  Kshatriya 
defenders  of  a  town,  he  laid  in  ambush  for  them  and  destroyed  them  duruig 
their  retreat.  And  "  no  less  was  the  vexation  caused  him  l>y  the  Indian  jiliiloso- 
plieis,  who  re\'iled  the  kings  who  joined  liini  and  stirred  up  the  free  populations; 
for  this  cause  he  hanged  many  of  them." 

Though  the  old  bravery  remained,  llie  old  tribal  feuds  had  by  no  means  died 


f"'"']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  405 

out,  and  Alexander  -was  greatly  helped  by  the  strained  relations  subsisting  be- 
tween the  Gandhara  and  their  eastern  neighbours,  the  Puru,  the  most  important 
race  in  Five  River  Land.  The  Gandhara  king  Taxiles  (also  known  as  Omphis 
or  ]\Iophis)  joined  with  other  chiefs  in  domg  homage  to  the  invader,  and  sup- 
ported Alexander's  armv  with  his  own  troops.  In  the  spring  of  326  the  Greeks 
crossed  the  Indus  near  the  modern  Attok  (accordmg  to  Fr.  Pincott,  at  Amb),  and 
after  receiving  the  homage  of  the  people  of  Taxila  (Deri  Shiihan,  near  Lahore ; 
Sanscrit,  TakshasUa,  that  is,  the  rock  of  the  Takshas,  a  Scythian  tribe),  marched 
against  the  Puru  prince  Porus.  This  mnnarch  awaited  the  Greek  advance  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Hydaspes  (Jilam ;  p.  364).  The  Kshatriya  fought  with  the 
couiage  of  despair,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  Puru  warriors  were  left  upon 
the  field  of  battle.  The  aged  and  heroic  prince  upon  his  war  elephant  only  re- 
treated when  he  found  his  army  destroyed,  his  two  sous  slain,  and  himself  seri- 
ously wounded.  Not  only  did  the  Macedonians  leave  him  liis  kingdom,  but  they 
added  to  it  a  number  of  conquered  districts.  After  a  rest  of  thirty  days  Alexander 
advanced  upon  a  fresh  campaign  ;  he  had  received  reliable  information  concerning 
the  peoples  of  the  fruitful  Ganges  district,  their  populous  towns  and  splendid 
capitals.  However,  his  armj-  deserted  him  at  Hyphasis  (Bias)  in  the  year  325, 
and  the  world  conqueror  had  come  to  the  end  of  his  victorious  career.  In  boats 
and  rafts  he  sailed  down  stream  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  and  there  divided  his 
arm)'  into  two  parts.  One  of  these  returned  to  Persia  by  sea  under  Xearchus, 
while  he  himself  was  forced  to  retreat  through  the  waterless  desert  of  Gedrosia 
under  a  burning  August  sun,  and  saveil  but  a  few  remnants  of  the  other  half. 
Shortly  afterward  Alexander  succumbed  to  his  fatigues,  his  excesses,  and  the  effects 
of  the  climate,  in  the  summer  of  323. 

(/3)  TJie  Kingdom  of  Magadha ;  Chandragtipta  and  Asoka.  —  Alexander's 
Indian  campaign  had  been  of  short  duration,  but  the  irresistible  nature  of  his 
onset  was  only  equalled  by  the  importance  of  its  consequences  to  the  country  ; 
from  the  various  tribes  who  had  resisted  the  foreigners  was  formed  the  powerful 
Magadha  kmgdom.  Among  those  who  had  been  brought  over  to  Alexander's 
side  by  the  hope  of  personal  advantage  was  an  adventurer  known  as  Chandragupta 
(the  Sandrocottus  of  the  Greeks).  A  Sndra  by  birth  (from  his  mother  ^lura, 
a  low  caste  woman,  the  royal  family  which  succeeded  the  Nanda  was  known 
as  the  Maurya  dynasty),  his  position  upon  the  lower  Ganges  had  become  uuten- 
able  for  him  by  reason  of  his  intrigues.  The  confusion  caused  by  the  advance 
of  Alexander  into  Five  Eiver  Land  seemed  to  him  a  favourable  occasion  for  tlie 
realisation  of  his  ambitions,  and  he  contrived  to  maintain  connection  with  both  of 
the  two  parties.  After  the  retreat  and  death  of  Alexander  dissensions  broke  out 
among  the  Greek  party  remaining  in  the  country ;  Porus  was  murdered  by  a  Greek 
leader,  Eudemus,  and  the  Diadochi  began  a  series  of  bloody  quarrels  over  the 
division  of  the  empire.  Chandragupta  then  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Indian  movement,  secured  the  predominance  of  the  Punjab  in  3115  B.C.,  and  in 
the  following  year  gained  possession  of  the  Magadha  kingdom,  which,  under  his 
rule  (f  296  b.  c),  extended  from  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Ganges.  Seleucus  I  Nicator  found  Magadha  so  powerful  in  303  that  he  considered 
it  more  prudent  to  secure  the  alliance  of  his  eastern  neighbour  by  giving  him  his 
daughter  in  marriage  and  renouncing  his  claim  to  Eastern  Gedrosia,  Arachosia,  and 


406  lllsrOR^     OV    THE    WORLD  \_ciu,,.t>-r  iv 

Paropamisus.  The  excellent  terms  upun  whicli  these  two  juinces  lived  is  eviilenced 
by  their  mutual  despatch  of  ambassadors  to  the  courts  of  Babylon  aud  I'ataliputra 
(see  YoL  IV,  p.  147). 

Tlie  first  detailed  description  composed  by  an  eye-witness  of  India  and  its 
people  is  that  for  wliich  we  liave  to  tliank  the  Greek  rei>resentative  Megasthenes. 
Only  a  few  fragments  remain  to  us  of  his  work  entitled  "  Indica;"  but  even  from 
these  we  may  learn  many  important  details  of  the  conditions  of  life  in  tlie 
Magadha  kingdom.  From  a  Greek  point  of  view  the  description  is  liighly  pre- 
possessing. Jlegasthenes  praises  the  population  for  tiieir  lionesty,  uprightness, 
strength,  moderation,  and  peaceful  inclinations,  though  they  are  ready  to  repel 
invaders  by  force  of  arms.  The  prosperity  of  the  State  rested  upon  agriculture ; 
this  occupation  was  considered  so  sacred  that  it  was  not  t()  be  iiiterrnjited  even  in 
time  of  war,  aud  the  farmer  could  peacefully  till  his  land  while  bloody  battles 
were  proceeding  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  The  kingdom  was  defended  by 
a  numerous  well-organised  and  highly  trained  warrior  class,  —  one  of  the  seven 
classes  (castes)  of  the  people,  between  which  so  sharp  a  line  of  demarcation  ex- 
isted that  they  could  not  even  eat  together.  The  laud  was  common  property,  aud 
one-fourth  of  the  produce  was  paid  over  to  tlie  State  to  meet  government  ex- 
penses. The  Buddhist  ascetics  (Sramaus)  were  then  considered  a  subdivision  of 
the  Brahmaios. 

The  grandson  of  Chandragupta,  the  sou  aud  successor  of  Bindusara,  Asoka 
(Sanscrit,  Aioka;  269  to  232  B.  c),  was  the  most  powerful  ruler  of  ancient  India; 
his  kingdom  extended  over  the  greater  half  of  the  peninsula,  and  his  influence  far 
beyond  these  limits.  After  thousands  of  j-ears  no  king  has  received  such  deep 
veneration  as  this  Magadha  ruler,  whose  name  even  to-day  is  deeply  honoured 
from  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  to  the  furthest  islands  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  from 
the  shores  of  the  polar  ice  to  the  equator.  It  is  not  to  the  greatness  of  his  politi- 
cal power  that  he  owes  his  fame,  but  to  the  gospel  of  human  love,  which  he  sub- 
stituted for  the  teaching  of  Gautama  (see  above,  p.  -394). 

The  Magadha  kingdom,  with  its  capital  of  Pataliputra  (Patna),  founded  by 
Chandragupta  in  the  year  315  B.C.,  was  not  destined  to  exist  for  long;  its  most 
brilliant  period  is  the  reign  of  Asoka,  the  grandson  of  its  founder,  under  whom 
it  extended  from  Afghanistan  to  the  district  of  the  modern  Mysore,  and  from 
Kathiawad  to  Orissa  (see  the  map,  p.  430 ;  cf.  also  p.  500).  Less  than  a  cen- 
tury after  the  accession  of  the  great  king,  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
years  aftei;  the  founding  of  the  Maurya  dynasty,  the  last  ruler,  the  tenth  of  the 
dynasty,  was  overthrown  by  his  general,  Brihadratha.  The  succeeding  dynasty  of 
the  Shunga  lasted  only  oue  hundred  and  twelve  years  (178  to  66  B.  c.) ;  the  kiug- 
dom  of  the  Kanwa,  who  succeeded,  gradually  diminished  as  the  Scythians  increased 
in  importance. 

(7)  The  Sci/thian  Tibetan  Kiyyjdom,  in  Northwest  India.  —  The  natural  condi- 
tions of  the  Asiatic  Highlands  impose  a  nomadic  life  upon  the  inliabitants  (cf. 
above.  Chapter  II).  Mongolian,  Turko-Tartar,  and  Scythian  peoples  were  continually 
struggling  for  the  possession  of  the  grass  ste])pes  and  jiasture  lands  after  the  immi- 
gration of  the  Aryans.  Eace  collided  with  race,  and,  like  a  wave  driven  before 
the  stormy  blast,  confusion  reached  the  uttermost  limits  of  the  country.  An 
unusually  strong  upheaval  of  this  nature  had  disturbed  these  nomadic  tribes  in  the 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  407 


second  century  b.  c.  The  Mongolian  tribe  of  the  Hiuiig  nu,  li\-ing  east  of  the  Oxus 
district  in  the  steppes  between  Khiva  and  Khotan,  had  attacked  the  Tibetan  Yue 
tshi  (p.  140),  who  are,  no  doubt,  to  be  ideutitied  with  the  Scythian  Issedones 
(p.  146)  upon  their  western  frontier.  This  tribe  they  had  defeated  and  forced 
to  emigrate.  The  conquered  nation  then  advanced  upon  the  Grreco-Bactrian  king- 
dom, founded  about  250  B.  C.  by  Diodotus  (Vol.  IV,  p.  159),  a  kuigdom  which  had 
now  advanced  beyond  the  Indus  to  the  Punjab.  Before  the  onslaught  of  these 
invaders  the  predominance  of  the  Greeks  in  Bactria  proper  came  to  an  end  sliortly 
after  the  year  140  B.  c.  A  Scythian  ofTshoot,  the  Sakte  (see  aboye,  p.  135),  under 
the  leadership  of  the  kings  Maues  (100  B.C.)  and  Azes  (70  B.C.),  turned  toward 
the  Indus,  and  following  the  course  of  this  river  southward  to  Sindh  ultimately 
arrived  at  Gujarat.  Another  tribe,  the  Kushana  (Kushans),  followed  the  Cabul 
Eiver  into  the  Punjab  under  the  prince  Kozulo  (Kujula)  Kadphises.  Here  they 
destroyed  the  last  remnants  of  the  Greek  supremacy  (Hermaeus)  in  the  year  25  B  c, 
and  the  following  king,  Huemo  Kadphises,  extended  his  power  over  the  larger  part 
of  Northwest  India  (p.  144). 

The  most  important  ruler  of  this  dynasty  was  the  next  king,  Kanishka,  whose 
kingdom  extended  from  Yarkaud  and  Khokand  to  Gujerat,  and  from  Afghanistan 
as  far  as  the  Jumna.  From  his  anointing  (the  15th  of  March,  78  A.  d.)  dates  the 
"Saka  Chronology."  A.  M.  Boyer  and  others  consider  Nahapana  as  the  founder  of 
this  kingdom.  Upon  their  advance  into  India  the  Scytliian  hordes  came  in  contact 
with  Buddhism,  and  enthusiastically  embraced  this  new  religion.  Like  Asoka, 
Kanishka  called  a  special  council  at  Kashmir  to  reformulate  the  doctrine  of 
Buddha.  Supplementary  explanations  were  then  added  to  the  three  Pitakas  of 
the  Council  of  Patna  (p.  393).  From  this  council  it  appears  that  even  at  that  time 
the  old  doctrines  of  Buddhism  had  not  been  preserved  in  their  original  purity  in 
Northern  India,  but  had  undergone  considerable  changes  under  the  influence  of 
Brahman  and  Dravidian  ideas.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  probable  that  the  deities 
introduced  by  the  Scythians  were  not  entirely  without  influence  upon  the  conclusions 
drawn  up  by  the  council  of  the  mighty  Scythian  ruler. 

(S)  The  Hindu  Dynasty  of  North  and  Central  India  during  the  First  Millen- 
nium A.  D.  —  The  kingdom  founded  by  Kadphises,  like  that  of  Chandragupta, 
reached  its  most  flourishing  period  under  the  second  successor  of  the  founder,  while 
its  importance  begins  to  decrease  after  the  third  century  A.  D.,  when  other  dynasties 
and  States  became  more  prominent.  However,  the  history  of  India  during  tlie  first 
millennium  A.  d.  appears  to  the  modern  inquirer  like  a  great  mosaic  picture,  in 
which  only  individual  or  small  related  groups  of  stones  are  now  recognisable. 
Coins,  casual  reports  from  travellers  (especially  Chinese),  and  inscriptions  show 
us  movement  and  counter  movement,  rise  and  decay  among  States  both  small  and 
great,  but  in  no  case  is  it  possible  to  reconstruct  the  history  in  detail.  In  many 
cases  we  have  only  the  most  scanty  sources  of  information,  a  few  isolated  names 
and  events ;  while  other  States  certainly  e.xisted  and  have  left  not  a  trace  of  their 
career  behind. 

The  famous  Maurya  dynasty  began  to  decay  shortly  after  the  time  of  Asoka, 
but  the  old  splendour  reappeared  for  a  moment  under  the  dynasty  founded  by 
Gupta  (290  A.  D.).  This  king,  who  had  formerly  been  a  vassal  of  Magadlia,  made 
himself  independent,  and  under  his  grandson  Chandragupta  I  and  his  immediate 


408  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         ln..,/.terjv 

successoi-s  ihe  prosixMity  nf  the  kin^doiu  advumrd  so  laiiuUy  that  it  incliKk'd  all 
the  tenitorv  betweeu  Nepal  and  the  Narbada,  between  Cutch  and  the  Ganges  delta. 
During  the  sixth  I'enliuv,  Imwevei-,  the  prosperity  of  the  realm  was  shattered  by  the 
attack  of  the  "  White  Ihins  "  (lluna  ;  of.  p.  1")5  ad  fin.)  in  the  year  515.  These  in- 
vaders were  utterly  defeated  about  530  near  Kahror  by  Ya^odluirnia,  a  vassal  of  the 
Gujita  kingdom,  lie  himself  assumed  the  predominance  and  further  extended  the 
boundaries  of  the  kingdom,  though  its  history  from  this  point  is  only  known  to  us 
by  a  number  of  royal  titles. 

A  kingdom  of  larger  extent  further  to  the  south  was  also  formed  during  the 
struggle  with  the  White  Huna,  who  had  left  their  habitations  on  the  Oxus  after 
the  year  435  A.  D.  and  had  invaded  India.  In  the  struggle  against  their  king, 
Mihirakula  Yasodliarma,  had  been  anticipated  by  another  vassal  of  the  Gupta 
kingdom,  Sanapati  Bhatarka  (495  a.  d.)-  This  prince  was  the  founder  of  the 
Valabhi  dynasty  and  kingdom,  which  attained  a  high  measure  of  prosperity 
under  his  sixth  successor,  Dhniwaseua.  It  included  Gujerat,  extending  to  the 
Narbada.  The  rulers  at  one  time  showed  special  favour  to  Buddhism,  and  at 
another  transferred  their  preference  to  the  Brahmans  or  to  the  Jains,  who  still 
count  many  adherents  in  the  old  Valabhi  district.  At  the  Council  of  Valabhi 
(p.  402)  the  canons  of  this  latter  doctrine  were  definitely  formulated  under  the 
presidency  of  Devarddhiganin  K.shamashramana. 

To  the  second  half  of  the  first  millennium  A.  D.  belongs  the  development  of  an 
important  Hindu  kingdom  in  the  Deccan,  that  of  the  Chalukya  (see  the  map, 
p.  4o0).  This  race  is  considered  to  have  come  from  Northern  India,  and  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty,  Jayasimha  I,  established  himself  about  500  A.  D.  in  the 
Deccan  at  the  expense  of  the  Dravidian  Fallavas.  The  new  Hindu  kingdom 
rapidly  increased  in  size  and  power,  and  in  the  following  millennium  embraced  the 
greater  portion  of  the  Deccan.  In  the  year  630  it  was  divided  into  an  eastern  and 
a  western  kingdom.  The  Chrdukya  inince,  Vishnuwardhana,  obtained  the  king- 
dom on  the  east  coast  (Wengi),  which  included  the  coast  line  betweeu  the  mouths 
of  the  Krishna  and  Godaveri.  For  a  long  period  he  was  at  war  with  the  Chola  on 
the  south,  and  eventually  succumbed  to  their  attacks  in  1060.  The  western 
Chrdukya  were  a  flourishing  kingdom  until  the  year  747  A.  D.,  and  were  then  con- 
quered and  reduced  to  great  weakness  by  the  IJashtrakuta  (Gujerat).  After  a  long 
period  of  depression,  Tailapa  Deva,  the  son  of  Vikramaditya  IV,  conquered  the 
Rashtrakfita  of  Malkhed  and  also  Malava  and  the  Chola  in  973,  and  became  the 
founder  of  the  later  Chalukya  dynasty,  whose  kingdom  disappears  toward  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century,  when  it  was  divided  among  a  number  of  branch  dynasties. 

(e)  niniluism.  —  This  period  of  political  change  and  complete  racial  fusion 
had  gradually  obliterated  the  points  of  contrast  existing  between  the  original  races 
and  jieoples.  Tlie  unity  of  the  Indian  ])eople,  Hinduism  as  it  is  in  modern  times, 
had  been  slowly  formed  from  this  former  ethnical  dualism.  Its  character  is  marked 
by  two  special  peculiarities,  —  religious  belief  and  social  institutions  (castes). 

(1)  Buddhism;  its  Extension  and  Division  into  Southern  and  Northern  Tiipes ; 
its  End  in  India.  —  During  the  time  of  Asoka  we  find  great  points  of  difference 
existing  within  the  s[>here  of  religious  belief.  The  Brahman  doctrine  of  the  nature 
of  the  world  and  the  Deity  was  a  jjurelj-  esoteric  system  of  belief,  the  other  castes, 


indu.-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  409 

and  particularly  the  great  mass  of  the  .^udra,  believing  in  the  power  of  demons. 
"Within  the  Brahman  school  of  tliought  a  third  faith  had  arisen,  —  Buddhism. 
This  had  been  at  first  tolerated  by  the  Brahmans,  as  they  had  failed  to  recognise 
the  points  of  opposition  to  their  system  which  its  teaching  involved.  It  has 
largely  to  thank  Asoka  for  the  \dgour  of  its  advance.  It  was  preached  throughout 
India  by  the  royal  missionaries,  and  introduced  into  Ceylon  immediately  after  the 
Council  of  Patna.  It  also  penetrated  far  beyond  the  boundaries  of  its  Indian  birtli- 
place.  During  the  first  century  of  our  era  it  readied  ChLua,  where  it  was  recognised 
as  the  State  religion  during  tlie  fourth  century  (p.  81).  In  372  it  was  introduced 
from  China,  into  Korea  (p.  116),  reaching  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  Cochin 
China,  Ava,  Formosa,  Mongolia  (p.  166),  and  Japan  during  the  sixth  century 
(p.  10).  At  an  even  earlier  period  that  form  of  it  established  in  the  Piili  canon 
had  passed  from  Ceylon  to  Burmah  (450  b.  c),  and  afterward  became  the  dominant 
faith  in  Siam  (638) ;  it  was  brought  to  Java  from  the  Indian  continent  in  the  sixth 
or  seventh  century.  We  have  a  striking  example  of  the  powerful  influence  which 
its  teaching  of  liberation  and  its  humauitarianism  exercised  even  upon  uncivilized 
nations  in  the  case  of  the  Scythians  (Kanishka).  At  the  Council  of  Kashmir 
(p.  407)  the  doctrines  formulated  at  Patna  were  reasserted. 

But  even  at  that  time  in  the  north  of  India  a  schismatic  movement  had  begun, 
due  to  the  introduction  of  a  barren  system  of  dialectic,  and  also  to  the  perversion 
of  the  doctrine  and  worship  b}-  the  Dravidian  belief  in  demons.  At  a  later  period 
the  belief  imderwent  so  great  a  transformation  among  the  Tartar  and  Mongolian 
peoples  that  the  northern  Buddhism  of  the  present  day  is  merely  a  frightful  cari- 
cature of  the  pure  Buddhist  doctrine  (p.  186).  The  soul  to  which  Gautama  had 
denied  an  objective  existence  was  reintroduced  as  an  element  of  belief,  and  the 
soul  of  the  future  Buddhas,  the  Bodhisattwas,  especially  those  of  the  Manjusri  and 
the  Avalokitesvara,  were  accorded  divine  veneration,  becoming  personifications  of 
the  mystical  religious  knowledge  and  of  the  spirit  of  the  Buddhist  churches,  wliile 
almighty  power  was  tj-pified  in  a  third  divinity,  Vajradhara.  Thus  the  heaven  of 
this  Buddhist  sect  was  provided  with  a  Trimiirti  (p.  367).  To  this  triuity  were 
attributed  the  most  abhorrent  characteristics  of  the  lower  gods,  and  Shamanist 
customs  and  incantations,  together  with  bloody  sacrifices,  were  introduced  into  the 
worship.  This  incorporation  of  Indian  Dravidian  ideas  and  customs  with  Bud- 
dhism is  chiefly  the  work  of  the  Indian  monk  Asanga,  who  lived  in  Peshawar  in 
the  Punjab  during  the  sixth  century  a.  d.  The  resulting  doctrine,  called  by  the 
northern  Buddhists  the  "great  chariot,"  to  distinguish  it  from  that  which  they 
contemptuously  termed  the  "  little  chariot "  (the  earlier  Buddhism),  together  with 
the  conception  that  the  spirit  of  the  churclies  became  incarnate  in  one  temporal 
head,  eventually  led  to  the  development  of  Lamaism  in  the  countries  to  the  north 
of  India,  for  which  compare  p.  187. 

Next  to  the  Asoka  inscriptions  the  most  important  sources  of  information  upon 
Indian  Buddhism  are  the  accounts  of  the  Chinese  Buddhists  who  made  pilgrimages 
to  the  sacred  shrines  of  their  religion,  especially  the  reports  of  Fa  hien  (400-414 
A.  D. ;  p.  82)  and  of  Hiuen  T.sang  (629-645 ;  p.  83).  From  Fa  hien  we  learn  that 
in  the  whole  of  Nearer  India  the  two  doctrines,  the  "  great  chariot,"  MahaySna, 
and  the  "small  chariot,"  HinaySna,  existed  side  by  side,  though  at  the  same 
time  the  Brahman  teaching  counted  numerous  adherents.  At  the  time  of  Hiuen 
Tsang,  Kashmir  was  entirely  given  up  to  northern  Buddhism,  while  the  "  small 


410  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter iv 

chariot"  was  predominant  in  Western  and  Southern  India;  in  tlie  Ganges  district 
Buddhism  suffered  greatly  from  the  competition  of  BrMlimanism.  Hiueu  Tsaug 
was  present  at  the  Council  of  Kanauj,  where  the  doctrines  of  the  northern  sect 
were  formulated.  lUiddlia's  birth]ilaie  (p.  o90)  was  at  that  time  in  ruins,  but  his 
religion  was  even  then  tirndy  established  in  those  countries  in  which  he  had 
himself  been  personally  active.  In  the  rest  of  India  the  old  doctrine  was  still 
highly  flourishing,  and  only  in  Kalinga  had  it  been  driven  back  by  the  rise  of 
Bralunanism. 

Shortly  after  the  pilgrimage  of  lliuen  Tsang  serious  misfortunes  came  upon 
the  Buddhists.  These  arc  most  jirobabl)-  to  be  explained  by  persecutions,  which 
were  at  most  purely  local ;  Indian  Buddhism  collapsed  more  from  internal  weak- 
ness and  diversity  of  growth  than  from  the  open  hostility  of  other  religions. 
Shortly  after  the  conclusion  of  the  first  millennium  a.  d.,  about  1200,  it  had  ceased 
to  exist  almost  throughout  India.  The  princes  of  Kashmir  and  Orissa  supported 
it  for  a  time;  but  about  1340  its  last  stronghold.  Kashmir,  also  fell, and  when  the 
first  Mohammedan  kingdom  of  India  was  founded,  nearly  the  whole  population 
(with  the  exception  of  some  few  adherents  in  Bengal  and  Orissa,  together  with  the 
Jains)  acknowledged  the  gods  of  the  Hindu  religion. 

(2)  The  Hindu  Jtdif/ion.  —  Those  long-continued  political  disturbances  which 
we  have  described  proved  unfavourable  to  the  strengthening  of  religious  conviction. 
Among  the  Brahmans  a  period  of  deep  metaphysical  speculation  had  been  succeeded 
by  a  period  of  repose,  while  the  lowest  gods  and  the  rudest  forms  of  worship  had 
been  gradually  accepted  by  the  peo])le  at  large.  It  was  not  until  the  eighth  cen- 
tury that  the  reaction  began.  Tradition  names  Kumarila,  who  lived  in  the  first 
half  of  that  century,  as  at  once  the  deadly  enemy  of  the  Buddhists  and  the  reviver 
of  the  Brahman  leligion.  But  the  first  great  reformer  probably  so  called  was 
Saiikara  AchSrya  (born  in  the  Deccan  in  788 ;  chiefly  active  in  Northern  India, 
and  died  in  the  Himalayas,  820),  who  revived  the  VedSnta  philosophy  and  created 
the  new  popular  Hindu  religion.  The  esoteric  portion  of  his  doctrine  acknowledges 
one  unique  supreme  god,  the  BrahmS  Para  Brahmft,  the  creator  and  governor  of 
the  world,  who  is  to  be  worshipped  by  mystical  introspection ;  the  elements  of 
religious  thought  extant  in  the  people  as  a  whole  he  united  and  inspired  in  the 
figure  of  Siva.  The  great  apostle  of  the  worship  of  Vishnu,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
Kamauuja,  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century.  His  doctrines  were 
preached  by  Kabir  (1380-1420)  in  Bengal  and  Chaitanya  (born  1485)  in  Orissa. 
From  the  time  of  those  reformers  onward  Siva  and  Vishnu  have  been  the  corner- 
stones of  Hindu  worship.  In  the  popular  religion  lirahmii  retires  into  the 
background. 

The  fundamental  element  in  the  philosophical  conception  of  Vishnu  is  imma- 
nence, so  that  this  kindly  helping  god  becomes  properly  the  god  of  incarnations,  of 
AvaUlras.  His  being  permeates  all  things,  and  hence  he  may  appear  in  most  dif- 
ferent forms.  Whenever  gods  or  men  are  reduced  to  the  extremities  of  need,  Vishnu 
brings  them  help  in  one  or  another  of  his  manifestations.  Legend  numbers  many 
of  these  incarnations  (in  all  twenty-two),  b>it  the  generally  accepted  number  is  ten. 
In  the  first  three  the  god  appears  as  the  fish,  the  tortoise,  the  boar  ;  in  the  fourth,  as 
the  male  lion ;  and  in  the  later  incarnations  in  human  form,  first  as  a  dwarf ;  after- 
ward in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  as  Parasur.lma,  as  IJilmatshandra,  and  as 


/"H  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  411 

Krishna,  —  that  is,  in  forms  taken  from  the  heroic  legends  of  Indian  antiquity 
(see  pp.  371,  374,389).  Of  these  incarnations  Krishna  has  become  the  most  popu- 
lar, the  people  recognising  a  national  characteristic  in  the  amusing  tricks  assigned 
to  Krishna  by  the  legend.  The  representation  of  Buddha  as  the  ninth  incarnation 
of  Vishnu  no  doubt  belongs  to  a  period  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  unite  Bud- 
dhism with  the  Hindu  religion.  A  later  theory  also  considers  Buddha  under  this 
incarnation  as  an  agent  provocateur,  who  tempts  the  wicked  to  scorn  the  Vedas 
and  the  laws  of  caste  in  order  to  secure  their  eventual  destruction,  and  so  to  free 
the  world  of  them.  Finally,  the  last  incarnation  of  Vishnu  belongs  to  the  future ; 
at  the  end  of  the  present  age  the  god  will  appear  as  Kalki  and  found  a  new 
kingdom  of  purity. 

In  the  conception  of  Siva,  Brahman  ideas  of  "  darkness  "  meet  the  demon  beliefs 
of  the  Dravidians.  It  is  among  the  mountain  tribes  of  the  Himalaya  (p.  358)  that 
the  figure  of  Siva,  the  "  mountain  spirit,"  originates,  borrowed  from  Kirata,  a  divin- 
ity given  over  to  sensual  pleasures,  drinking,  and  dance  (Xateswara,  lord  of  the 
dancers),  and  followed  by  a  train  of  lower  spirits.  The  fundamental  conception  of 
the  Dravidian  races  of  divinity  as  evil  in  nature  is  commingled  with  the  Brahman 
ideas  of  darkness  in  the  person  of  Siva,  the  god  of  destruction.  As  Eudra  he  per- 
sonifies the  destructive  forces  of  nature ;  as  Mahakala,  the  dissolving  power  of  time ; 
.as  Bahirava,  he  is  the  destroyer,  or  destruction  as  such;  and  as  Bhute^wara, 
adorned  with  a  garland  of  snakes  and  death's-heads,  he  is  the  supreme  deity  of  all 
the  demons  of  the  Dravidian  belief  (see  the  upper  half  of  the  plate,  "  Early  Indian 
Sculpture,"  p.  390).  Thus  Siva  is  rather  a  Dravidian  Vishnu  than  an  Aryan  crea- 
tion, as  indeed  is  manifested  by  the  distribution  of  their  several  worships,  the  de- 
votees of  Siva  being  more  numerous  in  the  south  and  those  of  Vishnu  in  the  north. 
Thus  in  the  northern  districts  of  the  Madras  presidency  the  worshippers  of  Vishnu 
preponderate  by  a  number  varying  from  ten  to  one  to  four  to  one,  while  in  the 
central  districts  of  the  presidency  the  number  of  adherents  of  either  faith  is 
almost  equal ;  in  the  south  the  worshippers  of  Siva  surpass  those  of  Vishnu  by  a 
number  varj'ing  from  four  to  one  to  sixty-seven  to  one.  In  the  loftier  concejitions 
of  Siva  Brahman  thought  becomes  more  prominent :  from  death  springs  up  fresh 
life,  from  destruction  the  new  and  more  beautiful  is  restored.  Thus  the  "  de- 
stroyer "  becomes  a  benefactor,  Sada  Siva,  Sankara,  Sambhu ;  he  personifies  the 
reproductive  forces  of  nature,  and  as  such  is  worshipped  under  the  name  MahS- 
deva,  the  great  god,  Isvara,  the  chief  lord.  No  image  is  of  more  frequent  occur- 
rence in  India  than  his  symbol,  the  Liiigam  (phallus).  Yet  more  definitely 
Brahman  is  the  idea  of  the  power  of  the  sacrifice  and  of  asceticism,  and  in  this 
connection  Siva  appears  in  the  form  of  the  "  Great  Penitent "  Mahayogin. 

Personification  has  not  extended  so  far  among  the  Hindu  deities  as  it  did 
among  those  of  Greece  and  Piome,  consequently  the  Hindu  Pantheon  is  not  com- 
posed of  one  great  family  of  grandparents,  fathers,  mothers,  and  children.  Brahman 
and  Vishnu  had  no  son,  and  only  two  sons  exist  loosely  connected  with  Siva, 
known  as  Subrahmanya  or  Skanda,  the  god  of  war,  and  Ganesa,  the  god  of  cun- 
ning and  success,  who  is  invoked  upon  every  necessity  of  daily  life,  and  whose 
deformed,  stumpy  figure  with  the  elephant's  head  is  everywhere  to  be  found. 

Consorts  are  assigned  to  all  the  more  important  deities ;  yet  the  conception  of 
wifehood  has  in  this  case  been  overshadowed  by  the  personal  attributes  of  the 
deity  (gakti  =  might  or  power).     According  to  Brahman  philosophy,  as  soon  as  a 


412  HISTORY    OV    THE    WORLD  lch<,j,ur  ir 

supreme  being  becomes  personal,  his  attributes  coalesce  into  male  and  female  divi- 
sions, the  latter  of  which,  contrary  to  our  conceptions,  is  the  more  operative  of  the 
two.  In  the  ease  of  the  less  active  gods,  Brahman  and  ^■isllnu,  this  opposition  is 
by  no  means  so  prominent:  the  consort  of  lirahnian,  Sarasvati,  is  the  goddess  of 
learning  and  knowledge ;  while  Lakshmi,  the  wife  of  Vishnu,  is  the  goddess  of  the 
supreme  good  and  beauty.  However,  in  the  worship  of  Siva  the  female  side 
of  his  existence  plays  a  more  important  part,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  god  him- 
self occupies  a  position  of  greater  activity  and  has  absorbed  a  larger  proportion 
of  Dravitlian  deities  who  were  essentially  feminine.  Each  of  the  chief  forms  under 
whicli  Siva  a]>pears  have  been  intcnsitied  by  the  addition  of  a  wife ;  thus  to  the 
mountain  god  Kii'ata  the  wife  Parvati  has  been  given,  to  Mahakala  the  blood- 
thirstv  Kali,  to  Bhilva  the  wife  Bhavini,  to  Maliadeva  the  wife  Mahadevi,  and  to 
the  penitent  Mahayogin  the  wife  Yogini. 

To  the  narrow  circle  of  the  supreme  gods  is  added  a  number  of  superior  beings, 
partly  drawn  from  prehistoric  legend,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  sacred  singei-s  of 
the  Vedas  the  Kishis,  the  Panclu  brothers  of  the  Bharata  battles,  and  others  drawn 
from  the  numerous  band  of  lower  deities  worshipped  by  individual  tribes.  The 
Hindu  heaven  is  spacious  enough  to  contain  any  deity  of  tlie  smallest  importance 
or  mystery,  and  includes  stones  and  mountains,  rivers  and  tanks,  weeds  and  trees, 
useful  and  dangerous  animals,  the  most  different  atmospherical  phenomena,  spirits, 
of  the  deceased,  individual  demons,  etc. 

The  wide  differences,  in  fact  the  oppositions,  which  characterise  the  manifesta- 
tions of  the  divine  element  are  reflected  in  the  worship ;  the  lowest  fetish  worship 
exists  side  by  side  with  the  veneration  of  the  purer  and  higher  powers  of  heaven. 
Hinduism  is  jiarticularly  distinguished  from  all  monotheistic  religions  by  the  fact 
tliat  its  votaries  do  not  constitute  a  church,  or  indeed  possess  a  universally  accepted 
creed.  A  Hindu  may  worship  Vishnu  or  Siva  in  one  or  other  of  their  different 
forms,  as  also  Ganesa,  or  one  of  the  many  Saktis,  and  his  choice  entirely  depends  on 
the  forms  of  prayer  and  incantation  (Mantra)  which  he  has  received  from  his 
spiritual  tutor  and  adviser,  the  Guru.  These  formuhe  vary  in  the  case  of  individual 
gods,  and  any  god  can  be  transformed  into  the  patron  deity  of  the  Hindu  who  bears 
upon  his  forehead  the  sign  (Xama)  of  this  special  god.'  Under  these  circum- 
stances common  worship  is  impossible.  Worship,  like  faith,  is  purely  personal,  and 
is  composed  of  formid;e  and  spells  of  magic  power,  of  purificatory  rites  and  sacri- 
fices which  the  worshipper  offers  to  the  gods  or  induces  his  priest  to  offer  for  him. 
Worship  of  this  kind,  therefore,  demands  no  great  space  or  building  where  the  con- 
gregation may  meet  together  before  their  god ;  tlie  sanctuary  proper  is  never  more 
than  a  small  shrine  or  an  unimportant  chapel  with  the  symbol  or  image  of  the  god. 
The  temples,  which  have  increased  to  enormous  size,  especially  in  Southern  India, 
owe  their  dimensions  to  the  addition  of  suliordinate  rooms  such  as  pilgrim  halls, 
side  galleries  (see  the  plate,  "Colonnade'^  in  the  Interior  of  the  Hindu  Temple  in 
the  Island  of  RameSvaram  "),  tanks  surrounded  by  steps,  etc. 

Divine  worship  is  carried  on  under  tliree  main  different  forms.  Vishnu  of  all 
the  supreme  gods  is  most  like  man  in  shape.     Consequently  his  statue  is  tended 


'  In  the  case  of  Siva  this  sign  usually  consists  of  three  horizontal  .strokes  of  white,  Vishnu  being  desig- 
nated liy  a  design  like  a  tuning-fork.  Sec  also  the  upper  half  of  the  plate,  "Early  Indian  Painting  and 
Architecture,"  p.  418. 

*  Seven  hundred  feet  long;  erected  in  the  eleventh  to  twelfth  century,  according  to  Fergusson. 


KXl'I.ANATInX    oV    llIK    I'l.ATK    ( »\i:i;LKAF 

The  island  of  Itiuufswanuu  (Riiiuissdam),  ;i  low  samly  piuci-  ul'  laml,  lies  ill  llie  (iull'  ul' 
Miuiiir,  between  hulia  anil  Cevlon.  in  the  iiurllieni  jiart  of  it  stands  one  of  tlie  most  si)lenclid 
nwnnnients  ol'  Dravidian  aivhitectuiv,  the  immense  Hindu  temple  with  its  lofty  towers,  the 
interior  of  wliich  is  traversed  by  gloomy  pillareil  corriilors.  Kor  centuries  the  shrine  has  Ijeen 
visited  throughout  the  year  by  thousands  of  pilgrims,  and  tlie  rich  offerings  made  by  these  ])rovide 
a  livelihood  for  the  inhabilauts  of  the  island,  wlio  are  chietly  l^.ralinians. 


in^ia-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  413 

like  a  human  being  by  priests  specially  appointed  for  the  purpose.  The  worship  of 
his  image  may  be  compared  to  the  playing  of  a  small  child  with  its  doll,  and  the 
offerings  made  to  him  are  those  things  which  delight  the  Hindu  heart,  —  rice,  coraco, 
pastry,  and  flowers  or  decorations  of  pearls  and  precious  stones.  Siva,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  lofty  and  often  terrible  god,  dwells  at  heights  unattainable  by  humanity. 
It  is  exceptional  for  his  temple  to  contam  a  statue.  However,  worship  is  rendered 
everywhere  to  his  symbol,  the  Lingam,  which  is  bathed  in  holy  water,  smeared 
with  butter  or  covered  with  flowers.  The  worship  of  the  third  group  of  gods 
Dravidian  in  origin  necessitates  a  bloody  sacrifice.  Goats  are  slaughtered  before 
the  altars  of  Kali  and  Durga,  and  the  images  and  temple  floor  sprinkled  with 
the  blood  of  the  animal ;  poorer  people  ofter  a  cock  to  these,  or  to  other  lower 
divinities.  The  human  sacrifices  prevalent  at  an  earlier  period  are  now  practically 
abolished,  though  survivals  in  a  milder  form  occur  even  at  the  present  day. 

To  these  forms  of  daily  worship,  prayer  and  sacrifice,  must  be  added  the 
religious  festivals  which  occur  upon  the  days  dedicated  to  numerous  individual 
gods.  Scarce  a  people  or  a  religion  can  be  found  which  celebrates  so  many  pious 
festivals  as  the  Hindus.  Specially  meritorious  is  a  pilgrimage  carried  out  under 
circumstances  of  unusual  ditticulty  to  the  source  of  some  holy  stream  (Ganges  or 
Narbada)  or  to  one  of  the  great  sanctuaries  of  Siva  or  Vishnu. 

C3)  TJic  Hindu  Conceiition  of  Caste.  —  As  Brahmanism  had  already  sowed  the 
seed  which  was  to  develop  into  Hinduism  and  its  religion,  so  upon  the  social  side 
the  Brahman  caste  regulations  provided  a  practical  basis  for  organisation.  The 
caste  system  has  been  promoted  by  many  influences  and  checked  by  many  others. 
Even  Buddhism  showed  a  tendency  to  equalise  and  level  the  sharp  barriers  exist- 
ing between  the  castes.  When  at  a  later  period  Mohammedanism  was  introduced, 
its  adherents  declined  to  recognise  caste,  and  many  Hindu  sects  in  imitation  laid 
down  the  social  equality  of  all  men  as  a  fundamental  principle. 

On  the  other  side  influences  existed  which  furthered  the  persistence  and  in- 
crease of  the  castes.  During  antiquity  the  incorporation  of  members  of  foreign 
races  must  have  produced  subdivisions  within  the  several  castes;  newcomers 
would  be  regarded  with  some  contempt  by  the  older  members,  and  differences  of 
this  nature  grew  in  course  of  time  to  absolute  division.  Within  the  warrior  caste 
this  process  was  constantly  repeated;  and  in  the  same  way  deep  schisms  often 
arose  within  the  Brahman  caste,  especially  in  the  south.  It  was  a  common 
occurrence  for  a  caste  or  some  part  of  it  to  claim  and  acquire  a  higher  position  by 
means  of  falsified  genealogies  or  other  evidence,  though  without  obtaining  absolute 
recognition.  Local  separation  of  the  members  of  one  and  the  same  caste  naturally 
results  in  an  increase  of  caste.  The  divided  parts  mistrust  one  another,  especially 
on  the  point  of  purity  of  descent,  and  ultimately  the  sense  of  their  common  unity 
is  lost,  and  tliat  which  had  been  one  caste  becomes  two.  Caste  divisions  of  this 
nature  are  especially  common  among  nomadic  sliepherd  tribes  or  gipsy  tribes 
(cf.  on  the  subject.  Vol.  V),  among  trading  and  agricultural  castes,  which  are  driven 
from  time  to  time  by  outbreaks  of  famine  to  change  their  dweUing-place  and  to 
divide  their  forces ;  divisions  may  also  be  brought  about  by  war  and  the  shifting 
of  political  boundaries.  A  man  who  has  arrived  at  high  prosperity  often  attempts, 
and  with  success,  to  break  away  from  his  caste  brothers  and  to  assume  the  name 
and  tlie  special  customs  of  a  higher  caste.     Keligious  divisions  are  also  a  frequent 


414  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Icimptn- iv 

cause  of  caste  ilisruiition.  One  of  the  commonest  causes  of  caste  increase  is  change 
of  profession,  which  often  results  in  a  change  of  circumstances  or  social  conditions. 
Under  European  supremacy  it  is  a  phenomenon  of  daily  occurrence  that  the  Hindu 
who  enters  the  service  of  a  white  man  thinks  himself  better  than  his  former  caste 
brothers,  and  new  castes  of  coachmen,  water-bringers,  grass-cutters  are  constantly 
arising  in  this  way.  At  the  present  time  separation  of  profession  is  the  main 
characteristic  of  the  caste  system,  profession  being  invariably  hereditary.  This 
custom  tends  to  preserve  the  purity  of  blood ;  no  one  who  belongs  to  one  caste  may 
marry  with  the  member  of  another  caste.  Among  the  higher  castes  mere  contact 
deKles,  or  the  breath  of  a  low-born  man  even  at  a  considerable  distance.  Eating 
with  a  member  of  another  caste  is  absolutely  forbidden.  Stern  precepts  thus 
regulate  individual  behaviour.  Castes  ha\'e  their  own  presidents  and  inspectors, 
apjioiut  pecuniary  tines  or  expulsion  as  punishment  for  grievous  ofl'ences,  and  also 
watch  over  the  welfare  of  the  whole  (by  maintaining  the  rate  of  wages,  the  hours 
of  labour,  organising  strikes  upon  occasion,  etc.)  and  also  of  the  individual  (by 
supporting  the  poor  and  maintaining  widows  and  orphans,  etc.). 

(4)  The  Position  of  the  Woman. — Almost  as  great  an  obstacle  to  national 
development  as  caste  influence  has  been  the  low  position  held  by  the  woman. 
Among  the  Aryans  and  also  among  the  lower  native  tribes  the  woman  was 
respected  and  honoured,  and  during  the  epic  period  was  the  central  point  of  inter- 
est in  the  brilliant  tournaments  of  the  Kshatriya  and  the  equal  companion  of  man 
for  the  poets  of  the  succeeding  age ;  whereas  now  she  is  but  a  miserable  creature, 
an  opjiressed  and  hard-worked  slave.  Here,  too.  Brahman  inihience  is  to  be  traced 
in  the  repression  of  tlie  woman.  The  Brahmans  considered  that  the  safest  means 
of  securing  racial  purity,  the  fundamental  precept  of  their  social  organisation,  was 
to  limit  the  freedom  of  the  woman  l)y  the  closest  possible  regulations.  The  only 
task  left  to  her  was  to  present  her  husband  with  descendants  of  jmre  blood,  and  to 
this  task  everything  that  may  raise  the  esteem  in  which  woman  is  held  was  ruth- 
lessly sacrificed.  Contempt  and  stern  compulsion  accompany  her  from  bii-th  to 
death.  Should  a  .son  be  born  to  a  Hindu  the  festival  couch-shell  is  blown,  and  the 
friends  bring  congratulations  and  cheerful  ofTerings ;  but  when  llie  child  is  a  girl, 
the  father  looks  upon  the  ground  in  embarrassment,  while  his  friends  offer  him 
condolences  instead  of  congratulations.  Special  festivals  are  arranged  only  in 
honour  of  boys  and  never  of  girls.  After  tlie  birth  of  a  son  the  mother  remains 
unclean  for  three  weeks,  but  for  four  weeks  after  the  birth  of  a  daughter.  The 
boy  is  instructed  by  his  spiritual  tutor  in  accordance  with  his  father's  position ; 
the  girl  receives  no  instruction  at  all.  Wiatever  she  learns  she  learns  from  her 
mother,  who  knows  notliing  more  than  a  few  texts  and  prayers  for  the  possession 
of  a  faithful  husband,  and  a  few  curses  against  polygamy  and  infidelity. 

At  the  age  of  seven  to  nine  years  old  the  girl  is  married  to  a  boy  of  from  twelve 
to  fourteen  years  of  age,  or  even  to  an  old  widower,  witliont  any  attempt  being 
made  to  consult  her  inclination ;  often  she  meets  her  husband  at  the  ceremony  for 
the  first  time.  After  the  ceremony  is  concluded  she  remains  for  the  moment  in 
her  parents'  house,  to  be  transferred  to  her  husband  upon  the  first  signs  of  puberty. 
Mothers  of  thirteen  and  fourteen  years  of  age  are  by  no  means  exce])tional  in  India. 
How  unfavourable  an  influence  must  be  exercised  by  early  marriages  of  this  kind 
upon  the  physical  and  intellectual  welfare  of  the  nation  is  sutticiently  obvious. 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  415 


Upon  her  marriage  a  girl  begins  a  miserable  life  of  slavery  within  the  prison  of 
the  woman's  apartments ;  she  must  cover  her  face  before  every  male  member  of 
the  family,  she  may  not  speak  to  her  husband  for  days  together,  she  may  not  call 
him  by  name  or  eat  with  him ;  her  existence  is  passed  in  deadly  monotony.  Before 
the  period  of  the  English  supremacy  the  woman's  ideal  was  to  be  cremated  with 
her  dead  husband.  Tliese  suttees  are  now  a  thing  of  the  past,  but  the  lot  of  the 
widow  is  almost  worse  than  death  by  fire.  The  death  of  her  husband  is  ascribed 
to  her  ill  deeds  committed  in  a  former  state  of  existence,  and  her  remaining  days 
are  weighed  down  by  hatred,  severe  penance,  mortificatiou,  and  the  burden  of  the 
heaviest  tasks. 

Such  is  the  lot  of  woman  in  those  strata  of  society  which  profess  to  fulfil  the 
ideal  of  Hindu  existence.  In  reality  these  severities  are  often  tempered  by  mild- 
ness and  affection.  Among  the  poorer  Hindus  of  the  lower  castes  tlie  wife  is 
obliged  to  share  the  task  of  procuring  sustenance  for  the  family,  and  thus  rises  to 
be  the  equal  of  the  man,  and  gains  self-respect  by  the  consciousness  of  being  of 
some  use  in  the  world,  though  at  the  same  time  even  in  this  class  of  society  the 
wife  is  considered  an  inferior  being. 

(5)  77ie  Pursuit  of  Science  and  Art  by  the  Brahmans.  —  In  the  subordination 
of  civil  society  as  arranged  by  themselves  the  Brahmans  retained  learning  and 
science  as  their  prerogative,  and  were  themselves  under  the  special  protection  of  the 
goddess  of  learning,  Sarasvati,  the  chief  wife  of  BrahmS, 

The  Brahmans  have  left  their  special  mark  upon  the  whole  religious,  scientific, 
and  artistic  literature  of  India  by  the  creation  of  a  learned  language,  Sanscrit. 
The  earliest  hymns  of  the  Vedas,  dating  perhaps  from  the  third  millennium  b.  c, 
are  written  in  an  ancient  but  highly  developed  language ;  from  this  the  popular 
tongue  gradually  diverged  as  in  course  of  time  it  was  broken  into  different  dialects. 
The  priests  considered  it  of  higli  importance  tliat  the  language  in  which  they  spoke 
to  tlie  gods  should  be  higher  and  more  perfect  than  the  viiJgar  tongue.  As  they 
gradually  rose  above  the  common  people  to  power  and  influence  they  transformed 
the  language  of  religious  thought  and  worship  by  a  strictly  logical  and  scientific 
procedure  into  the  "  Saniskrita,"  the  "  perfect  language,"  as  distinguished  from  the 
vulgar  tongue  or  "  original "  language,  the  "  PrSkrita ; "  they  can  pride  themselves 
upon  including  in  their  number  the  greatest  grammarian  of  all  time,  Panuii 
(apparently  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  B.  c).  The  contrast  between 
the  esoteric  lore  of  the  Brahmans  and  the  more  popular  teaching  of  Buddlia  is 
expressed  in  the  fact  that  Buddlia  and  his  disciples  preached  to  the  people  in  their 
own  tongue  in  every  country  which  they  visited.  It  was  not  until  Buddliagliosha 
(410-430)  had  transcribed  into  the  Pitakas  (sacred  books ;  see  p.  402),  in  the 
language  of  Magadha,  the  commentaries  (Atthakatha)  of  the  gi-eat  Buddhist 
Mahinda  that  this  language,  the  Pali,  became  the  sacred  tongue  of  southern 
Buddliism.  Brahman  influence  is  also  apparent  in  the  formation  of  the  southern 
branch  in  so  far  as  this  latter  chose  Sanscrit  and  not  Pali  for  purposes  of  religious 
writing. 

The  most  important  part  of  Brahman  literature  is  concerned  with  religious 
questions.  The  Vedas  are  the  foundation  of  all  later  religious  and  philosophical 
developments.  Of  the  four  collections  of  the  Vedas,  the  Eig  Veda  belongs  to  a 
remote  period  of  antiquity,  parts  of  it  imdoubtedly  dating  from  the  third  millennium 


410  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [(7,„y,^r/j' 

B.C.,  wliile  two  later  collections,  the  Sania  and  Yajur  Yedas,  belong  to  the  i^eriod 
when  the  ritual  had  been  formulated.  The  Vedas  are  collections  of  hymus  and 
texts  which  the  priest  had  to  repeat  during  the  performance  of  sacrifice.  There 
were  three  orders  of  priests,  and  each  of  the  three  collections  which  wo  have  men- 
tioned was  for  the  use  of  a  particular  onler.  To  the  Hohis,  or  highest  of  the  three 
orders,  belonged  the  Eig  Veda,  which  they  were  reijuired  to  recite  iu  a  loud  voice. 
Xext  to  them  came  the  Udgahi  priests ;  they  used  the  Silma  Vedas,  which  they  saug 
iu  chorus.  The  Yajur  Vedas  were  for  the  use  of  the  Adhwaryu  priests,  who  were 
only  allowed  to  mutter  in  a  low  voice.  The  fourth  Veda,  the  Athar,  contains 
magical  formula;  against  sickness  and  the  attacks  of  enemies,  together  with  extracts 
from  the  Eig  ^'eda.  The  Brfihmanas  also  belong  to  pre-Buddhist  times ;  these  are 
prose  compositions  containing  a  substratum  of  historical  truth  interwoven  with 
legendary  narratives,  and  consist  primaril}-  of  a  description  of  the  ritual  employed 
in  the  gi-eat  sacrifices  as  performed  by  the  different  priests.  The  Upauishads  are 
works  of  a  different  character,  and  contain  the  results  of  Brahman  philosophical 
si)eculation,  together  with  religious  and  jihilosophical  teaching  upon  the  nature  of 
the  world  and  the  world  soul  from  a  monotheistic  point  of  view.  They  are  marked 
b}'  a  profundity  of  speculation  and  a  richness  of  thought  which  are  evidence  of  the 
seriovis  prosecution  of  the  truth  for  its  own  sake.  \Vliolly  different  are  the  Tantras, 
whicli  belong  to  a  nnich  later  period;  these  are  a  collection  of  mystical  religious 
precepts,  prayers,  and  magic  formulie  for  the  service  of  Siva  in  his  more  esoteric 
character  and  female  personification  (DurgS).  Though  these  writings  were  com- 
posed at  a  later  date  than  those  previously  mentioned,  they  are  none  the  less  con- 
siderably older  than  the  extant  version  of  the  eighteen  Puranas,  with  tlieir  eighteen 
appendices,  amoimting  in  all  to  about  four  hxmdred  thousand  double  lines,  and 
dealing  with  the  legends  of  Vishnu.  These  were  also  included  by  the  Brahmans 
among  the  "  Scriptures  of  Anti(piity,"  though  their  age  canuot  certainlj-  be  deter- 
mined. In  their  present  form  they  are  a  later  edition,' but  their  fundamental 
elements  exist  in  part  in  the  Mahabharata. 

Together  with  religious  writings  the  Sanscrit  literature  includes  all  other 
departments  of  Brahman  thought.  The  historical  is  their  weakest  side.  In  this 
respect  the  Brahmans  are  in  strong  contrast  to  the  IMohammedaus,  who  were  ever 
ready  to  write  the  histories  of  their  age  and  their  rulers,  and  also  to  the  Buddhists, 
in  whose  chronicles  all  impt)rtant  events  affecting  the  monasteries  were  transmitted 
to  later  generations.  These  chronicles  have  entirely  disappeared  in  the  general 
ruin  of  Buddhist  monasteries  in  India;  in  Kashmir  alone,  where  Buddhism 
maintained  its  ground  to  a  late  date,  the  historical  sense  has  not  entirely  vanished 
with  the  monasteries,  and  the  book  of  the  kings  there  written,  the  Kajatarangini, 
carries  on  the  histoiy  of  this  district  into  the  post-Buddhist  period.  In  Ceylon, 
where  Buddhism  remains  the  dominant  religion,  the  chronicles  have  been  continued 
from  the  earliest  period  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Singhalese  kingdom  and  the 
English  occupation. 

Brahman  thought  was  unequal  to  the  task  of  scientific  investigation  into  natural 
causes;  in  tliis  department  inquiry  was  checked  by  the  conception  of  a  divine 
element  which  penetrated  the  vegetable  and  animal  worlds,  and  was  even  immanent 
in  the  stone.  At  the  same  time  the  duty  of  sacrifice  gave  them  a  certain  know- 
ledge of  the  parts  of  the  body  and  their  surgical  treatment ;  indeed,  this  was  a  good 
school  for  empirical  surgery,  in  which  native  practitioners  acquired  a  high  degree 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  417 


of  skill.  Even  such  difficult  operations  as  those  for  cataract,  stone,  rhiuoplastic 
(that  is,  the  reconstruction  of  the  nose),  removal  of  the  fcetus,  etc.,  were  successfully 
and  skilfuUy  performed,  and  the  medical  treatises  of  the  Brahmans  make  mention 
of  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  different  surgical  instruments.  At 
a  later  date,  when  the  Arabs  became  acquainted  with  Indian  surgery  they  gave  full 
recognition  to  their  superior  knowledge.  The  treatment  of  internal  disease  rested 
upon  purely  empirical  methods ;  a  large  collection  of  specific  remedies  existed,  and 
the  chemists  employed  in  the  preparation  of  medicines  had  acquired  scientific 
knowledge  of  a  number  of  important  chemical  bodies. 

Astronomy  was  a  science  in  closest  connection  with  the  priestly  calling ;  indeed 
the  primeval  religion  of  the  Aryans  had  consisted  in  prayers  to  those  powers  which 
were  manifested  in  heaveidy  phenomena,  in  the  movements  of  the  sun,  the  planets, 
and  the  fixed  stars.  Thus  even  in  the  earlier  Vedas  the  solar  year  is  calculated 
with  a  high  degree  of  accuracy,  the  year  consisting  of  twelve  months  of  thirty  days, 
an  intercalary  month  being  added  to  every  fifth  year.  Eeligious  sacrifices  and. 
festivals  were  also  performed  on  dates  previously  fixed  by  means  of  astronomical 
calculation.  Still,  in  the  period  of  Alexander  the  Great  astronomy  as  an  exact 
science  was  at  a  comparatively  low  level,  and  much  help  was  given  by  foreigners 
who  had  made  further  advances  in  these  studies.  However,  toward  the  middle 
of  the  first  century  A.  D.  the  science  made  a  great  advance,  though  it  relapsed 
during  the  period  of  the  formation  of  the  great  Mohammedan  States.  Only  by 
individual  princes  (for  example,  those  of  Jaipur)  has  astronomy  been  studied  in 
modern  times  with  any  degree  of  interest.  Side  by  side  with  this  science  stands 
that  of  mathematics,  for  which  the  Brahmans  showed  high  capacity.  They  de- 
veloped independently  the  decimal  system  of  notation,  and  the  Arabs  undoubtedly 
learnt  very  much  from  the  mathematical  studies  of  the  Brahmans.  The  study  of 
algebra  reached  its  highest  point  in  the  person  of  Aryabhata  (born  476  A.  D.). 

Together  with  the  Dharmasutra,  of  early  date  and  composed  in  short  precepts, 
and  the  legal  code  of  Manu  written  in  verse  (p.  374),  other  simdar  works,  such  as 
the  Dharma^astra  of  Yajuavalkya  and  of  Parasara,  also  enjoyed  a  high  reputation; 
these  works  treated  of  morality  in  social  life,  and  also  of  judicial  administration 
in  a  narrower  sense.  At  a  later  period  there  arose  in  the  diff'erent  parts  of  India 
five  legal  schools  which  developed  juridical  systems,  varying  respectively  as  the 
characteristics  of  the  popvdation. 

In  art  the  Brahmans  were  the  leaders  of  the  people.  Music  and  poetry  were  an 
integral  part  of  divine  worship,  which  was  to  be  carried  on  with  artistic  words  and 
solemn  song ;  the  same  remarks  apply  to  the  architectural  arts,  for  architecture 
and  the  decorative  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture  received  their  highest  impulse 
from  religion. 

The  musical  scale  of  seven  intervals  is  of  primeval  antiquity  in  India,  and 
though  their  modern  music  is  cacophonous  to  us,  this  fact  is  due  to  the  introduction 
of  numerous  intervals  inappreciable  to  our  ears.  The  sacred  hymns  of  the  Indians 
are  admirable  compositions  (cf.  p.  368) ;  of  no  less  importance  are  the  epic  poems 
composed  under  Brahman  uifluence,  the  Mahabharata  and  Eamayana  (p.  369). 
Epic  materials  have  also  been  incorporated  with  the  Brahmanas  (p.  416).  The 
development  of  the  fable  with  characters  from  the  animal  world  by  the  Indians 
is  well  known.  One  of  the  earliest  collections  of  this  nature,  the  Panchatantra, 
probably  goes  back  to  the  second  centurj^  b.  c,  and  is  at  any  rate  earlier  than  the 


418  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chaj^hrir 

sixth  ceutury  B.  c,  when  it  was  translated  into  Persian ;  in  another  form  this 
collection  enjoys  greater  pojnilarity  as  the  II ilopadesa.  The  Indian  fable  has  made 
its  way  over  the  whole  worlil,  and  .Esop's  fables,  together  with  the  story  of  Reynard 
the  Fox,  ai-e  but  an  echo  of  Indian  poetry. 

Of  dramatic  works  the  Indians  liave  about  sixty  pieces  of  ancient  date ;  almost 
all  of  these  are  rallier  comedies  with  luip[>y  denouements,  than  tragedies  ending  in 
gloom.  They  are  no  longer  characterisetl  by  tlie  unrestrained  power  and  the 
youthful  heroic  joy  of  the  first  Aryan  period;  the  iKipulai  character  bad  undergone 
a  change  under  Brahman  influence,  and  humanity  as  represented  in  these  dramas 
had  grown  eft'eminate.  Character  is  of  less  importance  than  sentiment,  which 
latter  shows  a  remarkable  degree  of  tenderness  and  introspection,  while  the  whole 
is  marked  by  a  feeling  for  external  nature  which  is  unrecognisable  in  the  modern 
Hindu.  Among  the  dramatic  poets  of  India  tlie  most  famous  is  Kalidflsa ;  a  ver.se 
from  his  works  is  quoted  on  an  inscription  as  early  as  472  A.  D.  The  culmination 
of  Indian  drama  is  seen  in  "  Sakuutala,"  "  Wikramorwasi "  (Vikrama  and  I'rva^i), 
and  also  "  Malavikftgnimitra  "  (Malavika  and  Agninutra).  Writers  of  lesser  im- 
portance are  King  Sri  Harslia  in  the  seventli  century  A.  ii.  ("  Itatnavali,"  "  I'riya- 
darSika,"  and  the  Buddhist  drama  "  Xagananda  "),  Bhatta  Bhavabhuti  at  the  outset 
of  the  eighth  century  (dramas ;  "  Malatimadhava "  [Malati  and  M.ldhawa], 
"  Mahawlratsharita  "  and  "  Uttararamalsliarilra  "  [fate  of  the  great  hero  and  further 
fortune  of  liania]) ;  King  Siuhaka  with  "  j\Iritshtshhakatika  "  (Vasautaseua)  was 
probably  of  much  earlier  date;  we  may  mention  Vi.sakhadatta  (perhaps  not  till 
1100)  with  "  Mudrarakshasa  "  (the  minister's  seal).  As  an  epic  ("  l!aghuvan5a  " 
and  "  Kumarasambhava")  and  lyric  poet  ("  Meghaduta,"  the  cloud  boat),  Kfllidasa 
is  again  liigh  above  rival  composers  in  these  genres. 

The  plastic  arts  no  less  than  the  poetical  receive  their  first  impulse  from 
religion,  so  that  in  this  department  also  the  Brahmans  appear  as  patrons  and 
supporters.  Painting  (see  the  ujijier  lialf  of  the  iilate,  "Early  Indian  I'amling 
and  Architecture  ")  and  sculpture  hardly  rose  above  the  level  of  decorative  art ; 
the  breath  of  pure  beauty  observable  in  the  representations  of  Buddha  is  due  to 
Greek  influence  (see  the  stone  figure  rcpnxhiced  on  the  right  beneath  the  plate, 
"Early  Indian  Sculpture,"  p.  390).  Under  the  more  arti.stic  of  the  Mohammedan 
princes  painters  produced  works  of  beauty  though  of  small  size  in  portraiture.  In 
other  respects,  however,  both  arts  were  subordinated  to  architecture,  and  are 
characterised  by  the  fantastical  conjunction  of  human  and  animal  forms,  the 
multiplication  of  individual  members  of  the  body,  bj-  exaggeration  of  movement, 
a  total  lack  of  proportion,  the  desire  to  fill  up  space,  and  an  ignorance  of  the  laws 
of  perspective. 

Architecture  produced  more  successful  results  and  became  monumental  after 
stone  had  been  introduced  as  a  material  by  foreign  influence  (Greek).  For  more 
than  one  thousand  years  this  art  was  confined  to  the  erection  of  leligious  build- 
ings ;  palaces  of  any  size  and  splendour  do  not  apjiear  until  the  rise  of  the  Moliam- 
medan  kingdoms.  Hinduism  in  religion  and  worship  has  left  its  stamp  upon 
architectural  .style ;  there  being  no  congregations,  no  temples  were  required  of  any 
great  size,  and  the  sanctuary  proper  is  but  a  narrow  space  to  contain  the  statue  or 
the  .symbol  of  the  god.  Round  about  the  sanctuary,  for  the  convenience  of  the  pil- 
grims who  arrived  to  make  their  offernigs  and  to  perform  their  pious  vows,  were 
erected  long  corridors,  great  pillared  halls  (see  the  plate  "  A  Colonnade  on  RameS- 


Racial  typf.s  :    frescoes  of  the  seooml  reiitury  n.  c  from  tin*  Cave  X  at  Ajatita.     { After  .laiiies  Biirges3.) 

{The  figures  bear  the  Nania  of  the  Brahiiiati  divinities  upon  their  forelieads.     The  type  of  face  is  ratlier  Aryan 
than  Dravidlau  ;  the  ornaments  and  umbrella  are  not,  as  Fergusson  and  Burgess  suppose,  si^rns  of  low  caste. ) 


J*  J,,    ■•-*»,  ■-- 


Tiic  ■•  K.iila».i  ■'  .a  Lllur.1.      (Alia  i-Hi-tu-  L-  r..m.) 


Early  Indian  Art  and  Akchitecti-kk 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  419 


varam,"  p.  412)  large  tanks  approached  by  flights  of  steps  for  ablution,  etc.  In 
this  way  temples  which  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  and  were  visited  by  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  pUgrims  during  the  year  often  grew  to  enormous  size.  Especially  is  this 
true  of  the  Dravidian  temples  which  are  distinguished  by  their  size  and  massive- 
ness  and  by  their  towered  gates  with  richly  adorned  pyramidal  roofs  rising  in  ter- 
races. The  buildings  of  the  Chalukya  kingdom  (p.  408)  are  characterised  by 
delicacy  of  decoration  and  those  of  the  Jains  by  an  oppressive  wealth  of  orna- 
ment. To  the  earlier  Buddhist  period  belong  the  huge  temples,  hewn  out 
of  the  natural  rock  and  left  open,  of  Karli,  Adjanta,  EUora,  etc.  (see  the  lower 
half  of  the  plate,  p.  418).  Koticeable  in  Buddhist  architecture  are  the  numerous 
buildings  containing  relics  (stupas)  which  are  of  enormous  size,  especially  in 
Ceylon  (see  the  plate  "  Early  Buddhist  Temple  Foundations,"  p.  500).  The  Moham- 
medan period  erected  magnificent  mosques  and  palaces  (Delhi  Agra,  etc.).  Horse- 
shoe curves  and  the  cupola  are  here  the  distinguishing  features,  while  the  decoration 
is  marked  by  the  taste  and  wealth  of  Arab  art  under  the  influence  of  Persian 
contact. 

JJ.  The  Mohammedan  Period  of  India  (1001-1740) 

(a)  Tlie  Religious  Struggle  between  Islam  and  Hindmsm  {1001-1526).  —  His- 
torians are  accustomed  to  detail  the  events  of  the  Moliammedan  period  of  India 
according  to  the  succession  of  d^ynasties.  This  long  period,  however,  upon  a  more 
careful  examination  of  its  content,  falls  into  two  maiii  divisions  which  end  and  begin 
respectively  with  the  year  1526.  The  first  of  these  periods  is  characterised  by  con- 
tinual ferment  and  confusion.  Hindus  and  Mohammedans  are  in  a  state  of  uninter- 
rupted and  fierce  struggle,  kingdoms  are  founded  and  overthrown,  dynasties  rise  and 
fall.  During  the  second  period,  however,  a  greater  stability  prevails;  the  opposition 
between  the  two  peoples  graduall}^  disappears,  and  for  more  than  three  hundred  years 
the  kingdom  is  ruled  by  seventeen  monarchs  of  one  and  the  same  family,  that  of 
Timur,  in  unbroken  succession. 

During  the  first  period  the  supremacy  passed  through  the  hands  of  six  "  dynas- 
ties : "  the  House  of  Ghazni,  1001  to  1186,  that  of  GhOr,  1186  to  1206,  the  Mameluke 
rulers,  1206  to  1200,  the  House  of  Khilji,  1290  to  1321,  the  House  of  Tughlak,  1.321 
to  1412,  the  Seiads,  1416  to  1451,  and  the  dynasty  of  Behlfd  Lodhi,  1451  to  1526. 
The  first  of  these  "  dynasties  "  was  confined  to  the  Pimjab,  while  that  of  the 
Ghors  extended  the  Mohammedan  supremacy  over  the  whole  lowland  district  of 
Northern  India,  the  Mamelukes  advanced  to  the  Vindhya  Mountains,  and  the 
second  of  the  Khilji  rulers  governed  the  whole  of  India  almost  to  the  southern 
point.  The  Mohammedan  power  in  India  then  reached  its  first  period  of  greatest 
prosperity.  Then  began  the  downfall ;  the  Tughlak  rulers  lost  the  Deccan  and 
Bengal,  and  under  the  two  last  dynasties  the  frontiers  of  the  kingdom-  often  ex- 
tended but  a  few  miles  beyond  the  walls  of  the  Capital  of  Delhi. 

This  period  of  five  hundred  years  was  a  time  of  severe  oppression  for  the  Hin- 
dus, a  time  of  cruel  murder  and  bitter  struggle.  As  the  lightning  flash  announces 
the  on-coming  storm,  so  also  a  warning  movement  preceded  that  convulsion  which 
burst  upon  the  unhappy  land  and  the  impulse  to  which  was  given  by  India  herself. 
In  the  year  979  a.  d.  Jaipal,  the  Prince  of  Lahore  in  the  Punjab,  considered  that 
the  growing  power  of  his  western  neighbour,  Nasir  ed-din  Sabuktegtn,  lord  of  Ghazni 
(Ghazna  ;  976-997)  threatened  danger  to  himself,  and  sought  to  reduce  this  prmce 


420  HISTORY    OF     rill':    WORLD  [chapter  I r 

bv  means  of  a  crusade  to  Afjjhaiiistau  ;  this  eH'art  resulted  in  a  friendly  settlement. 
When,  however,  JaipSl,  supported  by  the  princes  of  IJclhi,  Ajiuir,  and  Kauauj,  re- 
sumed the  offensive  in  988  he  was  utterly  defeated  at  Lamgftn.  Turko-Afghan 
hordes  marched  through  his  country  murdering  and  plundering ;  Sabuktegtn  estab- 
lished himself  at  the  confluence  of  the  Caliul  and  the  Indus,  and  thus  got  posses- 
sion of  the  obvious  base  for  an  invasion  of  India.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Ismail ;  he,  however,  was  dethroned  in  998  by  his  brother  Mahmud  Yamin  ed 
Dowlah  and  imprisoned  in  a  fortress. 

(o)  Tlie  House  of  Ghazni.  —  Mahmud  (998-1030)  also  known  as  Bhut  Shikan 
("  The  Iconoclast ")  was  the  most  important  ruler  of  the  Ghazni  dynasty.  From 
his  Tartar  father  he  had  inherited  tenacity  and  military  prowess,  while  his  mother, 
a  Persian  woman,  had  given  him  a  feeling  for  higher  civilization.  He  was  a  clever, 
energetic,  and  enterprising  man,  and  also  a  zealous  patron  of  science  and  art  (cf. 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  344);  magnificent  mosques  and  palaces  arose  within  his  capital,  and  the 
greatest  scholars  of  the  time  were  the  adornment  of  his  brilliant  court  (the  chron- 
ologist  el-Berftni  and  the  universal  historian  Abu  All  el-Hussein,  known  as  ibn- 
Sina  or  A\acenna)  and  poets  (Firdusi,  1020-1032  ).  He  founded  and  richly  endowed 
a  university  in  Ghazni ;  education  was  also  supported  by  a  museum  of  natural 
history.  Splendid  foundations  were  created  by  him  to  provide  for  men  of  high 
intellectual  gifts.  Although  military  operations  almost  invariably  kept  him  away 
from  his  country,  no  internal  disturbance  took  place  during  the  thirty-three  years 
of  his  reign.  He  had  no  comprehensive  political  insight ;  his  Indian  operations 
were  by  no  means  undertaken  with  the  object  of  conquering  that  magnificent 
country  and  furthering  the  development  of  its  material  resources,  but  were  mere 
raids  and  forays  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  gold,  jewels,  and  slaves.  The  Moham- 
medan world  is  inclined  to  consider  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  one  of  the  greatest  rulers 
of  all  time,  and  his  co-religionists  and  contemporaries  consider  his  military  achieve- 
ments as  unequalled  by  those  of  any  ruler;  but  this  belief  was  founded  not  only 
upon  his  military  reputation,  but  also  upon  his  religious  fanaticism  which  over- 
threw the  idols  of  hostile  peoples  and  destroyed  the  temples  of  the  unbelievers.  In 
this  respect  also  they  overestimated  their  hero  and  his  intentions ;  the  devasta- 
tion of  the  Indian  temples  was  undertaken  by  Mahmud  chiefly  with  the  object  of 
plundering  the  enormous  treasures  which  had  been  gathered  there  in  the  course  of 
centuries. 

The  first  years  of  the  new  ruler  were  occupied  by  struggles  with  his  smaller 
neighbours.  Then  he  turned  his  face  to  India.  In  the  year  1001  Jaip.ll  was 
defeated  for  the  second  lime  and  ended  his  life  upon  the  funeral  pyre,  the  We.stern 
Punjab  with  Lahore  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  This,  Mahmud's  first 
Indian  campaign,  was  succeeded  by  sixteen  furious  raids  upon  Kashmir  (1013), 
Multan  (1006),  the  Ganges,  and  even  the  southern  point  of  the  jieninsula  of  Gujerat; 
especially  rich  was  the  booty  gained  by  the  plunder  of  the  temjiles  of  Nagar- 
cot,  Tanesar  (Thaneswara,  1014),  SomnSt  (Pattana  SomanStha,  1016-1017),  and 
Mattra  (MathurS,  1018),  while  the  boundaries  of  the  Ghazni  kingdom  extended 
no  further  than  the  Western  Punjab.  Its  extension  upon  the  west  and  north  was 
far  greater,  for  Mahmud  found  time  in  the  intervals  of  these  campaigns  to  conquer 
the  country  of  Ghor  (West  Afghanistan),  Transoxania,  and  Persia. 

When  Mahmud  died  in  1030  at  the  age  of  sixty-three  he  left  a  powerful  king- 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  421 


dom  behind  him  (see  the  map,  p.  430).  His  fourteen  successors,  however,  were 
unable  to  preserve  it  unimpaired,  and  the  quarrels  of  pretenders  to  the  throne, 
internal  revolts,  and  the  attacks  of  enemies  upon  the  west  and  north  (Seljuks), 
resulted  in  eventual  disruption.  In  1150  Ghazni  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  princes 
of  GhOr ;  its  numerous  and  magnificent  buildings  were  utterly  devastated  and  only 
the  tombs  of  Mahmud  and  of  two  other  princes  remained  intact.  The  last  two 
members  of  the  Ghazna  house,  Mo'izz  ed-dowlet  Khusrou  Shah,  1152-1160,  and 
Khusrou  Malik,  1160-1186,  continued  a  doubtful  existence  in  Lahore  until  this 
last  remnant  of  the  once  powerful  Ghazni  kingdom  was  swept  away  by  the  princes 
of  Ghor. 

(/3)  The  House  of  GJior.  —  Since  the  date  of  its  subjugation  by  Mahmud 
(1010),  Western  Afghanistan  had  played  a  subordinate  part;  but  in  1163,  when 
Ghiyas  (Ghayath)  ed-din  Mohammed  ibn-SSm  ascended  the  throne,  the  power  of 
Ghor  rapidly  increased.  The  new  ruler  appointed  his  brother,  Mo'izz  ed-din  Ghori, 
as  co-regent,  an  unusual  proceeding  in  a  Mohammedan  State,  and  upon  the  death  of 
Ghiyas  (December  10,  1203),  the  regent  became  sole  ruler. 

In  1186  the  Ghazni  monarch,  Khusrou  Malik,  was  attacked,  conquered,  and 
iinally  imprisoned,  being  ultimately  murdered  with  his  sons  in  1192.  With  their 
death,  the  dynasty  of  the  Ghazni  princes  became  extinct,  and  the  Western  Punjab, 
with  its  capital  of  Lahore,  was  added  to  the  kingdom  of  Mo'izz  ed-din.  The  acqui- 
sition of  these  territories  advanced  the  boundaries  of  Ghor  to  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Eajput  States ;  in  j)articular,  the  kingdom  reached  the  frontiers  of 
Ajmir,  which  was  governed  by  Pithora  Eay  (Pritliviraja  II).  This  State  became 
the  object  of  the  next  operations  of  Mo'izz  ed-din.  A  battle  was  fought  at  Thane^- 
vara  within  the  narrow  space  between  the  Desert  and  the  Moimtains  and  between 
the  streams  of  the  Sarasvati  and  the  Juuma  Taraiu,  in  which  the  Afghan  cavalry 
was  utterly  defeated  by  the  Indian  warrior  castes  (1191).  In  the  next  yeai-, 
however,  Mo'izz  ed-din  conquered  Ajmir  and  the  Hindu  States  attached  to  that 
kingdom.  Pithora  Eay  was  captured  in  flight  and  slain.  Shortly  afterward  Ajmir 
feU  into  the  conqueror's  hands,  who  displayed  even  gi'eater  cruelty  than  Mahmud 
of  Ghazni  and  massacred  the  inhabitants  or  sold  them  into  slavery. 

He  then  advanced  upon  Delhi  (more  properly  Dehli,  pronounced  Dichli).  This 
town  after  its  capture  by  his  field  marshal  Kutb  (Kotub  or  Kutub)  ed-din  in 
1193,  remained  henceforward  the  chief  centre  of  the  Mohammedan  power  in  Hin- 
dustan. In  1194  Mo'izz  ed-din  defeated  the  prince  Jei  Chendra,  of  Benares  and 
Kauauj,  thus  extending  his  fi-ontiers  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Behar.  In  the 
following  years  he  was  occupied  with  his  brother  in  Merv,  Kharizm,  and  Herat, 
until  the  death  of  the  latter  left  him  the  sole  ruler  of  the  great  kingdom.  In 
the  mean  time,  Kutb  ed-din  and  the  second  m  command,  the  Khilji  chieftain, 
Mohammed  ibn-Bachtyar,  had  subdued  Behar  (1194)  and  Upper  Bengal  (1195), 
Gwalior  (11961,  Gujerat  and  Oudh.  The<lyuasty  of  Ghor  then  attained  the  zenith 
of  its  power.  A  defeat  suffered  by  Mo'izz  ed-din  in  the  course  of  an  undertaking 
against  Kharizm  in  1204  broke  up  the  western  part  of  the  empire  as  far  as  the 
Punjab.  The  Sultan,  indeed,  succeeded  in  suppressing  the  revolts  of  his  governors 
in  those  provinces;  but  he  himself  fell  a  victim  on  the  Indus  in  1206  to  the  dagger 
of  an  Ishmaelite  (assassin),  or  a  man  of  the  wild  mountain  tribe  of  the  Ghakkas. 


422  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD         [(/„v^r/r 

(7)  The  Mameluke  Rulers  {"the  Slave  or  First  Tartar  Di/nasti/"). —  Mo'izz 
eil-diii  Ghori  left  no  male  deseemlauts,  and  had  made  no  arrangements  for  the  suc- 
cession, the  immediate  consequence  being  great  disorder.  One  of  his  nephews, 
Ghiyas  ed-diu  II  Mahmud,  was,  indeed,  set  up  as  heir  to  the  throne,  but  four  of 
his  governors  in  the  chief  provinces  made  themselves  practically  independent.  In 
India  tlie  experienced  general  and  governor,  Kutbed-din  Eibek  (Ibak),  immediately 
grasped  the  reins  of  government  (2Gth  of  June),  while  civil  war  continued  for  nine 
years  (1206-1215)  in  the  other  provinces  of  the  empire,  until  their  incorporation 
with  Kharizm.  A\Tien  Kutb  declared  himself  independent,  Hindustan,^  which  had 
hitherto  merel}"  been  a  province  of  the  kingdoms  of  Ghazni  and  (Jhor,  became  inde- 
pendent also.  The  new  ruler  liad  originally  been  a  Turkish  slave  of  Mo'izz  cd-din. 
From  a  subordinate  position  he  had  gradually  risen  to  become  commander-in-chief 
and  governor,  a  career  tliat  was  typical  of  the  rise  of  many  rulers  in  succeeding 
times.  Thougli  many  of  these  ascended  tlie  tlirone  by  hereditary  right,  )i't  the 
whole  of  this  line  of  rulers  has  received  the  common  name  of  the  "  Slave  Dynasty  " 
(1206-1290). 

Kutb  liad  enjoyed  his  power  for  only  four  j-ears,  when  an  accident  at  polo 
caused  his  death  in  Lahore  in  1210.  His  character  has  been  thus  well  described 
by  a  Mohammedan  historian :  "  The  kingdom  was  full  of  the  honomable  and 
cleansed  from  tlie  rebellious ;  his  benevolence  was  as  imceasing  as  his  bloodshed." 
His  religious  zeal  is  evidenced  at  the  present  day  by  the  splendid  mosques  and  the 
proud  minaret  in  old  Delhi,  which  still  bears  his  name  (Kutub  Minar).  His  son, 
Aram  Shah,  was  a  weak-minded  prince,  and  in  the  veiy  year  of  his  accession 
(1210)  was  defeated  and  apparently  murdered  by  the  revolted  Shams  ed-din 
Altamsh  (or  Altmysh,  also  lltamish  ;  properly  Altytmysh).  This  latter  personality 
had  also  been  a  Turkish  slave,  had  found  fa^•o^u•  with  Kutb,  who  had  given  him 
his  daughter,  Malikah  Jihan,  in  marriage,  and  entrusted  him  with  the  governorship 
of  Budaun.  Altamsh  did  not  immediately  get  tlie  whole  ctnintry  into  his  ]iower ; 
a  brother-in-law  of  Kutb  had  made  himself  indepeudent  in  Simlli,  ilullan,  Bliakor 
and  Sivistan.  The  Punjab  also  revolted  from  him,  and  in  Behar  and  Bengal  in 
1219  the  governor,  Hasan  ed-din,  of  the  family  of  the  Khilji,  laid  claim  to  the  ter- 
ritory. Before  Altamsh  was  able  to  turn  upon  him,  the  invading  armies  of  Genghis 
Khan  burst  upon  Western  Hindustan.  This  conqueror  had  utterly  devastated  the 
kingdom  of  Kharizm,  and  when  the  fugitive  monarch,  Jelal  ed-din  Mankburni 
(Miugburni),  sought  shelter  in  the  Punjab,  lie  was  pursued  by  Genglus  Khan,  who 
devastated  the  provinces  of  Multaii,  Lahore,  Peshawar  and  Malikpur  (1221-1222; 
cf.  p.  172).  The  fugitive  prince  of  Kharizm  had  begged  Altamsh  for  assistance; 
tlie  latter,  however,  was  careful  not  to  initate  the  Jlongol  bands,  and  remained  in- 
active in  Delhi,  until  at  length  the  thunder  clouds  rolled  away  as  lapidly  as  they 
had  come.  Thereiipcm  Altamsli  subjugated  Bengal  and  Beliar  in  1225.  In  1228 
lie  got  the  Punjab  and  SLndh  into  his  power,  and  also  subdued  the  kingdom  of 
Malva  ua  the  south  after  a  long  struggle  (1226-1232;  the  destruction  of  the 
temples  of  Bliilsa,  Ujaiu  and  (Iwalior).  Tliose  Hindu  States  which  had  not 
appeared  against  him  in  open  hostility  were  mildly  treated  and  made  dependent 
upon  the  kingdom  under  certain  conditions.     On  the  death  of  Altamsh  (28th  of 


I  Hindoatan  (Hindustan)  includes  in  its  narrower  sense  the  district  watered  by  the  Ganges  and  Jumna, 
in  its  wider  sense  the  whole  of  Mohammedan  India. 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  423 


April,  1236),  his  kiugdum  extended  from  the  Indus  to  the  Brahmaputra,  and  from 
the  Himalaya  to  the  Viudhya  Mountains.  His  government  was  well  organised,  a 
.spirit  of  vigorous  intellectualism  prevailed  in  his  court,  and  the  i-uins  of  Pui  Pithu-a 
(did  Delhi)  are  evidence  not  only  of  the  wealth  but  also  of  the  artistic  taste  of  this 
highly  gifted  monarch. 

A  time  of  disturliance  followed.  In  the  next  eleven  years  no  less  than  five 
descendants  of  Altamsh  sat  upon  the  throne  of  Delhi.  All  the  Mameluke  princes 
were  threatened  by  danger  on  thi-ee  sides ;  from  the  Hindus,  who  were  the  more 
reluctant  to  submit  to  a  foreign  yoke  in  proportion  to  the  pressure  laid  upon  them 
by  the  fanatical  Mohammedans,  from  the  generals  and  governors  who  were  attracted 
by  the  success  which  had  attended  the  rising  of  the  first  Mameluke  rulers,  and  from 
the  Mongols,  whose  devastating  campaigns  were  continually  and  rapidly  repeated 
after  the  first  advance  of  Gengis  Khan.  The  immediate  successor  of  Aliamsh  was 
his  second  son,  Feroz  Shah  Eukn  ed-din,  whose  government  (1236)  came  to  an  end 
after  seven  months  in  a  palace  revolution.  His  place  was  taken  by  his  sister, 
Razlyah  (Eezia,  Rasi'a)  Begum,  a  woman  admirably  fitted  for  supreme  power,  and 
the  only  Mohammedan  queen  who  reigned  upon  the  throne  of  Hindostau  (1236- 
1239).  Her  powerful  and  masculine  intellect,  her  strength  and  sense  of  justice, 
her  spirit  and  courage,  enabled  her  to  fulfil  the  hea^'y  responsibilities  of  her  position ; 
nor  did  she  shrink  from  riding  into  battle  upon  her  war  elephant  ui  male  clotliing. 
However,  as  says  the  historian,  Mohammed  Kasim  Hindushah  Firishtah  (about 
1600),  her  only  fault  was  that  she  was  a  woman.  Her  love  for  an  Abyssinian 
slave  made  her  unpopular  among  the  people,  and  a  series  of  revolts  began,  which 
ended  in  her  downfall.  The  country  was  further  disturbed  both  by  internal  dis- 
sensions and  by  Mongol  invasions  during  the  short  reigns  of  the  two  following 
rulers  (Bahram  Shah,  21st  of  April,  1240,  and  Mas'ud,  1241-1246).  Protection 
from  these  dangers  was  not  forthcoming  until  the  reign  of  the  serious  and  upright 
Nasir-ed-din  Mahmud  Shah  (1246-1266),  the  sixth  son  of  Altamsh,  who  left  almost 
the  entire  business  of  government  to  his  brother-in-law  and  father-in-law,  the  Grand 
Vizier  Ghiyas  ed-din  Balban.  The  Mongols  were  defeated  in  1247.  They  had  in 
the  mean  while  overthrown  the  Abbassid  kingdom  of  Bagdad  (see  p.  176).  Hulagu 
confined  his  power  to  Persia,  and  expressed  his  friendly  intentions  by  sending  an 
embassy  to  the  court  of  Delhi.  The  spirit  of  those  times  and  the  character  of  the 
all-powerful  grand  viziex  can  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  on  the  entrance  of 
that  embassy  the  city  gate  of  Delhi  was  decorated  with  the  corpses  of  Hindu 
rebels.  Of  these  there  was  indeed  no  lack.  Hardly  had  a  revolt  been  suppressed 
in  one  quarter  than  new  disturbances  broke  out  elsewhere,  and  it  became  necessary 
to  crush  the  Hindus  with  measures  of  the  sternest  repression  in  the  Duab,  in 
Bandelkand,  in  Mewar,  Malwa,  Utsh,  Kanak,  and  Mauikpur  successively. 

On  the  18th  of  February,  1266,  Mahmud  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  grand 
vizier  Ghiyas  ed-din  Balban,  who  had  previously  been  the  virtual  ruler  of  the 
empire.  He,  too,  had  begun  his  career  as  a  Turkoman  slave.  He  mflicted  severe 
punishment  upon  the  bands  of  rebels  in  the  northeast  and  upon  the  Hindus  of 
Mewat,  Behar,  and  Bengal,  and  is  said  to  have  slaughtered  one  hundred  thousand 
men  during  his  conquest  of  the  Rajputs  of  Mewar.  Among  military  operations 
against  foreign  enemies,  we  must  mention  an  invasion  of  the  Mongols  into  the 
Punjab.  They  were  defeated  in  two  battles  by  the  sultan's  son,  Mohammed  Khan, 
who  was,  however,  himself  slain      Balban  was  especially  distinguished  for  his 


■i-li  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         la.aj.tc- 1 r 

fauatieisra  ;  and  if  Dellii  under  bis  rule  gained  a  reputation  as  a  centre  of  art  and 
science,  this  is  due  not  so  much  to  the  ruler  as  to  the  disturbances  of  the  period, 
when  every  intellectually  gifted  man  lied  to  the  place  of  greatest  security.  The 
capital  thus  became  a  refuge  for  numbers  of  deposed  princes  and  high  dignitaries, 
and  for  a  long  time  streets  and  squares  were  named  after  countries  from  which 
those  rulers  had  been  expelled.  Balban  died  at  the  age  of  eighty  in  1287.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  grand.son,  Jlo'izz  ed-ilin  Kei  Kobad,  a  youth  of  eighteen 
yeai-s  of  age,  who  had  inherited  his  father's  sternness  and  cruelty  without  his 
strength.  He  plunged  into  a  life  of  dissipation  and  soon  became  a  tool  in  the 
hands  of  his  grand  vizier,  Nizftm  ed-din.  In  1290  he  regained  his  freedom  of 
action  by  poisoning  the  vizier,  but  shortly  afterward  was  himself  murdered  in  his 
palace  by  the  new  vizier,  Jelal  ed-dtn. 

(S)  T/ie  House  of  Khilji  {the  Second  Tartar  Bi/nasti/).  —  Even  under  the  rule 
of  Balban  a  transformation  in  Mameluke  manners  had  taken  place.  This  monarch 
had  abandoned  the  guiding  principle  of  his  predecessors  of  placing  upstarts  from 
among  the  slaves  in  the  most  important  offices,  and  had  given  them  to  men  of 
distinguished  families  of  Afghan  or  TurkoTartar  origin.  Of  these  families  one  of 
the  most  important  had  long  been  that  of  the  Khilji  (Chalji),  which  had  been 
settled  partly  in  the  district  at  the  sources  of  tlie  Amu  Daria  during  the  tenth 
century,  while  other  parts  had  advanced  to  Afghanistan.  There,  while  retaining 
their  Turkish  dialect,  tliey  had  embraced  the  Mohammedan  belief,  and  gradually 
adopted  the  Turkish  civilization. 

Their  tribal  chieftain,  lelal  ed-din  Khilji,  was  seventy  years  of  age  when  the 
above-mentioned  palace  revolution  gave  him  the  supreme  power  in  Peliii  in  the 
year  1290.  His  dynastic  title  was  Feroz  (Firus)  Shah  11.  To  secure  his  position 
he  put  out  of  the  way  the  son  of  Kei  Kobad,  by  name  Gayomarth.  In  other 
respects,  however,  he  was  a  man  of  mild  character,  well  disposed  to  all  men,  mod- 
erate to  weakness,  even  against  his  foes,  a  friend  to  the  learned  classes  and  the 
priests.  He  was  soon  forced  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  Moguls  (that  is,  Mongols). 
These  he  successfully  overthrew  in  person  m  the  Punjab  (1292),  while  his  nephew, 
Ala  ed-din  Mohammed,  whom  he  had  appointed  governor  ot  the  Duab  between  the 
Jumna  and  the  (ianges,  suppressed  a  revolt  in  liundclkaiul  and  Malwa  (1293). 
Ala  ed-din  then  advanced,  on  his  own  responsibility,  in  1294,  witii  six  thousand 
horses  upon  a  mad  raid  through  the  pathless  mountains  and  forests  of  the  Vindhya 
Mountains,  seven  hundred  miles  southward.  On  the  way  he  jilundered  the  temple 
of  Somnat  (p.  420).  But  the  greatest  booty  he  found  in  the  well -watched  fortress 
of  Devagiri  (Daulatabad),  which  he  captured  by  treacherj'.  Before  the  southern 
princes  were  able  to  collect  their  troojis,  he  had  returned  to  his  own  province  by 
another  road.  Under  the  pretext  of  askuig  pardon  from  his  uncle  for  his  inde- 
pendent action,  he  enticed  the  aged  Feroz  Shfth  into  his  own  province,  and  there 
had  him  assassinated  (-Tuh-  19,  1295). 

This  deed  is  entirclj-  characteristic  of  AM  ed-dtn  Mohammed  Shah  I,  who 
seized  the  government  in  1296,  after  expelling  his  cousin,  Ibrahim  Shfdi  I,  the 
lawful  successor.  Cruel,  false,  and  treacherous,  initroubled  by  the  pricks  of  con- 
science, with  a  ruthless  tenacitj-  which  made  him  secure  of  his  object  in  every 
undertaking,  he  was  an  entire  contrast  to  his  l)enevolent  uncle.  To  his  subjects 
he  was  invariably  a  terror,  although  he  won  general  ]>iipularity  by  his  splendid 


/"H  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  425 

court,  his  liberality,  and  good  order.  Conspiracies  and  revolts  of  relations,  viziers 
and  Hindus,  continued  throughout  the  twenty  years  of  his  rule,  but  were  always 
suppressed  with  fearful  severity.  The  kingdom  was  also  disturbed  by  three  Mogul 
invasions.  The  first  of  these  was  vigorously  repidsed  in  1297,  while  the  other 
two  (1298  and  130.3)  created  but  a  small  impression,  and  were  tlie  last  of  their 
kind  for  a  long  period.  It  was  not  until  1310  that  Mohammed  Shah  was  able  to 
realise  the  desires  he  had  formed  upon  his  incursion  to  Devagiri  of  extending  his 
power  upon  the  south. 

The  history  of  the  Deccan  during  the  first  Mohammedan  century  of  Xorth  India 
is  occupied  by  struggles  between  the  Eajputs  (p.  376)  and  Dravichans,  by  the  foun- 
dation and  disappearance  of  Aryan-Dra\-idian  kingdoms  in  the  Central  Deccan, 
such  as  the  Southern  Mahratta  kingdom,  that  of  tlie  Eastern  Chalukya  in  Kaliiigai 
of  the  "Western  Chalukya  in  the  Northern  Konkan.  To  these  must  be  added  from 
the  thirteenth  century  the  kmgdoms  of  Gaupati  and  Bellala,  further  to  the  south 
that  of  Mysore,  and  the  earlier  kingdoms  of  the  Pandya,  Chola,  and  Chera  (cf. 
.  above,  p.  387). 

Mohammed  Shah  I  entrusted  the  conquest  of  the  Deccan  to  his  favourite, 
Malik  Kasur,  a  former  Hindu  slave,  who  had  renounced  his  religion,  embraced 
Mohammedanism,  and  risen  to  the  highest  oflices  in  the  kingdom.  He  overran  the 
Mahratta  country  in  a  rapid  series  of  victories ;  the  capital  of  the  Bellala,  Dvara- 
samudra,  was  captured  and  plundered  (1311);  the  kingdoms  of  Chola  and  Pandya 
were  subjugated ;  and  in  two  years  the  whole  of  Incha,  as  far  as  Cape  Comorin,  was 
subject  to  the  rule  of  Delhi.  The  conquered  princes  became  tributary  vassals,  and 
oidy  when  they  revolted  or  declined  to  pay  tribute  (Devagiri)  were  they  deposed 
and  their  territory  incorporated  with  the  empire. 

This  brilliant  success  in  no  way  diminished  the  number  of  revolts  which  were 
called  into  existence  by  the  universal  unpopularity  of  the  sultan  and  his  favourite. 
All  ed-din  Mohammed  Sliah  contracted  the  vice  of  dnmkermess,  and  after  suffering 
from  dropsy  died  on  the  19th  of  December,  1316,  perhaps  from  poison  given  him 
by  Kasur.  The  latter  was,  however,  overthrown  in  the  same  year,  and  after  the 
eldest  son,  Shihab  ed-din  ('Omar  Shah),  had  reigned  for  a  short  period,  Mubarek 
Shah,  the  third  son  of  Ala  ed-din,  ascended  the  throne  on  the  21st  of  March,  1317, 
and  immediately  secured  his  position  by  blinding  his  brother.  Some  statesmanlike 
regulations  aroused  general  hopes  of  a  good  reign,  but  shortly  afterward  the  }"oung 
and  voluptuous  sultan  left  all  state  business  to  a  Hindu  renegade  from  the  despised 
Parvari  caste,  by  name  Nasir  ed-din  Ivhusrou  Khan.  On  the  24th  of  March,  1321, 
the  sultan,  with  all  the  members  of  his  family,  was  murdered  by  his  emir,  who 
became  sultan  of  Delhi,  under  the  title  of  Khusrou  Shah.  Unpopular  as  he  had 
been  while  grand  vizier,  the  animosity  against  him  was  raised  to  the  highest  point 
by  the  shameless  outrages  upon  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  religious  feeling  which 
he  committed  in  giving  the  wives  of  the  murdered  sultan  to  his  favourites  in 
marriage ;  in  setting  up  images  of  the  Hindu  gods  in  the  mosques,  and  so  forth. 
Failing  a  legitimate  heir  to  the  throne,  the  movement  was  headed  by  the  Moham- 
medan governor  of  the  Punjab,  Ghiyis  (Ghayath)  ed-din  Tughlak;  he  attacked 
and  slew  the  unpopular  ruler  at  Delhi,  after  a  reign  of  little  more  than  four 
months. 

The  supremacy  of  the  Khilji  had  lasted  only  one  generation ;  and  of  tlais  period 
of  thirty  years,  two-thirds  belong  to  the  reign   of  Mohammed  Shah  I.     Under 


426  HISTORY    OP^    THE    WORLD         \_ci,apur  iv 

his  strong  government  the  kingdom  had  undergone  a  great  transformation.  The 
hereditary  enemies  of  the  country,  the  Moguls,  liad  beeu  driven  back  for  a  long 
period,  and  after  their  conversion  to  Moliammedauisni,  had  retired  to  the  Asiatic 
highlands.  Many  of  those  who  had  remained  behind  embraced  Mohammedanism 
and  took  service  in  the  army,  though  in  1311  they  were  all  put  to  death  in  conse- 
quence of  a  conspiracy.  The  Khilji  showed  themselves  largely  tolerant  in  reli- 
gious questions,  and  the  frequent  revolts  of  the  Hindus  were  inspired  rather  by 
national  hatred  than  by  religious  oppression.  Gradually  the  points  of  difference 
between  the  peoples  began  to  disappear.  The  Mohammedans  adojited  many  Hindu 
customs,  and  the  latter  also  began  to  conform  to  those  of  the  ruling  race,  as  is 
proved  by  the  case  of  the  Hindu  favourites,  whose  influence  was  constantly  an 
important  factor  in  the  Indian  history  of  that  period.  From  this  graihial  fusion 
arose  the  commercial  dialect  of  the  country,  Hindustani,  or  Urdu  (the  language 
of  the  camp).  The  different  elements  composing  the  vocabulary  of  this  dialect 
(Prakrit  of  the  Duab,  Persian,  Turco-Tartar,  etc.),  indicate  the  extent  of  the  racial 
fusion  which  then  tocik  place. 

Under  Mohammed  Shah  I,  the  kingdom  had  attained  its  greatest  extent 
abroad  (see  the  map,  p.  430).  A  decree  issued  in  Delhi  was  valid  as  far  as  the 
southernmost  point  of  India,  and  only  a  few  Ilajput  princes  continued  to  maintain 
their  independence.  The  acquisitions,  however,  wliich  liad  been  made  thus  rapidly 
were  never  united  by  any  firm  bond  of  union,  and  even  during  Mohammed's  time 
that  process  of  disruption  began  which  made  terribly  rapid  progress  under  the 
following  dynasties. 

(f)  The  House  of  Ttighlak  (the  third  Tartar  Dynasty).  —  Ghiyas  ed-din  Tughlak 
I,  the  son  of  a  Turcoman  slave  belonging  to  the  sultan  Balban  (p.  423)  and  a  Hindu 
motlier,  had  risen  by  his  own  merits  to  the  position  of  a  governor  in  the  Punjab, 
and  had  shown  himself  no  less  capable  during  the  short  period  of  his  sultanate 
(1321-1325).  He  directed  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  country,  to 
the  security  of  the  western  frontier,  to  the  recovery  of  those  parts  of  the  kingdom 
wiiifli  had  fallen  away  (Varaugel),  and  to  the  suppression  of  rebels  (Harasiiidia  of 
Tirhat).  Upon  his  return  from  Tirliat  he  and  his  eldest  son  were  killed  by  the 
collapse  of  a  pavilion  erected  for  a  festival,  a  catastrophe  which  had  perhaps  been 
brought  about  by  his  second  son,  Faklir  ed-din  .Tuuah  Kiian,  who  succeeded  him 
in  the  government  as  Mohammed  II,  (ibu)  Tughlak  (1325-1351).  His  govern- 
ment was  marked  by  the  infinite  misery  which  he  brought  upon  the  country.  He 
was  a  man  of  high  intellectual  capacity  and  had  enjoyed  an  excellent  education, 
was  learned  as  few  were,  a  distinguished  author  and  a  patron  of  learning ;  at  the 
same  time  he  carefully  observed  all  the  precepts  of  his  religion,  was  liberal  to 
extravagance  and  founded  hospitals,  almshouses,  and  other  benevolent  institutions. 
But  all  these  good  qualities  were  entirely  oversliadowed  by  the  madness,  as  of  the 
Ciesars,  which  characterised  his  every  political  action.  His  whimsicality  ap- 
proached the  point  of  insanity.  He  led  a  huge  army  against  the  Moguls  with  the 
object  of  inducing  them  to  buy  his  retreat  for  an  enormous  sum,  before  swords  had 
been  so  much  as  drawn  on  either  side  (1327);  one  hundred  thousand  men  were 
sent  to  China,  across  the  Tibetan  passes  of  the  Himalayas,  which  were  utterly 
impassable  for  an  army  on  this  scale ;  they  perished  almost  to  the  last  man  in  ice 
and  snow  (1337 ;  cf.  p.  345).    A  third  army  was  sent  to  Persia,  but  disbanded  before 


^'H  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  427 

operations  began,  and  the  soldiers  dispersed  plundering  over  their  own  country. 
In  1339  a  decree  was  suddenly  issued  to  the  effect  that  all  the  inhabitants  of 
Delhi  should  emigrate  to  Devagiri,  which  was  henceforward  called  Daulatabad 
(p.  424) ;  twice  they  were  allowed  to  return  and  twice  was  the  emigration  decree 
reissued,  on  one  occasion  during  a  fearful  famine  which  carried  oft'  many  thou- 
sands. The  obligatory  use  of  copper  currency  (instead  of  sdver)  brought  financial 
disaster  upon  the  country.  At  the  monarch's  pleasure  man-hunting  parties  were 
organised  throughout  whole  provinces,  his  own  subjects  were  the  quarry,  and  they 
were  killed  like  animals.  The  taxes  were  rai,sed  to  an  impossible  extent  and 
extorted  with  such  cruelty  that  large  masses  of  the  peasants  fied  to  the  forests  and 
formed  robber  bands.  The  natural  result  was  that  revolts  broke  out  in  every 
direction  against  this  mad  ruler,  and  that  the  provinces  strove  their  utmost  to 
secure  their  independence.  Tlie  empire,  which  had  embraced  almost  the  whole 
of  India  upon  the  accession  of  Mohammed  Tughlak,  was  diminished  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  in  the  fever  swamps  of  Sindh,  by  the  loss  of  Bengal  (since  1338),  the 
coasts  of  Coromandel  Devagiri,  Gujarat,  Sindh,  and  all  the  southern  provinces 
(since  1347) ;  of  twenty-three  provinces  scarce  half  were  left  to  him.  Mohammed 
ibn  Tughlak  "  left  behind  him  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
princes  and  furious  tyrants  who  have  ever  adorned  or  disgraced  humanity" 
(Mountstuart  Elphiustone). 

The  damage  which  this  mad  ruler  had  inflicted  upon  the  empire  could  not  be 
repaired  even  by  the  upright  government  of  his  successor  Feroz  (Firuz)  Shah  III, 
who  was  born  about  1300  and  reigned  from  1351  to  1388.  His  attempts  to 
recover  the  revolted  provinces  ended  with  the  acquirement  of  only  a  nominal 
supremacy.  The  country  was,  however,  largely  benefited  by  his  domestic  policy, 
and  lie  enabled  the  kingdom  to  recover  its  prosperity  by  a  sensible  and  upright 
system  of  taxation,  by  the  honesty  of  his  judicial  administration,  by  his  regula- 
tions for  military  service,  for  which  purpose  he  earmarked  the  revenue  of  certain 
districts  (Jaigir),  by  the  completion  of  useful  public  works  such  as  irrigation, 
cliannels,  reservoirs,  dams,  and  canals  (for  instance,  the  great  Jumna  canal,  which 
the  English  have  recently  restored  in  part),  and  by  the  foundation  of  schools, 
hospitals,  caravanserais,  etc. 

The  last  five  representatives  of  the  House  of  Tughlak  succeeded  one  another  in 
rapid  .succession  after  the  death  of  Feroz.  The  period  from  1388  to  1394  was 
a  time  of  incessant  civil  war  and  ultimately  the  once  powerful  kingdom  was 
reduced  to  a  few  districts  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Delhi.  At  this 
juncture  the  Moguls  made  an  invasion  in  larger  numbers  and  with  greater  ferocity 
than  they  had  ever  previously  attempted.  They  were  no  longer  the  imdisciplined 
hordes  of  Genghis  Khan,  but  the  weU-drilled  bands  of  Timur  (p.  184).  While  the 
last  of  the  Tuglilak  princes,  Mahmud  Shah  II,  found  a  safe  refuge  in  Gujerat,  the 
grey-haired  conqueror  advanced  to  Delhi,  which  opened  its  gates  to  him  upon 
a  promise  of  protection  (December  18,  1398).  But  one  of  those  "  misunderstand- 
ings "  wliich  often  occurred  during  the  campaigns  of  Timur  resulted  in  a  fearful 
massacre  of  the  population.  The  conqueror  laden  with  booty  returned  to  Samar- 
kand in  1399,  and  Mahmud  Tughlak  then  reappeared  from  his  hiding-place. 
With  his  death,  which  closed  an  inglorious  reign  over  an  empire  which  was  almost 
non-existent  (February,  1412),  the  dynasty  of  Tughlak  became  extinct. 


428  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD  [chapter  iv 

(f)  The  Seiad.t. — Aftor  the  Af_L;li:iii  Doiilat  Khan  Lodi  had  nik'd  for  a  short 
period  (1413-1414),  Kliizr  Khau,  who  had  formerly  bi't-ii  a  governor  aiul  then  a 
revolted  emir  of  Multfin,  seized  what  was  left  of  Hiudostan.  His  own  province 
speedily  revolted,  and  his  attemjits  (he  died  May  20,  1421),  as  those  of  his  three 
descendants,  Mubarek  Shfdi  II,  who  nded  till  .(anuary  28,  1435,  Mohammed  Shah 
IV,  until  1445,  and'Alim  Slifdi,  to  recover  the  Punjab  proved  fruitless,  and  their 
dominion  was  practically  couliued  to  the  town  of  Delhi.  These  rulers  of  Shiite 
belief  and  apparently  of  Alidish  origin  are  collectively  known  as  the  dynasty  of 
the  Seiads  (1414-1451).  I'nder 'Alim  Shah  tiie  boundaries  of  the  enijure  were 
distant  about  an  English  mile  from  the  capital,  and  at  no  time  did  they  extend 
further  than  a  distance  of  twelve  miles. 

(//)  The  Rouse  of  Lddi.  — In  the  year  1451  BahliM  Lodi,  who  ruled  over  the 
Punjab  in  Lahore,  took  possession  of  the  town  of  Delhi.  He  died  in  1488,  but 
his  son  Nizam  Iskander  (Sekander)  II,  who  died  in  1517,  succeeded  in  extending 
the  boundaries  of  the  kingdom  westward  beyond  Lahore  and  eastward  beyond 
Benares  and  the  Biindelkand.  However,  under  the  grandson  of  Bahlul,  Ibrithtm  II 
(1517-1526),  a  proud  and  tyrannical  ruler,  serious  revolts  broke  out.  The  east- 
ern districts  were  entirely  separated  from  the  kingdom,  and  his  governors  in  the 
Punjab  rose  against  him  and  called  in  his  powerful  neiglibour  I'aber  fn)m  Cftbul 
to  their  assistance.  These  shocks  put  an  end  to  the  feeble  rule  of  the  Lodi  princes 
(p.  429)  and  a  new  period  of  brilliant  prosperity  then  began  for  Hindostan. 

(0)  Political  Changes  in  the  South  of  India  since  13^7.  —  Mohammed  ibn 
Tughlak  had  undergone  the  mortification  of  seeing  the  southern  province  with  its 
capital  of  Daulatabad  secede  durijig  his  lifetime,  iu  spite  of  the  partiality  he  had 
shown  f(n-  it.  The  Viceroy  of  the  district,  Hasan  Gaugu,  a  Shiite  Afghan,  declared 
himself  independent  in  1347,  transferred  the  capital  to  Kulbarga  on  the  west  of 
Haidarabad,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  Bahmani  dynasty.  His  frontiers 
extended  from  Berar  to  Kistna  and  from  the  Sea  of  Bengal  to  that  of  Arabia; 
to  this  empire  were  added  Konkan,  Khandesh,  and  Gujerat  by  his  great-grandson, 
Ala  ed-din  Ahmed  Shah  II  (1435-1457).  The  Bahmani  dynasty  attained  its 
greatest  power  at  the  outset  of  the  reign  of  Mahmud  Shalx  II  (1482-1518),  who 
ruled  over  the  whole  of  the  Deccan  north  of  Mysore.  This  rajiid  rise  was  followed 
by  an  equally  rapid  fall ;  by  the  revolts  of  the  provincial  governors,  the  north  was 
broken  into  five  small  Mohammedan  States  between  1484  and  1512,  while  in  tlie 
south  the  kingdom  of  Bijayanagar  rapidly  rose  to  high  prosperity. 

Of  those  revolted  governors  the  first  was  Fattah  I'llah  'Imful  (Ihmad),  Shflli 
of  BerSr,  a  converted  Hindu  of  Bijayanagar ;  his  empire,  which  was  founded 
in  1484  (capital  town,  EUitshpur),  continued  until  1568  when  it  was  absorbed 
by  Akbar.  In  rapid  succession  followed  the  governors  'Adil  Shah  of  Bijapftr, 
whose  empire  lasted  from  14S9  to  1686,  and  Xi/am  Shflh  of  .Vlimednazar,  from 
1490  to  1595.  Two  years  later  the  governor  Barid  Shah  of  Bedar  made  himself 
independent  (his  dynasty  lasting  until  1609),  as  did  finally  in  1512  Kutb  Shfih 
of  Golconda  (Haidarabad ;  his  dynasty  lasting  until  1687).  None  of  these  petty 
Mohammedan  States  was  able  to  secure  predominance,  and  after  a  varying  period 
of  prosperity  all  were  reabsorbed  into  that  Delhi  kingdom  from  which  they  had 
originated. 


Ind 


-v.]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  429 


In  this  rivalry  of  the  Mohammedan  Deccan  States  the  greatest  success  was 
attained  by  a  Hindu  State  in  the  south,  the  kingdom  of  Bijayanagar,  which 
was  founded  in  1326  by  two  fugitives  from  the  low  caste  tribe  of  the  Kurumba 
(shepherds),  though  it  was  unable  to  attain  any  considerable  importance  in  view 
of  the  overwhelming  strength  of  its  ilohammedan  neighbours  on  the  north.  The 
first  dynasty  of  Bijayanagar  became  extinct  in  1479  ;  the  second,  a  side  branch  of 
Narasinha,  founded  about  1450,  rapidly  rose  to  prosperity.  The  Chola  had  long 
since  lost  their  former  importance  and  the  power  of  the  Pandya  (p.  387)  was  then 
broken.  At  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  Bijayanagar  was  indisputably  the 
predominant  Hindu  power  in  the  south  of  the  peninsula ;  the  petty  Hindu  States 
from  Kattak  to  Travancore  were  dependent  upon  this  kingdom.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  in  possession  of  the  whole  of  tlie  east  coast 
(see  the  map,  p.  430).  The  importance  of  this  great  Hindu  State  and  of  its 
artistic  rulers  is  evidenced  by  the  magnificent  ruins  which  are  now  buried  in 
the  jungles  of  Bellary.  Bijayanagar  was  under  no  apprehension  of  attack  from 
the  Mohammedan  States  in  the  north,  which  held  one  another  in  cheek  until  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  when,  however,  they  joined  in  common  action 
against  the  Hindu  State  this  latter  inevitably  collapsed. 

(h)  The  Mog^d  Empire  of  the  Timurites  until ' Alamgir  II  (1526-1759^.  — 
(a)  Baher.  —  The  series  of  the  Mogul  emperors  begins  with  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  and  attractive  figures  in  the  whole  of  Asiatic  history,  the  sultan  Baber 
(Zehir  ed-din  Mohammed  Babur  or  Babur  11^)  "The  Lion."  He  was  the  son  of 
Omar,  four  generations  removed  from  Timur  in  direct  descent,  and  one  of  the 
small  princes  in  the  magnificent  mountain  country  of  Ferghana  (in  the  upper 
Oxus  district),  his  mother  being  a  Mongolian  woman ;  on  the  death  of  his  father 
(1493)  he  found  himself  surrounded  by  danger  on  every  side.  In  1494  he  took 
up  the  reins  of  government  in  person,  and  the  following  ten  years  of  his  life  are 
full  of  battles  and  dangers,  bold  exploits  and  severe  defeats,  brilliant  successes  and 
heavy  losses ;  now  he  was  on  the  throne  of  a  great  kingdom,  and  again  an  almost 
abandoned  fugitive  in  the  inaccessible  gorges  of  his  native  mountains ;  his  adven- 
tures during  that  period  would  of  themselves  suflSce  to  make  up  the  most  eventful 
life  that  man  could  possibly  desire.  At  the  end  of  1504  he  was  obliged  to  yield 
before  the  superior  power  of  the  Uzbegs  (p.  186),  and  giving  up  all  hope  of  terri- 
tory from  that  side  of  the  Hindu  Kush  he  fled  across  the  mountains  to  Afghanis- 
tan. Two  months  later  (1505)  he  had  taken  Cabul  which  remained  henceforward 
in  his  possession,  but  even  then  his  life  was  a  constant  series  of  desperate  efforts 
and  remarkable  changes  of  fortune.     At  the  same  time  his  personality  is  most 

■  TSmQr  (1369-1404) 

, ' ! 

JelSl  ed-df n  MfrSn  ShSh,  ShSh  Bukh,  1414-47  in  TranBOxiima 

1404-7  in  Aaerbeijan  and  Irak  J 1 

I ' 1  Ulflgh  beg,  1409  in  Transoiania,  t  1449        BSysankar,  t  end  of  1432-3 

Mohammed                     Khald,  1 1 

!                       1404-9  in  Trans-  AIS  ed-douleh,  t  Oct.  1459                  BSber  I.  BahSdur, 

Bultfin  AbO  SS'id,             o^^m^,  t  1411  1450-57  in  Khoraafin 

1451-6'?  in  Transoxania  Kakyah  SultSn                                                         (p.  180) 

I , 1       ■ 


SultSn  Ahmed  Mahmud  'Omar  Shaikh  in  AndijSn  and  FerghSnah,  n.it.  1453,  t  1493 

l4C8-93  in  1493-t  in  Married  Kutluk  NikSr  khSnum,  t  3  June,  1505 

Transoxania  Transoxania  ! 

BSber  II,  Chiefly  after  Ferd.  Justi,  Iranisches 

nat.  14  Feb.  14S3,  t  2G  Dec.  1530.  Namenbuch  (Marburg,  1895). 


430  HISTORY    Oi-     11  li'.    WORLD  lc/.„/.t,r  ff 

human,  and  for  that  reason  most  attractiw ;  he  was  a  man  of  pure  and  dei'ii  feel- 
iuir,  his  love  for  his  mother  and  liis  relations  was  as  remarkable  as  his  kindness 
to  his  conquered  foes.  The  depth  and  the  warmth  of  these  sympathies  he  lias 
expressed  w^ith  every  elaboration  of  style  in  Turkish  and  Persian  son{,'s,  and  his 
"  Memoirs,"  written  in  East  Turkish  (Jagatai),  reflect  the  character  of  that  ex- 
traordinary man  and  certainly  form  one  of  the  most  remarkable  works  in  the 
literary  history  of  any  nation. 

The  defeats  which  Baber  had  suffered  in  Transoxania  and  Bactria  induced  him 
to  turn  his  gaze  to  India ;  he  was  able  to  claim  the  Punjab  as  the  heir  of  Tinuir, 
and  the  invitation  of  Doulat  Khan,  the  rebel  Lodt  governor  in  Lahore,  gave  him 
both  a  pretext  and  a  motive  for  attacking  the  neighbouring  kingdom  in  1524;  he 
found  no  difficulty  in  overcoming  such  resistance  as  was  offered  in  the  Punjab. 
He  was  especially  superior  to  his  opponents  in  artillery,  and  cros.sed  the  Sullej  at 
the  end  of  1525.  At  Panipat  (p.  421)  between  the  Sutlej  and  the  Jumna,  ten 
niQes  north  of  Delhi,  Ibrahim  Lodt  took  up  a  position  on  the  21st  of  April,  1526, 
with  a  force  whose  numbers  are  reported  as  100,000  soldiers  and  1,000  war  ele- 
phants to  oppose  the  25,000  warriors  of  Baber,  and  lost  both  his  throne  and  his 
life.  Dellii  (April  24)  and  Agra,  which  had  been  the  residence  of  the  Hindostau 
Afghans  from  1503  to  1504,  immediately  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  who 
divided  the  rich  imperial  treasures  among  his  warriors,  including  the  famous  dia- 
mond, the  Kohiuoor  ("the  mountain  of  light");  this  jewel,  whicli  had  previously 
been  taken  from  the  Khilji  Mohammed  Shah,  now  fell  to  the  lot  of  Humfiyiln,  the 
son  of  Baber,  and  has  been  the  glory  of  the  English  Crown  jewels  since  1850. 
The  victory  of  Panipat  gave  Baber  possession  of  North  India  to  the  nortlieast  of 
Delhi  and  also  the  small  strip  of  land  along  the  Jumna  as  far  as  Agra.  Shortly 
before  the  end  of  1526  he  was  also  master  of  the  district  south  of  the  Jumna  as 
far  as  Gwalior.  He  was  now  opposed  by  the  Hindus.  The  princes  of  Rajputana 
led  by  Rana  Sanka,  the  ruler  of  Chitor,  IVIewar,  and  Ajmir,  marched  against  him 
with  a  powerful  army  to  a  point  seven  miles  distant  from  the  west  of  Agra.  A 
battle  was  fought  at  Fattepur  Sikri,  or  Kauwa,  on  the  16th  of  March,  1527,  and 
the  Rajputs  were  utterly  defeated ;  Mewar  fell  into  the  liands  of  the  conqueror 
who  immediately  proceeded  to  reorganise  the  ailministration  of  his  new  acquisi- 
tions. How  the  Rajputs  could  fight  with  the  courage  of  despair,  Baber  was  to 
learn  in  the  following  year  when  he  besieged  one  of  the  princes  who  had  escaped 
from  the  battle  of  Sikri  in  his  fortress  of  Chaudi5ri.  As  his  troops  were  storming 
the  walls  on  the  second  day,  the  enemies  set  fire  to  the  town  with  their  wives  and 
children  after  the  manner  of  the  old  Kshatriyas,  and  then  rushed  upon  the  foe  with 
drawn  swords ;  the  body-guard  of  the  prince  killed  one  another,  each  man  strug- 
gling for  the  first  blow.  In  1529,  Mahinud  Lodi,  a  brother  of  Ibnihim,  was 
expelled  from  Oudh,  the  southern  part  of  Behar  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges 
was  captured,  and  the  Raja  Ndsir  ed-din  Nasrat  Shah  of  Bengal  was  forced  to  lay 
down  liis  arms. 

In  tliree  years  Baber  had  conquered  in  a  series  of  brilliant  victories  the  whole 
of  the  North  Indian  Plains  as  far  as  Bengal  (see  the  historical  map,  "  India)." 
Now,  however,  his  liealth,  which  had  been  undermined  by  the  extraordinary  pri- 
vations of  his  life,  began  to  fail.  On  the  26lh  of  December,  15.30,  Baber  the  Lion 
died  before  the  age  of  fifty ;  his  last  words  to  his  son  and  heir  Humflyun  were, 
"  Do  not  kill  your  brothers,  but  watch  over  tliem  tenderly." 


iTriruduction  and  e»tablifiltuuuit  of  fadoi-ies  by  tlie 
European  Navies  frum  1498  ■ 
I^rtujpiese   sffiiements   —  Fortugal  as  gmuert  patm-  HXi-ab'  leix 
-DuirJl  .  JfoOa/ui     -  -  „        161!-.     1600 

.  fivrjc/i  .  batSer  bttwrm.  FHincr  ^Snglund 

regarding  superiority  17*0 -SO 
w  SrtXisti                       f  fowtdnhon  of  Sttst  India   tb.    IS60 
Danish                    ,.                 The  coliiumig  ri'pi'ebrailH  the  stall-  (ud»tin£ 
luwnrtla   (hg  Erul  of  Uip  ay  ccntiun.-. 


il  from.  GraoiiH-lch 


I'tomflie  first  in\-asion  wf  (he  Mohammedans  1001 
to  ihe  fall  of  the  Great  Jlogul  Empire  1788 

liy  Ennl  Schmull 
>'at. Scale    1^  12000000 


Xaae  afltUts 

I,Period  of  tlie  Jlohammedaii  Epoch  1001-1526. 
Boniidaiy  of  the  Ghtam  taritoiy  about  lOSO. 

(l7i^  period  of  its  ^rmtest  caenZ-i 

-Souihem,  Boundary  of  the  Ghors  itloat  1203. 
.  .Jnavasc  during  the  XnniebiJce  Sotr/rutitnt 

1106  - 1390. 
MiLcd-din  af  Uu:  Klaidiiii     Ihina.i^  l!9S-i3ls 
conquers  about  an  the  entire  .Smith  ot  the  pen- 
insnla  and  destroys  thr  natirr  Miubi  utates  un- 
do-Inter  di/nasHes.   Tbahhw  iXil-HlZ.  Seyuis  Hl-t 
H  lotUiL  HSI-1SS6  the  empire   '  " 
n.Period  of  the  SIohammcilHn  Epodh  152S-1788. 

Soiah^oundniy  of  the  Gr.Mogul  Eiiip-iaider^^bar 

I .Sreatei't  £rtent  of  the  Sreiit  Jfoyul  lAnpirr 

^  ^  under AurttngxA  IStIT  /bBcnrrd  !y  rvpid  dectme 

■yr^rrCouiOry  of  the  Mahmtta.,  m  isT-fiiniarrOinnsr/'rj 
''■^■''^jnil^m'terU  afthe  Orrat  Sfofpil  i'ntpirr 

.JU  CounOies  south,  of  (Ms  blue  boundioy  are 

liable  topaij  tribute  to  the  .Vahndtn  . 

AniinirJEiulii  -iljirM^  TrQir.-  In  Suiilhrn,  Iiullo  In. 
tji'  li''''(riinuT  fire  .iliomi  in  Heil 


I   iro} /lanenia. 


PimtEd  bjihe  BlbUograpMsdips  hiBtltiit  Ltlprig. 


V  roHr.-  Bodd.  Mead  i  C? 


J 


Tmdvi 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  431 


(;3)  Eiimdyuii  and  the  Suri  Dynasty.  —  Baber  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Xasir 
ed-din  Mohammed  Humayun,  who  was  bom  in  1507 ;  he,  however,  had  not  inherited 
either  his  father's  iron  will  or  his  pertinacity,  much  less  his  firm  principles,  his  hi"h 
ambition,  his  warmth  of  heart,  and  his  unchanging  fidelity.  Baber  had  intended 
Humayun  to  become  ruler  of  the  kingdom,  and  had  destined  the  governorship  of 
Cabul  and  Kandahar  for  his  second  son,  Kamran.  Humayun  considered  that  his 
brother  would  be  more  closely  united  to  himself  if  he  also  received  the  governor- 
ship of  the  Punjab.  But  by  thus  renouncing  his  native  territory  he  also  lost  com- 
mand of  the  stout  warrior  Afghan  tribes,  thereby  considerably  weakening  his 
military  power  in  India,  and  this  moreover  at  a  time  when  enemies  rose  against 
him  on  every  side,  after  the  disappearance  of  the  powerful  figure  of  Baber.  His 
first  duty  was  to  crush  the  revolts  raised  by  the  generals  of  the  last  Afghan  rulers, 
and  then  to  punish  Bahadur  Shah,  the  Eaja  of  Gujerat,  for  his  intrigues.  Baha- 
dur was  expelled  by  the  emperor  in  person ;  hardly,  however,  had  he  returned 
to  his  capital  to  deal  with  an  outbreak  in  Bengal  when  the  troops  he  had  left 
in  Gujerat  were  driven  out  and  he  was  even  obliged  to  renotmce  his  claims  to 
Malwa. 

Meanwhile  upon  the  east,  in  Bengal,  a  heavy  storm  was  threatening  the  Mogul 
power.  Ferid  Khan,  a  Mohammedan  of  high  talent,  who  apparently  belonged  to 
the  Afghan  royal  family  of  the  Silri,  had  assumed  the  leadership  of  all  the  enemies 
of  the  Mogul  rule  and  was  speedily  able  to  secure  the  possession  of  Bihar.  Hu- 
mSyun  was  forced  to  besiege  the  strong  fortress  of  Chunar,  an  operation  which 
detained  him  for  many  months  at  Benares  ;  meanwhile  Bengal  was  conquered  by 
his  cunnins;  opponent,  who  had  in  the  meantime  adopted  the  title  of  Shtr  ("  Lion  ") 
Shah.  He  then  defeated  the  descendant  of  Timur  in  two  battles  in  1539  (Chonsa) 
and  1540  (near  Kanauj) ;  after  these  misfortunes  Humayun  was  obliged  to  aban- 
don his  kingdom  and  take  refuge  with  his  brother  Kamran  at  Lahore.  Here, 
however,  his  position  was  equally  unstable ;  Kamran  was  terror-stricken  at  the 
unexpected  success  of  Shir  Shah,  with  whom  he  concluded  peace,  the  price  being  the 
cession  of  the  Punjab,  while  the  deposed  emperor  was  forced  to  spend  a  period  of 
disappointment,  terrible  privation,  and  constant  flight  in  Rajputana ;  on  the  14th 
of  October,  1542,  his  son  Akbar  was  bom  to  him  in  the  desert  of  Thar  at  the  time 
of  his  greatest  need.  In  1 543  he  turned  to  Kandahar.  Shir  Shah,  who  had  been 
master  of  the  whole  Ganges  district  after  his  decisive  victories  over  Humayun,  now 
turned  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  domestic  organisation,  aud  did  his  best 
to  foster  the  progress  of  agriculture,  to  provide  for  public  peace  and  security,  to 
improve  communication  by  making  long  roads,  and  to  reorganise  the  bureaucracy, 
the  taxation  system,  and  the  administration  of  justice.  He  met  with  a  violent 
death  on  the  22d  of  May,  1545,  during  the  siege  of  a  hostile  fortress. 

His  successor,  Selim  (IsMm)  Shah,  attempted  to  continue  his  father's  adminis- 
tration; his  short  reign  (1545-1553)  was  largely  occupied  with  the  suppression  of 
different  revolts.  Under  the  government  of  his  incompetent  or  vicious  successors, 
Feroz  (1553),  Mohammed  1553),  Ibrahim  (1554),  and  Secander  (1555),  the  empire 
rapidly  fell  to  pieces.  Disturbances  broke  out  in  every  quarter,  and  the  way 
was  opened  for  the  return  of  Humayun.  He  defeated  two  armies  at  Sirhind, 
and  retumed  to  Delhi  as  king  in  the  summer  of  1555.  However,  almost  ex- 
actly six  months  after  his  re-entry  he  died  from  an  injury  received  by  a  fall 
(January,  1556). 


43-J  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  lr/,oj,f,r j r 

(y)  Akbar. — The  young  \h\x  '1-falli  JelTil  ed-iltii  Akbar,  who  ascendoil  tlie 
throne  of  Hindostan  on  the  23d  of  February,  15r)G,  liad  been  entrusted  by  his 
father  to  the  care  of  the  faithfid  Turcoman  Hairam  Khan,  whose  bold  action  had 
ill  the  meantime  inHicted  a  total  defeat  upon  the  armies  of  the  Lodis,  under  Hemu 
on  the  5th  of  Xoveniber,  1556,  in  a  second  battle  of  Panipat  (p.  429),  who  had  in  tlie 
meantime  advanced  be}«oud  Delhi  and  Agra.  State  administration  was  for  the  mo- 
ment carried  oa  also  by  Bairam,  who  made  himself  unpopular  by  his  jealousy  for 
the  prestige  of  his  title  of  Khan  Babu  (royal  father).  However  during  a  hunting 
expedition  Akbar  suddenly  returned  to  the  capital,  and  issueil  a  decree  to  the  efiect 
tiiat  he  would  henceforward  take  all  State  business  under  his  own  control  (1560). 
Bairam  in  surprise  attempted  a  revolt,  but  failing  adherents  was  obliged  to 
submit  to  tlie  young  emperor,  who  received  him  W'itli  all  honour.  In  the  same 
year  Bairam  was  murdered  by  one  of  his  enemies  when  on  the  point  of  making  a 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 

Akbar  was  then  obliged  to  confront  tlie  task  of  uniting  into  one  powerful  king- 
dom the  country  of  India,  which  had  been  devastated  by  centuries  of  war  and  was 
broken  into  hundreds  of  petty  principalities.  Before  his  time  every  conqueror  had 
been  the  ruler  of  a  foreign  land  whence  he  had  drawn  support  and  strength  ;  Akbar 
at  the  age  of  eighteen  was  obliged  to  rely  upon  himself  alone.  The  character  of 
Baber  had  been  inherited  by  his  grandson ;  Akbar  possessL'd  his  grandfather's  in- 
tellectual powers,  his  iron  will,  and  his  great  heart  with  all  its  warm  benevolence. 
The  son  of  a  fugitive  emperor,  born  in  the  desert,  brought  up  in  nominal  contine- 
ment,  he  had  known  the  bitter  side  of  life  from  his  youth  up.  Fortune  had  given 
him  a  powerful  frame,  wliich  he  trained  to  support  the  extremities  of  exertion. 
Physical  exercise  was  with  him  a  passion  ;  he  was  devoted  to  the  chase,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  fierce  excitement  of  catching  the  wild  horse  or  elephant  or  slaying  the 
dangerous  tiger.  On  one  occasion,  when  it  was  necessary  to  dissuade  the  Raja  of 
Jotpur  to  abandon  his  intention  of  forcing  the  widow  of  his  deceased  son  to  mount 
the  funeral  pyre,  Akbar  rode  two  hundred  and  twenty  miles  in  two  days.  In  battle 
he  displayed  the  utmost  bravery.  He  led  his  troops  in  person  during  the  danger- 
ous part  of  a  campaign,  leaving  to  his  generals  the  lighter  task  of  finisliing  the  war. 
In  every  victory  he  displayed  humanity  to  the  conquered,  and  decisively  opposed 
any  exhibition  of  cruelty.  Free  from  all  those  prejudices  which  separate  society 
and  create  dissension,  tolerant  to  men  of  other  beliefs,  impartial  to  men  of  other 
races,  whether  Hindu  or  Dravidian,  he  was  a  man  obviously  marked  out  to  weld 
the  conflicting  elements  of  his  kingdom  into  a  strong  and  prosperous  whole. 

In  all  seriousness  he  devoted  him.self  to  the  work  of  peace.  Moderate  in  all 
pleasures,  needing  but  little  sleep,  and  accustomed  to  divide  his  time  with  the 
utmost  accuracy,  he  found  leisure  to  devote  himself  to  science  and  art  after  tiie 
completion  of  his  State  duties.  The  famous  person<ages  and  scholars  who  adorned 
his  capital  were  at  the  same  time  his  friends ;  every  Tliursday  evening  a  circle  of 
these  was  collected  for  intellectual  conversation  and  jihilosophical  discussion.  His 
closest  friends  were  two  highly  talented  brothers,  Shekh  Feizi  and  AbiVl  J"azl,  the 
sons  of  a  learned  free-thinker.  The  elder  of  these  was  a  famous  scholar  in  Hindu 
literature  ;  with  his  help,  and  under  his  direction,  Akbar  had  the  most  important 
of  the  Sanscrit  works  translated  into  Persian.  Fazl,  on  the  otlier  hand,  who  was 
an  especially  close  friend  of  Akbar,  was  a  general,  a  statesman,  and  an  organiser, 
and  to  his  activity  Akbar's  kingdom  chiefly  owed  the  solidarity  of  its  internal 
organisation. 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  433 


For  a  long  period  in  India  authority  of  any  description  had  been  unknown,  and 
the  years  of  Humayun's  exile  had  proved  unfavourable  to  the  introduction  of 
severer  measures  among  the  Moguls.  Under  Akbar,  also,  many  generals,  after  he 
had  reduced  a  revolted  province  to  order,  attempted  to  keep  back  the  taxes  payable 
to  Delhi  and  to  claim  the  district  for  themselves  ;  instances  were  Oudh,  Malwa,  Ben- 
gal, etc.  Some  were  overthrown  with  a  strong  hand,  others  the  emperor  was  able 
to  bring  over  to  himself  by  clemency.  His  own  brother,  Mohammed  Hakim,  who 
attempted  to  occupy  the  Punjab  in  1566,  was  expelled  from  the  country.  Akbar 
won  over  the  Kajput  princes  by  a  display  of  kindness  and  concession.  He  him- 
self married  the  two  princesses  of  Amber  and  Marwar,  and  his  eldest  son,  Selim 
Jehangir,  had  a  princess  of  Amber  to  wife.  The  princes  of  those  petty  States  who 
were  treated  by  the  powerful  emperor  as  equals,  gladly  forgcit  that  their  ruler  was  an 
alien  both  by  his  creed  and  his  descent,  and  considered  it  an  honour  to  occupy  high 
positions  in  Akbar's  army.  Of  these  one  only,  the  Prince  of  Chitor,  maintained 
an  attitude  of  hostility.  His  capital  was  besieged  by  Akbar  in  1567,  and  the  bold 
commander  was  shot  by  the  emperor  himself  upon  the  walls ;  after  the  old  Rajput 
custom  the  garrison  first  killed  their  wives  and  children  and  then  themselves, 
but  the  prince,  who  had  fled,  still  declined  to  submit.  At  a  later  period  during 
Akbar's  lifetime  the  son  of  this  expelled  monarch  succeeded  in  founding  a  new 
State  in  Udipur,  whose  rulers  still  pride  themselves  upon  the  fact  tliat  their 
genealogy  remains  unstained  by  any  trace  of  connection  with  the  emperors  of 
Delhi. 

The  remnants  of  the  last  Mohammedan  dynasty  offered  a  yet  more  vigorous 
resistance  to  Akbar  than  the  Eajputs.  In  1559  these  "  Afghans "  were  expelled 
from  Oudh  and  Malwa.  In  Gujerat  various  pretenders  to  the  throne  were  quar- 
relling. One  of  these  called  in  Akbar  to  his  helj),  who  expelled  the  combatants 
collectively  and  reconstituted  the  country  as  a  province  in  the  years  1572-1573  ; 
in  1581  fresh  disturbances  broke  out,  and  an  indecisive  struggle  was  continued  for 
a  long  period,  until  peace  was  secured  by  the  death  of  Mozaffar  III  Habib  (1593). 
Similarly  much  time  elapsed  before  Bengal  was  definitely  conquered;  with  the 
exception  of  the  son  of  Sulaiman  Khan  Kararani,  Davud  Shah,  who  had  surrendered 
in  1576,  neither  the  Mogul  generals  nor  the  Afglians  were  definitely  pacified  until 
1592.  Orissa  also  fell  into  the  power  of  the  ruler  of  Delhi.  In  Sindh  military 
adventurers,  stragglers  left  from  the  Afghan  supremacy,  also  continued  their  in- 
trigues ;  they  were  subdued  in  1592,  and  pacified  by  the  gift  of  high  positions 
within  the  empire.  A  short  campaign  against  Prince  Yusuf  of  Kashmir  belonging 
to  the  Chak  dynasty  led  in  1586-1587  to  the  incorporation  of  that  province,  which 
now  became  a  favourite  summer  residence  of  the  Mogul  emperors.  A  harder  struggle 
was  fouglit  with  the  tribes  of  the  almost  inaccessible  Kafiristan  (the  Yusufsai) ; 
even  at  the  present  day  the  configuration  of  their  district  has  enabled  them  to 
maintain  their  independence.  The'  last  conquest  in  the  extreme  west  was  Kanda- 
har, which  had  been  already  occupied  by  Huniayun,  but  had  been  retaken  by  the 
Persians  in  the  first  years  of  Akbar's  reign  ;  the  emperor  recovered  this  district  in 
1593-1594. 

Thus  the  kingdom  of  Akbar  extended  from  Afghanistan  to  Orissa  and  from  the 
Himalaya  to  the  Narbada  (see  the  map,  p.  430).  Beyond  this  latter  boundary 
the  confusion  was  no  less  than  it  had  previously  been  in  the  north.  Akbar 
was  called  in  by  one  of  the  disputants,  and  his  army  quickly  got  possession  of 

VOL  11—28 


434  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [t7<«y,/.ryr 

lierar,  with  its  capital,  EUidipur ;  however,  an  unexpected  resistance  was  encoun- 
tered before  Aluuednagar,  the  central  point  of  the  Mohammedan  States  of  the 
Decoan.  A  woman  of  unusually  strong  character,  by  name  Cli.ind  Bibi,  who  was 
regent  for  her  great-nephew  iSahiulur  Xi/.um  Sliali  during  liis  minority,  united 
several  of  the  tUsputiiig  princes  before  the  approaching  danger ;  when  besieged  in 
her  capital,  she  succeeded  in  inspiring  her  adherents  with  so  Kerce  a  spirit  of  resist- 
ance that  tlie  Moguls  were  glad  to  conclude  peace  on  tlie  condition  that  the  claims 
of  Chand  Bibi  to  Berar  should  be  given  up  (1596).  Fresh  disturbances  led  to  a 
renewed  invasion  of  tlie  Moguls.  After  an  indecisive  liattle  Akbar  liimself  took 
command  of  his  troops  (l.">99),but  Ahmednagar  resisted  until  Chand  Bibi  was  mur- 
dered by  her  own  troops  in  IGOO.  Akbar  now  st't  up  a  nominal  ruler,  ilorteda  II, 
whose  dynasty  came  to  an  end  in  1637  under  Shfdi  .lehau. 

The  last  years  of  Akbar's  life  were  troubled  by  severe  domestic  misfortunes 
and  by  his  sorrow  at  the  death  of  his  friend  AbiVl  Fazl.  The  Prince  Selim  (JeliAn- 
gir),  who  had  been  appointed  his  successor,  was  addicted  to  the  pleasures  of  drink 
and  opium,  and  was  a  passionate  character  and  a  deadly  enemy  of  his  father's  chief 
counsellor,  Fazl.  Akbar  had  appointed  his  son  as  Viceroy  of  Ajmir ;  that,  how- 
ever, proved  insufficient  to  satisfy  his  ambition.  He  aimed  at  tlie  possession  of 
the  imperial  thnjiie,  took  possession  of  the  State  treasury,  assumed  the  title  of  king, 
and  occupied  Oudh  and  Behar.  Akbar,  however,  treated  him  kindly,  and  Selim 
made  a  show  of  submission,  but  revenged  himself  by  a  cowardly  stroke;  he  incited 
one  of  the  petty  princes  in  lUuidelkaiul  to  murder  Abu'l  Fazl  by  treachery  (1602). 
This  calamity  was  followed  by  the  loss  of  Danifil,  tlie  third  prince,  who  succumbed 
to  an  attack  of  dropsy  on  the  8th  of  April,  1605,  a  disease  which  had  already  car- 
ried off  his  elder  brother  Murad  in  1599.  By  these  heavy  blows  of  adversity  the 
emperor's  powers  were  broken.  After  a  long  illness  his  condition  rapidly  grew 
worse,  and  on  the  loth  of  October,  1605,  died  Akbar,  the  greatest  ruler  who  ever 
sat  upon  the  throne  of  India. 

Under  the  rule  of  every  Mohammedan  conqueror  who  had  invaded  India  from 
the  northwest,  the  land  had  suffered  by  reason  of  the  twofold  antagonisms  of 
religion  and  race.  In  either  of  these  cases  the  Hindus,  who  formed  the  majority 
of  the  population,  were  considered  as  of  no  account ;  they  repaid  with  their  hatred 
the  pride  and  scorn  with  whicli  they  were  treated,  and  prosperity  for  India  was 
obviously  impossible  under  such  rulers.  History  has  justly  honoured  Akbar  with 
the  title  of  "  The  Great,"  but  the  honour  is  due  less  to  his  military,  success  than 
to  the  insight  with  which  lie  furthered  the  internal  welfare  of  the  country  and  to 
the  manner  in  wliich  he  abrogated  the  antagonisms  of  religion  and  race  by  grad- 
ually obliterating  the  most  salient  differences. 

At  the  time  of  his  accession  Akbar  was  a  good  Mohammedan,  and  in  1576  he 
projected  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  to  the  grave  of  the  rroi)liet.  Shortly  afterwards, 
however,  the  interchange  of  philosophical  ideas  during  his  eveuing  gatherings 
(p.  432)  was  stimulated  by  the  presence  not  only  of  tlie  Mohammedan  mollah,  but 
also  of  the  learned  Brahman  priest  and  even  the  Roman  missionary.  No  one  of 
tliese  religions  appeared  to  him  as  absolutely  true.  Under  their  intluence  and  in 
the  conversation  of  his  confidential  friends  the  conception  of  that  jealous  God 
which  Mohammed  had  borrowed  from  Moses  was  transformed  to  the  idea  of  a 
Supreme  Being  watching  over  all  men  with  equal  love,  while  the  doctrine  of  the 
God  incarnate  became  in  him  a  pure  belief,  higli  above  all  material  conceptions,  to 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  435 


the  effect  that  the  Deity  can  be  apprehended  not  through  any  revelation  in  human 
shape,  but  only  by  the  exercise  of  reason  and  understanding ;  a  Deity,  also,  to  be 
served  not  by  all  kinds  of  ceremonies  and  empty  forms,  but  by  moral  purity  of 
life.  If  weak  humanity  desires  material  symbols  of  the  Supreme  Being,  then  the 
loftiest  to  be  found  are  the  sun,  the  constellations,  or  the  fire.  Akbar's  conception 
of  God  left  no  place  for  ritual  precepts,  for  prophets  or  priests. 

However,  to  support  his  dignity  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  he  issued  decrees 
announcing  that  the  king  was  the  head  of  the  church,  his  formula  of  confession 
being  as  follows :  "  There  is  no  God  but  God,  and  Akbar  is  his  Caliph  ; "  at  the 
same  time  he  never  employed  force  to  impose  his  religious  views  upon  dissentients. 
These  views  indeed  were  too  abstract  and  profound  for  popular  consumption,  and 
were  unintelligible  e.xcept  to  a  small  circle  of  philosopliical  adherents.  Toleration 
was  a  fundamental  principle  in  his  character,  and  he  was  never  anxious  to  convert 
the  members  of  otlier  religious.  Every  Mussulman  was  allowed  the  free  exercise 
of  his  religious  principles,  but  on  the  other  hand  such  principles  were  binding 
upon  no  one  else.  Thus  he  was  opposed  to  those  many  forms  of  compulsion  which 
Mohammedanism  lays  upon  public  and  private  life ;  Akbar  did  nothing  to  further 
the  study  of  the  language  of  the  Koran,  and  showed  no  preference  for  Arabic 
names  such  as  Mohammed,  Ahmed,  etc. ;  the  formula  of  greeting,  "  Peace  be  with 
you,"  was  replaced  by  the  sentence,  "  God  is  great,"  etc.  Thus  to  a  certain  extent 
Akbar  curtailed  the  privileges  of  his  native  religion.  At  the  same  time  he  removed 
many  of  the  disabilities  wliich  burdened  the  Hindus  and  tlieir  religious  practices  ; 
the  poll  tax  upon  unbelievers,  a  source  of  deep  dissatisfaction  among  the  Hindus, 
and  the  dues  levied  upon  pilgrims  during  their  journeys  were  entirely  remitted ; 
their  religious  practice  was  interfered  with  only  in  cases  where  the  pronounce- 
ments of  the  priests  were  totally  opposed  to  the  principles  of  humanity,  as  for 
instance  in  cases  of  trial  by  ordeal,  child  marriage,  compulsory  death  upon  the 
funeral  pyre,  and  the  enforced  celibacy  of  widows,  etc.  The  civil  rights  of  ]\Io- 
hammedans  and  Hindus  in  no  way  differed,  and  every  position  in  the  State,  high  or 
low.  was  open  to  members  of  either  religion. 

In  the  domestic  administration  of  his  great  kingdom  Akbar  displayed  the 
greatest  foresio-ht  and  euercv.  Former  rulers  had  been  accustomed  to  collect  the 
taxes  by  methods  inconceivably  disastrous.  The  incomes  of  important  districts 
had  been  appropriated  to  individual  generals  who  were  allowed  to  extort  the 
utmost  possible  amount  from  the  inhabitants,  and  for  this  purpose  a  large  force  of 
troops  was  permanently  kept  on  foot.  The  imperial  taxes  properly  so  called  were 
collected  by  an  army  of  officials  who  were  accessible  to  influence  of  every  kind 
and  appropriated  no  small  portion  of  the  receipts  as  they  passed  through  their 
hands.  Shir  Shah  (p.  430)  had  been  the  only  ruler  to  introduce  a  more  equable 
system  of  taxation,  and  the  regulations  made  during  his  short  reign  were  swept 
away  in  the  confusion  of  the  following  years.  In  its  main  details  Akbar's  system 
was  a  further  development  and  extension  of  that  of  Shir  Shah.  He  was  fortunate 
in  finding  in  the  Hindu  Todar  Mai  a  man  of  stainless  probity  and  admirable 
capacity  for  organisation,  who  did  more  than  any  one  else  to  restore  the  adminis- 
tration and  especially  the  taxatipn  system.  Todar  Mai  was  the  first  official  to 
make  a  complete  and  exact  census  of  the  whole  territory  north  of  the  Xarbada. 
A  survey  was  taken  of  all  arable  land,  an  accurate  estimate  made  of  the  products, 
and  taxation  calculated  from  these  data,  the  amount  being  established  at  one-third 


436  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chaj^terir 

of  the  average  produce  for  the  previous  ten  years.  UuJue  severity  was  thus 
avoided  as  far  as  possible,  and  in  times  of  famine  or  failure  of  the  crops  taxes 
were  remitted  and  advances  made  of  gold  or  corn.  Shir  Sliah  had  indeed  ap- 
pointed only  one-fourth  of  the  yearly  produce  as  the  unit  of  taxation ;  liowever, 
Akbar's  regulations  proved  more  advantageous  both  for  the  State  and  for  the  agri- 
cultural population,  as  peculation  was  prevented  by  a  strict  system  of  book-keeping 
and  by  the  possibility  of  appeal  to  higher  oHicial.s,  wiiile  the  fixity  of  the  regula- 
tions enabled  one-half  of  the  revenue  ofhcials  to  be  dispensed  with.  All  otticials, 
oHicers  and  soldiers  included,  received  a  tixed  and  liberal  salary,  and  were  no 
longer  obliged  to  depend  upon  incomes  drawn  legally  or  illegally  from  subsidiary 
sources. 

Trade  and  commerce  were  promoted,  a  strong  impulse  in  this  direction  being 
given  by  the  introduction  of  a  uniform  currency  ;  the  hundreds  of  different  cur- 
rencies which  had  hitherto  been  in  circulation  were  called  in,  and  an  imperial 
coinage  was  struck  in  the  mints  of  every  province.  The  empire  was  divitled  into 
fifteen  provinces  (three  of  which  were  in  the  Deccan),  and  these  were  governed 
under  imperial  direction  by  governors  who  were  invested  with  civil  and  military 
powers.  The  administration  of  justice,  as  far  as  the  ilohammedaus  were  con- 
cerned, lay  in  the  hands  of  a  supreme  judge,  Mir-i-adl,  whose  decision  was  final; 
he  was  assisted  by  a  Kasi  who  undertook  preliminary  investigations  and  pro- 
duced the  legal  codes  bearing  upon  tlie  case  ;  the  Hindus  were  judged  by  Brah- 
mans  with  a  legal  training.  The  organisation  of  the  army  was,  comparatively 
speaking,  less  vigorous  and  consistent.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  internal  organ- 
isation of  the  State,  which  was  laid  down  to  the  smallest  detail  in  the  "  Ai/ini- 
Akbari "  (the  ordinances  of  Akbar)  by  AbtVl  Fazl,  marked  a  great  step  in  advance, 
and  proved  a  blessing  to  the  country,  which  enjoyed  a  prosperity  hitherto 
unexampled. 

(8)  Jeh&ngir.  —  When  Akbar  died  he  had  appointed  as  his  successor  his  son, 
Nilr  ed-din  Mohammed  Selim,  who  took  the  imperial  title  of  Jehaugir  (that  is, 
World  Conqueror).  In  previous  years  he  liad  often  been  a  sore  anxiety  to  his 
father,  chietiy  by  reason  of  ids  drunkenness  and  furious  anger  wiiich  provoked  him 
to  acts  of  cruelty  and  often  broke  out  during  his  reign.  When  his  chief  general, 
Mahabat  Khan,  had  married  his  daughter  without  previously  announcing  his  in- 
tention, he  had  the  newly  wed  couple  Hogged  with  thorns,  and  deprived  the  general 
of  the  doNvry  and  of  his  private  possessions ;  after  tlie  revolt  of  his  son  Khusrou, 
he  had  seven  hundred  of  his  adlierents  impaled  along  the  road  before  the  gates  of 
Lahore,  while  his  son  in  chains  upon  an  elephant  was  conducted  through  this 
palisading. 

Sir  Thomas  Roe  made  some  stay  at  the  Indian  court  from  1015  to  1618  as  the 
ambassador  of  King  James  I,  and  has  given  us  an  account  of  the  brilliancy  of  the 
court  life,  of  the  emperor's  love  for  splendour  and  display,  of  his  kindness  to  Euro- 
peans, numbers  of  whom  came  to  his  court,  of  his  tolerance  to  other  religions  and 
especially  to  Christianity ;  two  pearls  in  his  crown  were  considered  by  him  as 
representing  the  heads  of  Christ  and  Mary,  and -two  of  his  nephews  were  allowed 
to  embrace  Christianity.  However,  the  same  ambassador  also  relates  accounts 
of  banquets  that  lasted  through  the  night,  of  which  drunkenness  was  the  inva- 
riable result,  the  orgies  being  led  by  the  emperor  himself.     At  the  same  time  the 


India-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  437 

emperor  attempted  to  play  tlie  part  of  a  stern  ilohammedan ;  when  during  the  day 
one  of  the  initiated  allowed  a  thoughtless  reference  to  one  of  these  orgies  to  escape 
him,  the  emperor  asked  seriously  who  had  been  guilty  of  such  an  offence  against 
the  law,  and  inflicted  so  severe  a  bastinado  upon  those  who  had  been  his  guests 
at  the  forbidden  entertainment  tliat  one  of  them  died.  Of  the  general  condition  of 
the  empire  Eoe  gives  a  description  which  compares  unfavourably  with  tlie  state 
of  affairs  under  Akbar.  He  praises  the  financial  arrangements,  but  characterises 
the  administration  as  loose,  the  officials  as  tyrannical  aad  corrupt,  and  mentions 
the  decay  of  militarism  in  the  army,  the  backbone  of  which  was  now  the  Eajput 
and  Afghan  contingents.  "  The  time  will  come,"  he  wrote,  "  when  all  in  these 
kingdoms  will  be  in  great  combustion."  However,  the  reign  of  Jehangir  passed 
by  without  any  great  collapse  ;  Akbar's  institutions  had  been  too  firmly  rooted  to 
fall  by  the  maladministration  of  one  government  only. 

Jehangir  liad  been  already  married  at  an  early  date  (1586-1587)  to  a  daughter 
of  Eay  Singli  of  Amber ;  a  Persian  woman,  however,  by  name  Nur  Jehan,  "  The 
light  of  the  world,"  gained  complete  influence  over  him.  Her  grandfather  had 
occupied  an  important  position  in  Teheran ;  her  father,  however,  was  so  impover- 
ished that  the  future  empress  upon  her  birth  was  e.-cposed  in  the  street,  where  a 
rich  merchant  found  her,  adopted  her,  and  called  in  her  own  mother  as  foster  nurse. 
Nur  Jehan  received  a  good  education,  and  by  her  wit  and  beauty  she  won  the  heart 
of  the  crown  prince  Selim  (Jehangir),  whose  attentions  became  so  pressing  that 
upon  Akbar's  advice  a  young  Persian  was  given  her  hand  together  with  an  estate 
in  Bengal.  Hardly  had  Jehangir  been  a  year  upon  the  throne  when  he  made  pro- 
posals to  the  husband,  which  the  latter  answered  by  kdling  the  emissaries  who 
brought  them  and  was  himself  cut  to  pieces  in  consequence.  In  1611  Nur  Jehan 
gave  way,  and  henceforward  her  influence  over  the  emperor  was  complete.  As 
long  as  her  excellent  father,  who  had  been  made  grand  vizier  of  the  empire,  was 
alive,  she  exerted  that  influence  for  good  ;  Jehangir  restrained  his  drunkenness,  and 
ceased  those  inhumanities  which  had  stained  the  imperial  title  in  previous  years. 

A  war  with  Udipur  (p.  432)  was  rapidly  brought  to  an  end  (1614)  by  the  second 
prince,  Shihab  ed-din  Mohammed  Khurram  Shah  Jehan ;  his  bold  action  also 
brought  the  war  against  the  Mohammedan  Deccan,  which  had  opened  unfavour- 
ably, to  a  successful  conclusion.  The  emperor  hated  his  eldest  son,  Khusrou,  who 
died  in  imprisonment  in  1622,  but  the  second  was  both  his  favourite  and  that  of 
the  empress,  who  gave  him  her  niece  in  marriage  ;  he  was  publicly  appointed  suc- 
cessor to  the  throne.  However,  Nur  Jehan  had  consulted  no  one's  pleasure  but 
her  own  after  her  father's  death,  and  she  now  gave  her  favour  to  the  youngest  of 
the  princes,  who  was  closely  connected  with  herself  by  his  marriage  with  her 
daughter.  When  his  father  fell  seriously  ill,  Shah  Jehan,  who  had  been  placed  in 
the  background,  marched  upon  Delhi,  but  was  obliged  to  retreat  to  Telingana  and 
Bengal,  where  he  was  defeated  by  Mahabat  Khan.  The  latter  tlieu  suddenly  in- 
curred the  displeasure  of  the  empress,  and  with  a  view  of  anticipating  any  act  of 
hostihty  on  her  part,  he  seized  the  persons  both  of  the  emperor  and  the  empress. 
They  succeeded  in  escaping  from  imprisonment  and  in  concluding  a  compact  with 
Mahabat  which  provided  that  he  should  once  more  take  the  field  against  Shah 
Jehan ;  but  the  general  was  afraid  of  the  later  vengeance  of  Nur  Jehan  and  de- 
serted to  the  prince.  There  was  no  further  collision  between  the  two  parties; 
the  emperor  died  in  1627,  while  upon  a  journey  from  Kashmir  to  Lahore.     Nur 


438  HISTORY    OV     1111-:    WORLD         [c/,.,/,t.r  ir 

JeliAu  was  treated  witli  respect  by  the  successor  to  the  throne  ;  she  survived  her 
husbiuul  by  nineteen  years,  which  she  spent  in  dignified  sechisiun,  wiiiuing  )nii- 
versal  allectiou  by  lier  benevolence. 

(e)  Sfia'h  Jchd'n.  —  ShSh  Jehftn  1,  after  the  slaughter  of  his  brother  Shahriyfir, 
who  had  formed  an  alliance  with  two  sons  of  Danial  (p.  433),  and  the  suppression 
of  a  revolt  in  Buiulelkaiul,  put  an  end  to  the  short  rule  of  his  nephew  Driwarl)aklisli, 
the  sou  of  Khusrou,  and  found  himself  in  undisputed  possession  of  tlie  throne  in 
1628 ;  under  his  rule  the  Mogul  Empire  attained  the  zenitli  of  its  wealth  and  pros- 
perity. Tlie  emperor  displayed  great  perspicacity  in  the  choice  of  capable  oflicials, 
exercised  a  strong  personal  supervision  over  the  administration,  introduced  many 
improvements,  and  in  the  course  of  twenty  years  extended  tlie  system  of  territorial 
occupation  and  taxation  which  had  beim  created  by  Todar  Mai  (p.  434)  to  the  ilis- 
tricts  on  the  far  side  of  tlie  Narbada.  Tliougli  he  is  described  as  reserved  and 
exclusive  before  his  accession,  he  afterwards  appeared  kindly,  courteous,  and  pater- 
nally benevolent  to  his  subjects,  and  succeeded  in  winning  over  those  Mohammedans 
whom  Akbar  had  formerly  affronted,  without  losing  the  good-will  of  tlie  Hindus. 

The  best  eviilences  for  the  brilliance  of  this  period  are  the  numberless  private 
and  public  buildings  which  arose  under  his  government,  not  only  in  the  two  capitals 
of  Delhi  and  Agra,  but  also  in  all  other  important  centres  in  the  kingdom,  even  in 
places  which  are  now  abandoned.  Under  Sliah  Jehan,  Delhi  was  as  entirely 
transformed  as  Kome  under  Nero  or  Paris  under  Napoleon  III.  The  palaces  of 
his  period,  with  tlieir  reception  rooms,  their  marble-pillared  halls,  tlieir  courts  and 
private  rooms,  together  witli  the  mosques  and  mausoleums,  marked  the  zenith  of 
Mohammedan  art  in  India.  ( )r  these  monuments  the  most  famous  is  the  mau- 
soleum called  the  Taj-i-Mahal  ("  Crown  of  the  harem ; "  see  the  plate,  "  The  Taj 
Mahal  at  Agra"),  the  grave  of  Nur-i-Malial  ("Light  of  the  harem  "),  a  favourite 
consort  of  the  emperor.  Opposite  the  imperial  fortress  of  Agra  rises  this  building, 
one  of  the  mo.st  delicate  constructions  in  tlie  world,  its  outline  clear  and  simple  as 
crystal,  built  in  marble,  of  wonderfully  delicate  colouring,  with  decorations  which 
bear  the  mark  of  a  fine  and  restrained  taste.  Symbolical  of  court  life  and  splendour 
is  the  famous  peacock  tliroiie.a  decoration  for  the  imperial  chair,  made  of  diamonds, 
emeralds,  rubies,  sappliires,  etc.,  which  represented  in  its  form  and  colours  a  pea- 
cock's tail  fully  extended.  The  traveller  Jean  Baptiste  Tavernier  (1605-1689),  a 
jeweller  by  profession,  estimates  the  collective  value  of  tlie  precious  stones  employed 
in  this  ornament  at  160,."i00,000  livres.  Though  such  works  of  arcliitecture  and 
artistic  skill  must  have  cost  enormous  sums,  and  though  many  lives  were  sacriKced 
in  the  numerous  wars  of  Shah  Jeliiin,  the  people  enjoyed  high  prosperity  under  his 
rule;  and  the  emperor,  surpassing  in  this  respect  the  Medicean  Lorenzo  "the  Mag- 
nificent," left  a  vast  quantity  of  .Stale  treasures  beliind  him  at  Jiis  death. 

Those  disturbances  wliicli  liad  broken  out  in  the  Deccau  in  1629"  were  speedily 
suppressed  by  the  emperor,  who  forced  the  State  of  Ahmednagar  to  conclude  a 
peace  favourable  to  Delhi.  Upon  a  fresh  outljreak  four  years  later  this  jiroviiice 
was  incorporated  with  the  Delhi  kingdom  (1637),  and  Abdallfih  of  Golconda,  who 
was  in  alliance  with  this  foe,  was  forced  to  pay  tribute.  Afilairs  beyond  the 
Afgiiau  frontier  ran  a  le.ss  favourable  ccnirse.  Tlie  Uzbegs,  who  had  penetrated 
into  Cabul,  were  at  first  driven  back  from  Balkh  ;  in  1637  Kandahar,  which  had 
been  occupied  by  the  Persians,  was  also  reconquered.     When,  however,  the  Uzbegs 


THE   TAJ   MAHAL  AT   AGRA 

The  Taj,  "  a  dream  in  marble,"  is  the  jewel  of  Agra,  lying  close  to  the  right  b:uik  of  the 
Jumna  ami  about  a  mile  to  the  east  of  the  fort.  It  is  the  m  lusoleum  of  the  Mogul  emjieror  Shah 
Jehan  (162H-lt)58)  and  his  consort  Mnmtaz-i-Mahal.  A  great  wall  of  red  sandstone  encloses  a 
rectangular  space  about  three  hundred  yards  long  by  one  hundred  broad.  The  building,  of  wliite 
polished  alabaster,  blazing  in  the  sunlight,  rises  upon  a  platform  reached  by  a  flight  of  steps  some 
seventy  feet  high :  a  right-angled  square  with  the  corners  cut  asvay  supports  the  dome,  which  is 
visible  from  a  great  distance;  the  greatest  diameter  of  the  dome  is  forty  feet,  while  it  rises  some 
three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  terrace  ;  the  pinnacle  ternjinates  in  two  golden 
balls  and  a  half-moon.  Within,  surrounded  by  delicate  lattice-work  tracery  in  marble,  stand  two 
cenotaphs  decorated,  like  the  walls,  with  flowers  carved  of  rare  stone  and  Uisteful  ornamentation. 
The  building  is  surrounded  by  an  extensive  garden,  iu  which  is  a  long,  straight  water-channel 
containing  immerous  fountains. 


< 

2^ 


< 

'< 


< 


jw«]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  439 

renewed  IdieiT  advance  iu  161S,  thv  r.  .rr  rs  :  .r-.  son,  Mohammed  Muhi  ed-din 
Aorang  zi§b  (Aunmgzebe),  \ras  ft-r^tu  u.  rcirc.it  viuring  the  winter  of  1647  over 
the  Hindn  Kush,  and  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  army  ia  consequence ;  Xaudahar 
was  reconquered  by  the  Persians  in  164S,  and  remained  in  their  possession,  ShSh 
JehSn  definitelj  renouncing  the  idea  of  reconquest  in  1653.  In  the  year  1655 
fresh  complications  broke  out  in  the  Deccan.  Auiang  zeb,  who  had  been  sent  there 
as  governor,  made  a  treacherx'  -  m  into  Golconda;  th-  "   vas  stormed, 

phmdeied,  and  burnt,  and  in  JallSh  was  forced  to  peace  under 

conditions  of  great  severity.  Bijapiir  was  then  surprised  on  some  trivial  pretext. 
But  before  the  subjugation  of  this  district  could  be  carried  out,  Aurang  zgb  re- 
•ceived  news  of  his  father's  sudden  illness,  and  was  obliged  to  conclude  a  treaty 
with  Mohammed  of  BijSpur,  on  conditions  favourable  to  the  latter,  in  order  th^ 
he  might  march  northward  with  his  army  (1657). 

Shah  Jehah  had  been  prostrated  by  urxmia.  Four  of  the  emperor's  sons,  who 
were  equally  brave  but  different  L.  :md  character,  immediately  appeared  as 

rival  claimants  for  the  throne.  IX  -  .  ih,  bom  in  1613,  was  a  man  of  Akbars 
type,  talented,  liberal,  well  disposed  to  the  Hindus,  and  friendly  to  Europeans  and 
Christians ;  however,  his  manner  was  against  him,  he  was  passionate,  often  insult- 
ing, had  no  personal  following,  and  was  especially  unpopular  amoug  the  Moham- 
medans. The  second  prince,  ShojS,  was  a  drunkard,  and  was  hated  by  the 
Mohammedans  for  his  leanings  to  the  Shiite  doctrine.  On  the  other  hand,  Aurang 
zeb  was  a  fanatical  Mohammedan,  beloved  for  hh  affability,  with  a  halo  of  glory 
from  his  recent  exploits,  but  ambitious  and  treacherous.  The  fourth  priuce,  MurSd 
bakhsh,  was  of  a  noble  disposition,  but  was  intellectually  of  uo  account  and  was 
marked  by  a  leaning  to  sensuality.  Auiang  zSb,  who  was  at  the  head  of  a  well- 
tried  army,  allowed  his  two  elder  brothers  to  destroy  one  another,  while  he  gained 
over  the  short-sighted  Murad  by  exaggerated  praise  and  flattery  and  by  promises 
of  the  succession.  With  the  help  of  Muiad  he  then  defeated  DSrS,  who  had 
emerged  victorious  from  the  struggle  with  Shoja,  and  invited  the  unsuspicious  man, 
under  a  pretext  of  celebrating  his  victory,  to  a  feast ;  on  the  next  morning  Murad 
awoke  from  his  debauch  to  find  himself  a  prisoner  in  the  citadel  of  Delhi,  but  was 
afterwards  transferred  to  the  State  prison  of  Gwalior. 

Meanwhile  Shah  Jehiin  I  had  recovered  and  again  assumed  the  government 
As,  however,  he  favoured  his  eldest  son,  Aurang  zgb  made  him  prisoner  in  165S,  and 
kept  him  imder  honourable  restraint  in  the  citadel  of  Agra  until  his  death  in  1666. 
Shortly  afterwards  Auiang  zeb  succeeded  in  seizing  the  person  of  his  eldest  brother ; 
and  D;lr3  was  condemned  to  death  on  a  pretended  charge  of  apostasy  from  the 
Mohammedan  faith  (1659).  Murad  met  the  same  fate  in  1661  as  a  result  of  an 
attempt  to  escape  from  his  imprisonment  Shojja  fled  to  Bengal,  and  perished  in 
1660  in  the  malarial  district  of  Arakan,  while  his  sons  were  kept  prisoners  until 
their  death  in  Gwalior.  Thus  no  further  rival  remained  to  the  successor  of  Shah 
Jehfin  among  his  brothers  or  relations. 

(5)  Ttif  Early  Years  of  Aurang  aeb.  —  Aurang  z§b  (Aurung  zebe)  'Alamgir  I 
<^165S-1T07)  had  inherited  none  of  the  great  talents  of  Baber  and  Akbar,  neither 
their  statesmanlike  foresight  nor  their  humanitarian  disposition,  and  still  less  that 
religious  toleration  which  had  made  the  people  prosperous  and  the  State  powerful 
Th^  famous  monarehs  had  been  creative  minds,  capable  of  finding  the  right 


440  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Ic/a.j.urir 

measures  to  deal  with  every  ditticulty  ;  whereas  Aurang  zOb  was  a  narrow-minded 
monarch  who  displayed  his  good  qualities  invariably  at  the  wrong  time  and  the 
WTOiig  )ilace.  lie  was  careless  wliere  lie  should  have  been  severe,  severe  where 
carelessness  would  have  been  the  better  policy,  liberal  where  he  should  have  saved, 
miserly  when  liberality  was  needed,  and  upright  only  toward  his  co-religionists. 
In  war  he  displayed  personal  bravery,  but  he  attempted  to  deal  with  great  problems 
of  statesnumship  in  a  petty  and  narrow-minded  spirit.  His  actions  were  dictated, 
not  by  love  for  his  subjects,  but  by  ambition,  mistrust,  and  religious  fanaticism. 
No  one  was  ever  better  able  to  conceal  his  true  feelings ;  no  mtans  were  too  con- 
temptible or  too  arbitrary  which  could  enable  him  to  reach  the  goal  of  his  ambi- 
tion. His  effort  was  to  promote  the  one  true  faith  of  the  Suuuah,  and  his  ambition 
was  to  be  the  type  of  a  true  Mohammedan  monarch.  To  his  co-religionists  he 
displayed  a  leniency  which  was  a  direct  invitation  to  mismanagement,  intrigue,  and 
disobedience,  while  his  hand  was  heavy  upon  the  hated  Hindus  wlio  formed  the 
majority  of  his  subjects.  He  was  well  read,  especially  in  the  Koran,  and  his  private 
life  was  marked  by  moderation  and  simplicity  ;  his  public  appearances  were  charac- 
terised by  an  e.xcess  of  splendour  and  by  painful  observance  of  every  religious  duty. 

At  the  beginning  of  his  reign  tlie  emperor  seemed  inclined  to  model  his 
behaviour  upon  the  religious  tolerance  of  his  ancestor  Akbar,  and  married  his  son 
Mohammed  Mu'azzem  to  the  daughter  of  a  Hindu  prince.  But  after  a  short  inter- 
val his  fanatical  hostility  to  the  alien  religion  made  itself  felt,  and  discord  between 
the  emperor  and  his  subjects  was  the  natural  result.  The  ta.x  upon  all  saleable 
articles,  which  was  only  2\  per  cent  for  the  Mohammedans,  was  doubled  by 
Aurang  zeb  in  the  case  of  the  Hindus  ;  the  hated  poll  tax  which  Akbar  had  abol- 
ished was  again  imposed  upon  the  Hindus,  and  while  preference  was  shown  to 
the  Mohammedans,  a  double  burden  was  laid  upon  the  Hindus,  who  were  also  ex- 
cluded from  the  administration  and  the  army.  lu  1679  Aurang  zeb  pulled  down 
the  three  most  sacred  temples  of  the  Hindus  in  Multan,  Mattra,  and  Benares,  and 
erected  a  mosque  upon  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Krishna  (Mattra).  In  Kajputana 
alone  the  Brahman  sanctuaries  which  were  devastated  by  his  fanaticism  might  be 
counted  by  hundreds ;  the  priests  were  killed  and  the  temple  treasure-*  trans- 
ferred to  Delhi.  Especially  characteristic  of  the  emperor's  madness  are  his 
attempts  to  seize  friendly  Hindu  princes  and  forcibly  to  convert  them  to  Mo- 
hammedanism;  their  armed  escorts  were  cut  down  to  the  last  man,  while  they 
themselves  escaped  and  with  their  co-religionists  at  once  became  the  bitter 
enemies  of  Aurang  zOb. 

The  Satnami,  a  purist  Hindu  sect  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  were  the  tirst 
to  revolt  against  such  oppression  —  a  movement  that  was  only  repressed  with  dif- 
ficulty. Their  example  was  followed  by  the  Eajput  tribes,  and  tlie  struggle  was 
carried  on  with  varying  success  and  with  such  bitter  cruelty  that  from  that  date 
the  Rajputs  have  displayed  a  deadly  hatred  to  every  later  ruler  of  Delhi. 

Aurang  zeb's  own  son,  Mohammed  Akbar  (the  fourth  prince),  enraged  at  the 
inhumanity  of  the  imperial  orders  given  him,  joined  the  side  of  the  oppressed,  but 
was  forced  to  flee  ;  he  first  turned  to  the  Mahrattas,  who  were  at  war  with  his 
father,  and  afterward  retired  to  Persia,  where  he  died  in  1706. 

(rj)  Tlie  Foundation,  of  the  Mahratta  Forcer.  —  Aurang  zeb  had  successfully  led 
the  army  of  Shah  Jehfln  against  the  Mohammedan  States  in  the  Deccan,  and  had 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  441 


inflicted  severe  losses  upon  Golconda  and  Bijapur ;  but  independent  rulers  were 
still  powerful  in  that  district.  In  the  meantime  a  third  State  founded  upon  the 
basis  of  national  religion  had  grown  from  insignificance  to  a  power  more  formi- 
dable and  coherent  than  any  of  the  surrounding  States  ;  this  was  the  Mahratta 
(Maratta)  people,  a  powerful  tribe  descended  from  the  old  Kshatriya  immigrants, 
inhabiting  the  district  of  Maharashtra  and  the  country  to  the  south ;  from  this 
centre  capable  men  had  for  many  years  migrated  to  the  neiglibouring  Moham- 
medan principalities,  especially  to  Bijapiir,  where  they  had  occupied  important 
positions  in  the  administration  and  in  the  army.  The  head  of  one  of  these  immi- 
grant families,  Shaj  Bhonsla,  had  distinguished  himself  as  a  cavalry  commander, 
and  had  been  rewarded  by  the  Mohammedan  Sultan  of  Bijapur  with  the  military 
fief  of  Poonah,  and  later  with  a  more  important  district  in  the  modern  Mysore. 
From  his  marriage  with  a  woman  of  noble  birth  sprang  the  foimder  of  the 
Mahratta  power,  Sivaji.  National  and  religious  sentiment  inspired  him  with 
deep  hatred  for  Moliammedanism.  During  his  father's  absence  in  the  southern 
parts  of  his  fief  the  sou,  with  the  help  of  the  troops  under  his  command  and  other 
Mahratta  allies,  seized  a  number  of  the  strongest  fortresses,  confiscated  the  taxes 
and  plundered  the  lands  of  his  lord  far  be3-ond  the  boimdaries  of  his  own  district ; 
his  father  was  then  suspected  of  complicity  and  imprisoned  by  the  sultan  of 
Bijapur.  Sivaji  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  powerful  emperor  of  Delhi, 
Shah  Jehan,  and  the  fear  of  this  mighty  monarch  procured  the  release  of  his 
father ;  the  son  then  displayed  even  greater  insolence  to  Bijapur.  Ultimately  an 
army  was  sent  against  him  under  Afzal  Khan ;  Sivaji  induced  the  hostile  com- 
mander to  agree  to  a  friendly  meeting  before  the  fort  of  Pratapgad,  where  he 
murdered  him;  the  army  was  taken  by  surprise  and  massacred  in  large  part. 
Ultimately  he  secured  the  cession  of  additional  territory  and  the  right  of  main- 
taining a  standing  army  of  fifty  thousand  infantry  and  seven  thousand  cavalry. 

These  events  had  taken  place  shortly  before  the  accession  of  Aurang  zeb.  The 
upstart  now  directed  his  attacks  against  this  powerful  empire.  His  marauding 
bands  advanced  into  the  neighbourhood  of  Surat  in  1662,  and  an  imperial  army 
retreated  before  him  in  disgraceful  cowardice.  A  new  expedition  succeeded  in 
inducing  Sivaji  to  appear  in  person  at  the  court  of  the  powerful  emperor. 
Aurang  zeb  received  the  Hindu  with  almost  contemptuous  coldness,  and  proposed 
to  confine  him  forcibly  in  Delhi.  However,  the  cunning  Mahratta  and  his  son 
made  good  their  escape,  hidden  in  two  provision-hampers.  In  the  year  1674 
Sivaji  declared  himself  independent,  assumed  the  title  of  Maharaja,  and  proceeded 
to  strike  a  coinage  in  his  owTi  name.  Had  Aurang  zeb  been  a  far-seeing  ruler,  he 
could  not  have  failed  to  recognise  a  dangerous  enemy  in  this  rising  Hindu  State 
on  the  southwest,  and  would  have  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  ilohammedan 
States  in  the  Deccan.  However,  he  hoped  to  secure  sole  supremacy  over  all  the 
Mohammedans  in  India,  and  even  furthered  the  action  of  the  new  Hindu  prince 
when  he  extorted  from  Bijapur  one-fourth  of  its  yearly  revenue  as  payment  in  lieu  of 
his  plundering  raids,  —  a  tax  known  as  the  Chout,  which  was  later,  under  the  name 
of  the  "  Mahratta  "  tribute,  to  be  a  source  of  sore  vexation  to  the  Delhi  kingdom. 

The  far-seeing  opponent  of  the  two  Mohammedan  jiowers  availed  himself  of  his 
favourable  position  to  develop  as  far  as  possible  the  internal  organisation  of  his 
Hindu  State.  Society  was  organised  on  the  pattern  supplied  by  the  old  tradi- 
tions ;  the  Brahmans,  whose  intellectual  training  and  higher  education  had  been 


442  HISTORY    OF    TIIH    WORLD  [chapter  JV 

developed  through  long  generatious,  were  the  burn  coun.sellors  of  the  uation ;  the 
chief  otticial  posts  were  occupied  by  members  of  noble  Hrahmau  families,  who  saw 
that  the  administration  was  properly  conducted.  Tlie  warriors  descended  from 
the  old  Kshatriya  immigrants  formed  the  professional  officers  and  the  well-drilled 
and  regularly  paid  army.  The  agricultural  class  (Kuidiis)  not  only  devoted  their 
energies  to  production,  but  also  formed  the  guerilla  reserve  of  the  standing  army. 
All  remaining  handicraftsmen  or  merchants  formed  collectively  the  fourth  class 
(_8haukardaclii).  The  State  thus  organised  had  a  small  standing  army  of  cavalry 
armed  with  lances  which,  when  necessity  arose,  could  be  rapidly  increased  to 
a  powerful  force  by  calling  out  the  militia,  and  as  rapidly  be  reduced  to  its 
former  elimensions.  The  Maliratta  army  was  a  highly  mobile  force,  and  conse- 
quently far  superior  to  the  slow-moving  troops  of  the  Mogul  emperor;  when 
these  latter  appeared  in  overwhelming  strength,  they  found  only  peaceful  peasants 
tilling  their  fields ;  the  moment  the  enemy  divided  his  forces  he  was  immediately 
attacked  unawares.  Plundering  raids  and  the  Maliratta  tribute  imposed  upon 
neighbouring  States  brought  in  a  large  yearly  revenue  ;  the  booty  taken  in  war 
was  in  part  divided  among  the  soldiers  and  the  militia,  but  the  larger  part  had 
been  distributed  among  the  small  and  almost  impregnable  mountain  fortresses 
which  guarded  tlie  State  chest  and  military  treasuries.  Thus  Sivaji  had  at  his 
command  a  strong  army  ever  ready  for  action  and  self-supporting,  while  the  expen- 
sive and  incapable  troops  of  bis  opponent  devoured  the  riches  of  the  empire  ;  the 
Mahrattas  had  no  lack  of  recruits  to  swell  tlieir  ranks,  while  the  Jlogul  army 
had  great  difficulty  in  maintaining  its  strength,  though  enlistment  proceeded  far 
and  wide.  Such  was  the  opponent  that  Aurang  zeb  thought  he  could  play  off 
against  the  sultans  of  the  Deccan ;  in  reality  the  Mahratta  power,  joining  now  one 
and  now  another  of  these  oppoueuts,  inflicted  injury  upon  both  and  aggrandised 
itself  at  their  expense. 

(6)  The  Fall  of  Aurang  zeb. —  In  the  year  1672  Sivaji  surprised  an  imperial 
army,  and  inflicted  so  severe  a  defeat  that  for  a  long  time  the  Mogul  troops  were 
forced  to  confine  themselves  to  the  defence  of  their  headquarters  in  Aurangabad. 
Revolts  in  the  north  and  the  northwest  of  the  empire  had  made  it  impossible  to 
unite  all  the  imperial  forces  for  action  upon  the  south.  A  favourable  opportunity 
seemed,  however,  to  have  arisen  in  1G80,  when  Sivaji  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Sambaji,  who  was  nearly  his  equal  in  energy.  This  was  the  date  of  the  seces- 
sion of  Prince  Akbar  (p.  439).  The  emperor,  who  was  by  nature  suspicious,  now 
declined  to  trust  anybody,  and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  southern  arm}- 
with  the  object  of  crushing  his  Mohammedan  opponents  'Ali  II  of  Btjapur,  and 
AbfiT  Hasan  of  Golconda,  intending  afterward  to  overthrow  the  Mahrattas.  In 
168.3  he  marched  to  the  Deccan;  in  16S6  P.ijnpnr  was  taken  and  Golconda  fell  in 
the  next  year.  The  last  indeiJendent  Mohammedan  States  in  the  Deccan  thus 
disappeared. 

In  1689  Sambaji  and  his  son,  who  was  six  years  of  age,  were  captured  by 
Aurang  zgb ;  the  father  was  killed  after  the  most  cruel  tortures,  and  the  child 
kept  in  strict  confinement.  This  action,  however,  aroused  the  obstinate  Mahratta 
race  to  yet  more  irresistible  efforts.  Aurang  zeb  was  utterly  defeated  at  Rerampur, 
and  his  youngest  son,  Mohammed  Cambakhsli,  with  his  commander-in-chief 
Zulfikar,  suffered  such  heavy  losses  on  the  east  coast  that  tlie  prince  was  forced  to 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  443 


withdraw  and  unite  his  forces  wiili  his  father's.  Other  imperial  armies  were 
repeatedly  beaten  or  forced  to  surrender ;  the  very  forces  of  nature  seemed  to  be 
conspiring  with  the  enemy  ;  a  sudden  inundation  of  the  river  Bhima  cost  Aurang 
zeb  the  whole  of  his  baggage  and  twelve  thousand  cavalry.  The  Mogul  emperor 
gathered  aU  his  forces  for  a  final  effort ;  strong  citadels  were  captured  and  llali- 
ratta  troops  scattered.  But  fresh  fortresses  were  occupied,  and  the  ilahrattas  dis- 
persed only  to  reunite  at  some  other  centre.  Ultimately  the  queen  regent,  Tara 
Bai,  the  widow  of  Eaja  Ram,  the  brother  of  Sambaji,  had  recourse  to  desperate 
measures,  and  devastated  the  whole  country  in  order  to  deprive  the  enemy  of  his 
supplies.  At  this  moment  the  boddy  powers  of  the  old  emperor  gave  way,  and  in 
1707  Aurang  zeb  'Alamgh-  I  died  in  a  fainting  fit. 

(i)  The  Later  Mogul  Emperors.  —  On  the  death  of  Aurang  zeb  the  finances  of 
Delhi  were  in  utter  confusion  ;  the  greater  proportion  of  the  revenue  existed  only 
on  paper,  and  had  been  diminished  by  embezzlement,  by  revolts,  and  the  generally 
impoverished  condition  of  the  nation,  while  the  expenditure  had  risen  enormously 
during  the  long-continued  war.  The  Hindu  population,  who  were  considered  as 
subjects  of  the  second  class  only,  were  inspired  witli  deeper  hatred  for  the  Moham- 
medan dynasty.  The  strong  foundations  of  the  State  had  been  shaken ;  a  state  of 
ferment  existed  at  home,  the  south  was  threatened  by  the  Mahratta  power  which 
Aurang  zeb's  blind  policy  had  aggrandised,  and  the  States  on  the  northwest  beheld 
the  anxieties  with  delight.  Moreover  the  dynasty  upon  the  peacock  throne  of 
Delhi  had  degenerated ;  the  power  of  the  House  of  Timur  had  spent  itself  in  a 
short  succession  of  brilliant  rulers,  and  the  emperors  of  succeeding  years  were  but 
miserable  shadows  of  their  great  predecessors. 

In  the  next  twelve  years  no  less  than  eight  rulers  succeeded  one  another 
on  the  throne.i  The  first,  Mu'azzem  Shah  'Ham  Bahadur  Shah  I  (1707-1712) 
displayed  much  tolerance,  but  his  strength  was  unequal  to  the  task  of  restoring 
the  broken  organisation.  His  vicious  successor,  Mo'izz  ed-din  Jihandar  Sliah 
(1712-1713),  was  an  utterly  insignificant  figure.  He  was  succeeded  by  Mohammed 
FarrukhsiySr  (Farokhsir,  1713-1719),  a  weakling  who  surrounded  himself  with 
foolish  counsellors,  and  vainly  attempted  to  curb  the  growing  power  of  the  nobles 
by  clumsy  intrigues ;  he  was  murdered  in  the  palace.  Two  children  were  then 
placed  in  succession  upon  the  throne ;  both  succumbed  to  consumption,  Eafi  'ed- 
darajat  after  three  months  and  Eafi  'ed-doula  Shah  Jehan  II,  in  an  even  shorter 
time.  The  rule  of  Roshen-akhtar  Mohammed  Shah  (1719-1748)  was  of  somewhat 
longer  duration  ;   he,    however,    was   a  voluptuary  who   cared   only  for  liis   own 

'  Mohammed  Mahi  eddtn  Aurang  z6b  (Aurungzebe)  'Alamgtr  I  (1658-1707) 

I ; ^ 1 1 

1.  Mohammed  Mu'azzem  ShSh  'Alam  Bahadur  Mohammed  'Azim  Mohammed  Akbar  Mohammed 

ShSli  I  (1707-12)  ShSh(1707)  NSkQsiySr  (1719-23)        Cambakhsh  (1707, 8) 


_L 


2.  Mo'izz  ed-din  JehSndSr        Mohammed  'Aztm  Rafi  al-kadr  Mohammed  rhujastah-  jr^  j  ...smmah 

ShSh  (171-2-13)  (11712)  akhter  JehSu  ShSh  ' 

3.  Mohammed  i  ShSh  Jehan  III 

8.   Aziz  ed-dSn  Farrukhsij-Sr  , 1 .  6.  Raiishanachtar  (1759-001 

'^/,-:£!r,"  ^"'^1'^  S.Rafl'ed.     4.Rafled-l^tm    Mol.ammeJ  ShSh 

f^'-'Y'^)  doulehShSh      darajSt  (1720)  (la.'-lS) 

•Alt  Oflhar  ShSh  'Alam  n  (1759-lSOC)  ^n^^n}^  '^"'^'  "■  Ahmed  ShSh 

(•''")  (1748-54,11774) 

AbQ  •IN.asrMu 'in  ed-din  Akbar  ShSh  II  (lSOC-37)  i       ,     

B6dSrbakht  (1788) 
Aba  '1  Mozaffar  SirSj  ed-din  Mohammed  BahSdur  ShSh  II  (1837-57 ;  t  7  Nov.  18l!2) 

(After  Stanley  Lane-Poole  and  Ferdinand  Justi. ) 


444  HISTORY    OF     lUK    WORLD         [c/u,j,ur  ir 

pleasure  ami  lianiled  over  the  imperial  seal  to  his  chief  wife  to  use  as  slie  pleased. 
His  son  Aliuied  Shfih  (17-48-1 7r>-4)  was  taken  prisoner  and  blinded  with  his 
mother;  he  died  in  1774.  Even  shorter  was  the  rule  of  his  aged  successor  'Aziz 
ed-din  'Alauigir  II,  wlio  was  murdered  by  his  grand  vizier  in  1759. 

Such,  during  the  first  half-century  after  Aurang  zeb's  death,  were  the  "wielders 
of  the  sceptre  "  in  Hindostan,  with  the  e.vception  of  a  few  unsuccessful  candidates 
for  the  throne,  such  as  'Azin  Shah  (1707),  Canibakhsh  (1707-1708),  Nekusiyftr 
(1719-1723),  and  lbr;lliiiu  (1720).  The  royal  power  wiis  in  the  hands  of  ambi- 
tious viziers,  of  harem  favourites,  of  flatterers  and  parasites  wIio  pandered  to  the 
excesses  and  debauches  of  tiie  riders.  Shflh  'Alan  Uuhadur  sull'ered  greatly  from 
dependence  upon  Zultikar,  one  of  Aurang  zgb's  bravest  generals  during  his  wars  in 
the  Decjan,  and  .Tehandar  Shall  was  but  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  tliis  man ;  after 
the  latter's  accession,  during  a  revolt  of  Zultikar,  he  was  handed  over  to  tiie  rebels, 
who  killed  both  hinr  and  his  betrayer.  The  ne.xt  four  rulers  were  elevated  to 
the  tlirone  by  the  "  king  makers,"  two  brothers  who  gave  themselves  out  to  be 
descendants  of  the  Prophet ;  tliese  were  the  Seiads,  Hussein  All  and  Abd  uUah, 
who  murdered  Farrukhsiyar,  made  two  cliildren  emperors,  and  were  tiiuxlly  sup- 
pressed a  year  after  the  accession  of  Mohammed  Shah,  Hussein  Ali  falling  under 
the  dagger  of  an  emissary  of  tlie  emperor,  while  Abd  ullali  was  defeated  with  his 
army ;  his  rank  saved  liim  from  death,  but  he  was  kept  in  life-long  imprisonment. 
Henceforward  the  business  of  State  was  conducted  by  women  and  parasites. 
AJimed  ShSh  and  'Alamglr  II  were  pure  nonentities  compared  with  their  ambi- 
tious, faithless,  and  despotic  commander-in-chief  and  grand  vizier,  Ghazi  ed-din, 
grandson  of  Asaf  Jah  of  Haidarabad. 

Such  were  the  liauds  that  steered  the  ship  of  State,  which  was  now  tossed  by 
wild  waves  amid  dangerous  reefs  and  began  to  strain  in  all  its  joints.  The  degen- 
erate bureaucracy  liad  but  one  desire,  —  to  turn  the  weakness  of  the  government 
to  their  own  advantage ;  taxation  became  extortion  and  robbery,  while  bribery  and 
corruption  took  the  place  of  justice.  Princes  and  vassals,  generals  and  viziers 
tore  away  provinces  from  the  empire,  while  warlike  Hindu  tribes  threw  off  the 
ilohammedan  yoke.  Tlius  the  Jahs  in  llajputana  gained  their  independence 
(capital  town,  lihartpur).  Thus,  too,  tlie  principality  of  Jaipur  seceded,  the 
rulers  of  which,  Jey  Siugh  II  in  particular,  were  distinguished  for  their  devotion 
to  science  (astronomy);  Jaipur  was  built  as  a  capital  in  1728,  the  splendid  town 
of  Amber  having  been  previously  abandoned  at  the  order  of  the  above-named  Jey 
Singh.  In  Oudli  the  Shiite  Persian  Sadat  founded  the  kingdom  of  Lucknow, 
while  a  converted  Brahman,  ^lurshid  Kuli  Khan,  formed  a  kingdom  of  Bengal, 
Orissa,  and  Behar;  Malwa  fell  into  tlie  liands  of  the  ^lahrattas,  and  in  the  south 
Asaf  Jah  seized  the  whole  province  of  the  Hindostan  Deccan. 

(k)  The  Sikhs.  —  To  the  many  difficulties  and  troubles  of  the  empire  was 
added  tiie  outbreak  of  fanatical  religious  wars.  In  the  extreme  nortliwest  of 
India,  in  the  Punjab,  Nanak  (14(59-1538),  who  had  been  under  the  influence  of 
Kabir  (p.  410),  preached,  about  1500,  a  new  doctrine  of  general  peace  and  brotherly 
love.  He  had  made  an  attempt  to  obliterate  the  ilifferences  between  Brahmanism 
and  Mohammedanism  by  representing  all  tlie  points  of  divergence  as  matters  of 
no  importance,  and  emphasising  the  immanence  of  the  Divine  Being  as  the  one 
material  point.     It  was  a  pure  reform,  dissociated  as  far  as  possible  from  any 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  445 


sensualism  of  theory  or  practice.  All  men  were  equal  before  God  according  to  this 
theory,  which  did  not  recognise  divisions  of  caste.  The  adherents  of  Nanak,  whose 
numbers  were  at  first  but  small,  called  themselves  Sikhs,  that  is,  disciples  or 
scholars.  During  the  ne.xt  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  they  organised  themselves 
as  a  federation  of  districts  unitetl  by  religious  and  political  ties. 

It  was  only  to  be  expected  that  the  denial  of  the  authority  of  the  Vedas  sl^ould 
please  the  Hindus  as  little  as  the  refusal  to  accept  the  Koran  pleased  the  Moham- 
medans; one  of  the  Sikh  spiritual  leaders  (guru),  Arjuni,  was  accused  under 
Jehangn-of  being  implicated  in  a  revolt;  he  was  thrown  into  prison  in  1606  and 
so  cruelly  tortured  that  he  died.  From  this  moment  the  character  of  the  religious 
movement  entirely  changed.  Har  Govind,  the  son  of  Arjuni,  thirsting  for  revenge, 
issued  new  proclamations  and  gave  a  new  character  to  the  sect  in  1638  ;  the  dis- 
ciples of  peace  now  became  warriors  of  fanatical  fierceness  and  bold  robber  bands. 
However,  the  movement  would  perhaps  have  died  out  if  the  fanatical  Aurang  zeb 
had  not  executed  the  guru  Tegh  Bahadur  in  1675.  The  hatred  of  the  Moliam- 
medans  immediately  flamed  up  afresh.  Govind  II,  the  son  of  the  murdered  man, 
declared  himself  the  son  of  God  sent  by  his  Father  to  drive  and  extirpate  evil 
from  the  world ;  warrior  and  Sikh  were  henceforth  to  be  equivalent  terms.  "  Ye 
shall  no  longer  be  called  Sikh  (disciples),  but  Singh  (lions)."  Govind  maintained 
his  ground  with  varying  success  against  Aurang  zeb,  who  was  then  occupied  with 
the  Mahrattas  in  the  south.  Shah  'Alam  Bahadur  attempted  to  win  over  the 
Sikhs  by  kindness ;  however,  in  1708  Govind  was  murdered  by  a  Mohammedan 
Afghan,  and  the  anger  of  the  Sikhs  was  boundless.  Pillaging  and  murdering  with 
appalling  cruelty  all  who  declined  to  accept  their  faith,  they  advanced  upon  Delhi ; 
they  were  utterly  defeated  by  Bahadur,  and  forced  to  retire  to  inaccessible  hid- 
ing-places. The  emperor,  however,  died  suddenly  at  Lahore  in  1712,  perhaps  from 
poison.  The  sect  grew  powerful  during  the  disturbances  which  then  broke  out,  and 
under  Farrukhsiyar  reoccupied  a  large  part  of  the  Punjab.  Led  by  their  chief 
Bandah,  they  again  advanced  in  1716,  marking  every  step  in  their  advance  by 
ruthless  devastations ;  Lahore  was  captured,  the  governor  defeated,  and  an  imperial 
army  driven  back.  Fortune  then  declared  against  them;  they  were  repeatedly 
beaten  by  the  imperial  troops  and  driven  back  with  Bandah  into  one  of  the  northern 
fortresses,  where  they  were  starved  out  and  killed.  Bandah  escaped,  owing  to  the 
devotion  of  a  Hindu  convert  who  personated  his  leader,  and  succeeded  in  duping 
his  captors  for  some  time.  But  of  the  once  formidable  sect  there  remained  only 
a  few  scattered  bands  who  gained  a  scanty  livelihood  in  the  inaccessible  mountain 
valleys  of  the  Punjab. 

(X)  The  Invasions  of  Hindostan  hy  Nadir  Shall  and  Ahmed  Dtirrdni. — At 
this  period  a  foreign  power  swept  over  Hindostan  like  a  scourge  from  heaven. 
The  son  of  a  Turcoman,  though  born  in  Persia,  Nadir  Shah  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  384)  had 
begun  his  career  as  leader  of  a  band  of  freebooters,  and  had  seized  the  throne  of 
Safavite  dynasty  on  the  20th  of  March,  1736.  The  lack  of  ceremony  with  which 
the  Persian  ambassador  was  treated  in  Delhi  gave  him  an  excuse  for  invading 
Hindostan  in  1738.  After  conquering  the  Mogul  army  which  had  been  reinforced 
by  the  troops  of  Sadat  (Oudh)  and  of  Asaf  Jah  (Haiderabad),  he  marched  into  the 
capital  in  1739.  Strict  discipline  was  preserved  among  the  troops.  A  report  sud- 
denly spread  among  the  Hindus  that  the  Persian  king  was  dead ;  the  inhabitants 


.14G  HISTORY    OF     THE    WORLD  [r/<„j.t,r/r 

then  threw  themselves  ui>on  the  soldiers  who  had  dispersed  throughout  the  town 
and  slauj^htered  seven  huiulred.  Nfidir  Shilh  attempted  to  restore  order,  but  was  him- 
self attacked,  and  then  commanded  a  general  slaughter  of  the  inhabitants.  From 
sunrise  to  sunset  the  town  was  given  over  to  pillage,  tire,  and  murder,  thirty  thou- 
sand victims  falling  before  the  Persian  thirst  for  vengeance.  All  the  treasures  and 
jewels  of  the  royal  treasury,  including  the  ]>eacock  throne  (p.  438),  the  pride  of 
Delhi,  were  carried  oil",  the  bullion  belonging  to  tiie  empire,  the  higher  officials, 
and  private  individuals  was  confiscated,  and  heavy  war  indemnities  were  laid  upon 
the  governors  of  the  provinces.  The  sum  total  of  the  booty  which  Nadir  carried 
oft'  from  Hindostau  has  been  estimated  at  £50,000,000. 

Eight  years  later  Nadir  Shiih  was  murdered  (June  20,  1747);  his  kingdom 
immediately  fell  into  a  state  of  disruption.  In  Afghanistan  the  power  was  seized 
by  Ahmed  Khan  Abdali  (cf.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  388),  who  styled  himself  Shah  DurrSnt, 
adopting  as  his  own  the  name  of  his  tribe ;  he  was  strongly  attracted  by  the  rich 
booty  which  Nadir  had  carried  oft"  from  Hindostau.  In  six  marauding  raids  be- 
tween the  years  1747  and  1761  he  devastated  the  unhappy  land  and  its  capital. 
The  massacre  of  Mattra,  the  sacred  town  of  Krishna,  which  took  place  during  the 
third  invasion  of  Aliiued  Slulh,  was  a  terrible  repetition  of  Nadir's  massacre  at 
Delhi;  during  a  festival  of  the  inhabitants  a  detachment  of  Ahmed's  army  attacked 
the  throng  of  harmless  pilgrims  in  the  defenceless  town  and  slaughtered  them  by 
thousands. 

(fi)  The  Mahratta  Kingdom  at  the  Height  of  its  Power.  —  In  less  than  a  century 
after  the  death  of  Shah  Jehan,  the  once  powerful  Mogul  kingdom  had  sunk  to 
the  lowest  point  of  misery  and  weakness ;  it  would  undoubtedly  have  disapjieared 
altogether  had  not  the  English  become  predominant  in  India  about  1760  ;  it  was 
wholly  to  their  interest  to  preserve  at  any  rate  a  semblance  of  the  empire.  Mean- 
while, important  events  had  taken  place  in  the  south  during  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Saho,  the  grandson  of  the  Mahratta  jirince  Sivaji  (p.  441) 
was  released  shortly  after  the  death  of  Aurang  zeb ;  he  was  —  and  in  this  respect 
he  became  a  pattern  for  the  treatiuent  of  young  Indian  heirs  to  the  throne  — 
wholly  estranged  from  the  national  interests  of  the  Mahrattas.  He  had  grown  up 
in  a  harem  under  the  influences  of  the  Mohammedanism  with  which  he  had  been 
surrounded,  and  his  thoughts  and  feelings  were  rather  Mohammedan  than  Hindu ; 
his  first  act  as  king  was  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  grave  of  his  father's  murderer. 

Previous  to  the  accession  of  Saho  the  Mahratta  government  had  been  in  good 
hands ;  when  Sambaji  had  been  captured  and  killed,  his  young  son,  who  was  also  a 
prisoner,  had  been  declared  king ;  meanwhile,  the  government  had  been  carried  on 
by  the  brotlier  of  Sambaji,  Eaja  Ram,  and  after  his  death  by  liis  no  less  capable 
widow,  tlie  kingdom  sulTering  no  deterioration  notwithstanding  the  imprisonment 
of  the  monarch.  When,  however,  Saho  took  up  the  power  in  person  a  change 
occurred  for  the  worse.  Enervated  in  body  and  mind,  he  left  all  state  business  to 
the  care  of  his  prudent  minister,  (Peshwa)  lialaji  Wi.-^wanath ;  and  it  was  to  the 
efi'orts  of  this  man  that  he  owed  the  establishment  of  his  position  with  reference 
to  the  Mogul  kingdom,  though  he  would  himself  have  been  well  content  to  become 
a  vassal  of  Delhi.  The  chief  work  of  the  Peshwa  was  to  reduce  to  order  the  whole 
organisation  of  the  Mahratta  state  with  its  peculiar  military  basis.  During  the 
reigns  of  Hussein  Ali  and  Abd  ullah  (p.  444)  he  marched  upon  Delhi  and  procured 


India 


J  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  447 


not  only  the  recognitioa  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  Mahratta  princes,  but  also  the 
formal  right  of  levying  upon  the  whole  of  the  Deccan  the  Mahratta  tax,  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole  state  revenue  (p.  441).  Thus,  under  Saho  the  power  practi- 
cally fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Peshwa ;  and  when  his  post  became  recognised  as 
hereditary  the  new  Brahman  Mahratta  dynasty  of  the  Peshwas  grew  up  side  by 
side  with  and  rapidly  overshadowed  the  dynasty  of  Sivaji. 

Baji  Eao  (1720-1740),  the  son  of  Balaji  Wiswanath,  who  united  the  intellect 
of  a  Brahman  with  the  energy  of  a  warrior,  raised  the  Mahratta  kingdom  to  its 
highest  point.  He  was  forced  by  the  prince  and  his  adherents  to  establish  the 
power  of  the  constitution  upon  a  territorial  basis.  But  he  saw  that  the  strength 
of  his  people  consisted  primarily  in  their  military  organisation ;  his  country  would 
be  more  powerful  if  its  sphere  of  interest  was  marked  by  no  fixed  boundaries,  and 
if  it  could  gradually  extend  its  claims  to  the  ilahratta  tribute  over  the  whole  of 
the  falleh  Mogul  Empire  and  even  further.  In  matters  of  domestic  policy,  the 
Peshwa  conducted  state  business  entirely  upon  his  own  responsibility,  without 
consulting  the  prince,  who  had  become  a  merely  nominal  ruler.  A  refusal  to  pay 
the  Mahratta  tribute,  and  the  murder  of  tlie  Mahratta  general,  Pilaji  Gaekwar,  gave 
Baji  Eao  the  opportunity  of  subjugating  Gujerat.  In  1733  he  captured  the  pro- 
vince of  Malwa,  and  in  the  negotiations  with  Delhi  he  secured  not  only  all  the 
country  south  of  the  Chambal  (see  the  map  facing  p.  430),  but  also  gained  the  ces- 
sion of  the  three  most  sacred  towns  of  the  Hindus:  Mattra,  Allahabad,  and  Benares. 
When  the  Mogul  emperor  raised  objections,  Baji  Eao  advanced  to  the  walls  of 
Delhi  in  1737 ;  at  the  beginning  of  1733  he  forced  Asaf  Jah  of  Haidarabad,  the 
plenipotentiary  of  the  Grand  Mogul,  to  cede  all  the  country  south  of  the  Chambal. 
However,  before  the  agreement  could  be  confirmed  by  Mohammed  Shah,  the  de- 
vastating invasion  of  Nadir  Shah  burst  upon  the  country  (p.  445),  and  even  the 
Mahrattas  shrank  back  in  dismay.  It  was  not  until  after  the  death  of  Baji  Eao 
(1740)  that  his  successor,  Balaji,  the  third  Peshwa,  secured  the  formal  completion 
by  Delhi  in  1743  of  the  contract  proposed  in  1738. 

About  the  same  period  (1741-1743)  the  Mahrattas  repeatedly  advanced  north- 
eastward against  Bengal,  the  last  of  these  movements  being  under  the  leadership 
of  Eaghuji  Bhonsla ;  from  this  district  they  extorted  the  Mahratta  tax  and  the 
cession  of  a  part  of  Orissa  (Kattak)  in  1743.  Called  in  by  Delhi  to  bring  help 
against  the  revolted  Eohillas  in  Eohilkand,  they  completed  the  subjugation  of  this 
tribe  and  were  rewarded  with  new  concessions  as  to  tribute ;  after  the  third  inva- 
sion of  the  Afghan  Ahmed  Shah,  they  penetrated  to  the  northwest  corner  of  India, 
captured  Lahore,  and  drove  the  scanty  Afghan  garrison  out  of  the  Punjab.  They 
had  now  reached  the  zenith  of  their  power;  wherever  the  Mogul  kingdom  had 
exercised  dominion  during  the  period  of  its  prosperity,  the  ^Mahrattas  now  inter- 
po.sed  upon  all  possible  occasions  ;  though  not  the  recognised  dominant  power,  they 
exacted  their  tribute  almost  everywhere.  However,  they  met  their  match  in 
Ahmed  Shah.  The  Mahratta  general,  Sindia,  was  defeated,  and  two-thirds  of  his 
troops  slain,  while  the  army  of  the  general  Holkar,  who  succeeded  him,  was  shat- 
tered. A  new  and  greater  army  advanced  against  the  Afghans  under  the  cousin 
of  the  Peshwa.  The  decisive  battle  was  fought  on  the  6th  of  January,  1761,  at 
Panipat  (p.  429) ;  the  Mahrattas  were  utterly  defeated,  two  hundred  thousand  fall- 
ing in  the  battle  or  in  flight,  including  the  general,  a  son  of  the  Peshwa,  and  a 
number  of  important  leaders. 


-148  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter  iv 

{v)  TJie  Traiu<foriiiation  of  the  Mahratta  State  into  a  Loose  Confcderacrj.  —  The 
Peshwa  survived  this  ilisiister  but  a  short  time.  The  Mahrattas  were  obliged  to 
withdraw  from  Hiudostan,  and  never  again  did  the  Peshwas  recover  their  former 
importance;  the  Mahratta  kingdom  was  now  transformed  into  a  loosely  united 
confederacy.  The  later  successes  of  the  people  were  gained  by  individual  and 
almost  independent  Mahratta  princes  with  the  help  of  European  officers  and  sol- 
diers. The  policy  of  Baji  Rao  had  exactly  suited  the  nature  of  the  Mahratta 
state ;  the  position  of  the  prince  had  sunk  to  unimportance,  and  the  Peshwa  had 
been  raised  to  the  highest  point  At  the  same  time,  however,  individual  com- 
manders had  tended  to  become  more  and  more  independent.  The  principle  of 
rewarding  the  chief  general  with  the  Mahratta  tax  levied  from  a  rich  province, 
and  thus  enabling  him  to  keep  on  foot  a  considerable  body  of  troops,  proved 
utterly  destructive  of  the  unity  of  the  State ;  these  commanders  ultimately  be- 
came provincial  lords  supported  by  the  troops  under  their  command.  The  in- 
dependence thus  acquired  was  also  favoured  by  internal  dissensions  witliin  the 
nominally  ruling  family  and  political  discord  with  Haidarabad,  Delhi,  Bengal,  etc. 
Under  the  third  Peshwa,  Balaji  (IT-iO-lTGl),  this  process  of  disruption  had 
made  rapid  strides,  and  the  landed  nobility  which  had  hitherto  been  purposely 
kept  in  the  background  now  reasserted  itself  to  the  detriment  of  the  body  politic. 
The  king's  power  had  decreased  so  much  under  the  influence  of  the  Peshwa,  that 
his  influence  was  gradually  confined  to  the  provinces  of  Satara  and  Kholapur ;  so 
also  the  actual  power  of  the  Peshwa  ultimately  coincided  with  the  province  of 
Poonah.  Various  Mahratta  princes  appear  for  the  first  time  under  Baji  Rao,  whose 
ancestors  had  previously  held  for  the  most  part  wholly  subordinate  po.sitions  ;  they 
now  formed  a  confederacy,  at  the  head  of  which  the  Peshwa  was  barely  tolerated. 
About  1738  Raghuji  Bhonsla,  who  had  led  the  invasions  of  Bengal  and  Orissa, 
was  recognised  as  the  opponent  of  the  Peshwa,  and  attained  almost  complete  inde- 
pendence in  the  Province  of  Nagpur  (nearly  corresponding  to  the  modern  Central 
Provinces)  until  his  death  in  1755.  The  general  Sindia  who,  though  of  good  fam- 
ily, had  once  filled  a  menial  position  under  Baji  Rao,  and  Rao  Holkar,  who  was 
originally  a  shepherd,  became  lords  of  the  two  principalities  of  Indore  and  Gwalior, 
formed  from  the  new  won  province  of  Malwa.  On  the  northwest  the  Gaekwar 
became  chief  of  the  province  of  Baroda.  Thus  the  once  powerful  Mahratta  king- 
dom had  been  broken  into  five  great  and  several  smaller  principaUties  under  the 
purely  nominal  supremacy  of  the  Peshwa. 

(f )  The  Kingdom  of  the  Nizam.  —  On  the  other  hand,  the  former  Mogul  prov- 
ince of  Deccan,  to  gain  which  Aurang  zeb  bad  sacrificed  the  welfare  of  his  kingdom 
(p.  442),  gradually  rose  to  an  independent  State  of  considerable  importance.  In 
the  year  1713,  Chin  Kihkh  Khan,  better  known  by  his  earlier  title  of  Asaf  Jah, 
the  son  of  a  Turkoman  general  in  the  Mogul  army,  in  which  he  had  himself  been 
an  officer,  was  sent  to  the  Deccan  as  Nizam  ul  mulk  (governor),  but  was  speedily 
recalled  by  the  jealous  Seiads  (p.  427).  On  his  own  responsibility  lie  then  turned 
to  his  former  province,  where  he  had  maintained  good  relations  with  the  Moham- 
medans and  Mahrattas.  He  defeated  two  armies  which  were  sent  out  against  him, 
and  this  success  was  speedily  followed  by  the  deaths  of  Hussein  and  Abd  ullah 
(p.  444).  Recalled  to  Delhi  as  grand  vizier  by  FarrukhsiySr,  he  found  the  impe- 
rial court  and  the  whole  body  politic  in  a  hopeless  condition  of  degeneracy,  by 


in,ia-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  449 

which  he  was  the  more  impressed  as  his  capacities  had  been  trained  in  the  stern 
school  of  Aurang  zeb,  and  he  immediately  resigned  his  high  position.  Asaf  Jah 
was  dismissed  by  Farrukhsiyar,  with  every  mark  of  consideration  and  respect,  but 
he  was  preceded  by  mounted  messengers  to  Mobariz,  who  had  taken  his  place  as 
governor  in  the  Deccan,  with  orders  to  depose  the  viceroy  upon  his  return.  This 
machination  failed  utterly.  Mobariz  was  defeated  in  1724,  and  Asaf  Jah  sent  his 
head  to  Delhi  with  all  good  wishes  for  the  rapid  suppression  of  the  "revolt." 

To  preserve  some  show  of  dependence,  he  repeatedly  sent  presents  to  the  cap- 
ital, but  in  reality  his  independence  was  complete.  He  was  able  to  maintain  his 
position  against  the  Mahrattas ;  the  chout  (tribute)  could  not  be  refused,  but  he 
lightened  the  burden  of  this  tribute  by  despatching  his  own  officials  to  collect  it, 
and  transmit  it  personally  to  the  Mahrattas.  While  the  Mogul  kingdom  was  hur- 
rying ever  more  rapidly  to  its  fall,  this  province  rose  to  considerable  importance 
and  prosperity  under  Asaf  Jah ;  a  firm  administration  secured  the  maintenance  of 
peace  and  order;  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  trade  flourished  and  prosperity 
advanced.  When  the  Mahrattas  made  their  advance,  Mohammed  Shah  appointed 
the  capable  Nizam  as  dictator  in  1737 ;  however,  the  weakness  of  the  empire  was 
so  great  that  even  Asaf  Jah  was  unable  to  bring  help  either  against  the  Mahrattas 
or  against  Nadir  Shah.  In  1741  he  returned  to  his  own  country.  On  his  death 
in  1748,  at  the  age  of  sixty-seven,  he  left  behind  to  his  dynasty  a  flourishing  king- 
dom of  the  size  of  Spain,  together  with  the  supremacy  of  the  smaller  states  in  the 
south  of  India. 

In  the  east,  the  Carnatic,  that  is  to  say,  the  lowland  beneath  the  precipices  of 
the  ghats,  formed  one  of  the  states  under  the  supremacy  of  the  Nizam,  and  was 
governed  by  the  Nuwab  (Nabob)  of  Arcot.^  The  smaller  principality  of  Tanjore 
to  the  south  of  Arcot  was  governed  by  a  descendant  of  Sivaji,  and  to  the  northwest 
of  this  district,  Mysore  began  to  develop  to  an  independent  state  (see  the  map 
facing  p.  430).  To  these  must  be  added  a  number  of  petty  principalities,  for  the 
most  part  feudal  holdings  dating  from  the  period  of  the  kingdom  of  Bijayanagar 
(p.  428),  or  independent  creations  of  adventurous  Paligars  or  Nayaks,  who  estab- 
lished themselves  in  some  mountain  fortress  and  extended  their  influence  over  the 
surrounding  district. 

C.   The   Opening  of  Indi.a.  by  Europeans  and  the  Struggle  for 
Economic  Supremacy  (1498-1858) 

(a)  The  Discovery  of  the  Maritime  Passage  to  India  from  West  to  East,  and  the 
consequent  Commercial  Enterprises  of  European  States  {lJf9S-17^0).  —  Between 
India  and  the  western  civilizations  of  the  old  world  commercial  relations  had  sub- 
sisted for  thousands  of  years,  intercourse  being  carried  on  through  the  medium  of 
the  Semitic  races,  the  Arabs  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the  Phoenicians  in  the 
Mediterranean.  After  the  fall  of  Carthage  (146  b.  c.)  Eome  gradually  became 
supreme  over  the  western  world,  and  her  wealth  and  prosperity  brought  an  increas- 
ing desire  for  the  possession  of  India's  products,  its  precious  stones  and  pearls,  and 
above  all,  its  spices,  which  had  become  indispensable.  Consequently,  a  great 
impetus  was  given  to  trade  with  that  distant  country,  and  the  commerce  thus 

'  Nawwab  or  Nuwab,  whence  the  incorrect  form  Nabob,  is  properly  a  plural  noun,  the  plural  of  the 
Arabic  Naib  or  ** governor." 
VOL.  11  —  29 


450  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD  [c/.aj>trr  ir 

developed  sufleied  bul  a  temi>orary  clieck  after  the  fall  of  Home;  to  this  trade  the 
small  coast  republics  of  Aiualli,  I'isa,  Geuoa,  aud  Venice  (\'ol.  VII,  p.  4)  owe  their 
strength  and  prosperity. 

However,  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Suez  proved  an  impassable  barrier  to  direct 
trade.  The  question  arose  as  to  how  this  obstacle  could  be  circumvented,  and  how 
the  merchant  could  himself  gather  that  profit  which  the  Arab  acquired  as  middle- 
man ;  such  questions  constantl}-  presented  themselves  to  the  enterprising  s})irits  of 
that  age.  The  journeys  of  Marco  Polo  were  an  attempt  to  find  a  trade  route  to  the 
rich  and  mysterious  countries  of  the  East,  and  though  this  explorer  produced  no 
tangible  result,  his  accounts  of  the  riches  to  be  found  in  those  regions  heightened 
the  desire  to  fintl  direct  maritime  communication  with  the  East. 

(a)  The  Portuguese  in  India. —  The  Portuguese  under  Henry  the  Navigator 
(1394-1460 ;  cf.  Vol.  IV,  p.  539)  were  the  first  to  solve  the  problem  of  the  cir- 
cumnavigation of  Africa.  Step  by  step  they  advanced  southward  along  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  and  in  1487  Bartolomeo  Diaz  succeeded  in  sigliiing  Cabo  Tormen- 
toso,  the  Tempestuous  Cape.  These  efforts  were  then  overshadowed  by  the  exploits 
of  Columbus ;  with  une.xampled  boldness  he  attempted  to  find  a  direct  route  to 
India  by  striking  straight  across  the  Atlantic  instead  of  following  the  coast  (Vol.  I, 
p.  349) ;  thus  on  the  12tli  of  October,  1492,  he  discovered  a  new  world  which  he 
imagined  to  be  the  continent  of  India.  In  view  of  this  discovery  the  greater 
honour  is  due  to  the  Portuguese  for  their  long  and  unwearied  pursuit  of  the  eastern 
route,  by  which  they  ultimately  reached  their  goal;  at  the  end  of  1497  Vasco  da 
Gama  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  484)  rounded  the  dreaded  Cabo  Tormeutoso,  henceforward  called 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  on  the  20th  of  May,  1498,  his  little  fleet  cast  anchor 
in  the  roadstead  of  Calicut.  Thus  the  Portuguese  were  the  first  to  advance  from 
Euroj)e  to  India  by  the  maritime  route,  and  for  more  than  a  century  they  held  the 
monopoly  of  trade  with  the  rich  coasts  of  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia. 

Vasco  da  Gama  after  a  stay  of  six  months  returned  with  the  following  letter 
from  the  Zamorin  (ruler)  of  Calicut  to  the  king  of  Portugal :  "  Vasco  da  Gama,  a 
nobleman  of  your  court,  has  visited  ray  kingdom  to  ray  great  joy  ;  herein  there  is 
great  wealth  of  cinnamon,  spices,  ginger,  pepper,  and  precious  stones.  What  I 
desire  from  your  country  is  gold,  silver,  coral,  aud  red  cloth."  The  successful 
return  of  the  bold  seafarer  roused  a  storm  of  enthusiasm  aud  hope  in  his  native 
land.  Every  year  fresh  enterprises  were  fitted  out;  in  1500  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral 
made  a  second  expedition  to  India,  discovering  the  coast  of  Brazil  in  the  course  of 
his  journey  ;  in  1501  Joao  da  Nova  made  a  third,  while  a  fourth  expedition  was 
conducted  by  Vasco  in  1502,  and  a  fifth  in  1503  by  Francisco  d'Albucpieniue,  a 
cousin  of  Alfonso  the  Great.  With  every  expedition  the  relations  of  Portugal  with 
India  were  further  extended,  and  in  the  "  Division  of  the  World  "  by  Pope  Alex- 
ander VI  in  1493-1494,  Portugal  was  already  styled  "Lord  of  maritime  commerce, 
conquest,  and  trade  with  Ethiopia,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  India,"  that  is,  with  all  the 
countries  of  Southern  Asia.  In  1505  the  number  of  the  factories  that  had  been 
settled  had  become  so  important  that  Francisco  d'Almeida  was  sent  out  to  India 
as  the  first  go^•ernor  and  viceroy. 

The  struggle  with  the  Arabs  for  predominance  in  the  Indian  Ocean  had  begun 
to  rage  upon  the  very  first  appearance  of  the  Portuguese  within  the  boundaries  of 
Asia;  at  the  same  time  the  haughty  behaviour,  the  avarice,  and  the  inconsiderate 


Indul 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  451 


cruelty  of  the  Europeans  brought  them  into  serious  collision  with  the  territorial 
princes  on  the  Malabar  coast,  who  were  by  no  means  united  among  themselves. 
The  Portuguese  often  sutfered  heavy  defeats  and  great  losses  of  men ;  however, 
thanks  to  the  superiority  of  their  ships,  their  armies,  and  tactics,  they  gi-adually 
gained  ground.  In  1509  Almeida  destroyed  an  Egypto-Arabian  fleet  off  the 
heights  of  Diu.  However,  Portugal  owed  her  supremacy  in  the  Indian  waters  to 
the  next  governor,  Affonso  d' Albuquerque  (1509-1515) ;  after  capturing  Socotra 
and  Ormuz  in  1507,  j)ositions  which  were  soon  lost  again,  he  acquired  Goa  in  1510, 
Malacca  in  1511,  and  regained  Ormuz  in  1515.  Portugal  thus  had  firm  bases  for 
her  operations  both  in  the  east  and  west ;  in  Goa  she  possessed  a  safe  harbour 
accessible  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  also  a  position  which  became  the  centre  of 
her  Asiatic  power,  and  grew  with  wonderful  rapidity  to  prosperity.  Albuquerque, 
who  was  no  less  great  as  a  man  than  as  a  warrior,  died  on  the  16th  of  December, 
1515,  in  the  roadstead  before  the  capital  of  the  new  Portuguese  possessions  ;  his 
coimtry  rewarded  his  exploits  with  suspicion  and  detraction,  whereas  the  natives 
long  after  his  death  made  pilgrimages  to  his  grave  and  prayed  his  spirit  to  protect 
them  from  the  cruel  oppression  of  his  successors. 

The  power  of  the  Arabs  was  broken,  their  fleets  were  destroyed  and  their  trade 
shattered  ;  consequently  the  successors  of  the  great  Albuquerque  found  an  easier 
task  before  them.  In  1515  Soarez  established  himself  in  Ceylon;  in  1518  trade 
was  opened  with  Bengal,  and  in  154.3  Salsette  (near  Bombay)  and  Baroda  were 
ceded  to  the  Europeans.  Sixty  years  after  their  first  appearance  in  India  the  Por- 
tuguese were  in  actual  possession  of  that  territory  which  the  papal  division  had 
assigned  to  them.  Their  influence  extended  from  Abyssinia  to  China  (p.  102), 
where  Macao  had  been  in  their  hands  since  1557,  and  to  Japan  (p.  24)  which  had 
given  them  permission  to  trade.  In  Arabia  they  were  in  alliance  with  several 
chiefs  and  were  the  dominant  power  in  the  Red  Sea  and  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
eastern  and  western  coasts  of  India  were  surroimded  by  a  girdle  of  their  fortified 
trading  stations  extending  from  Cape  Eames  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal ;  their  flag  waved 
over  Malacca ;  they  were  the  sole  recipients  of  the  valuable  products  of  Ceylon, 
Sumatra,  Java,  and  the  Moluccas. 

The  first  glow  of  enthusiasm  brought  the  best  spirits  of  the  age  to  share  in  the 
attractive  enterprises  in  the  far  East,  and  the  flower  of  the  Portuguese  nobility  and 
the  people  now  emigrated ;  they  had  learneil  bravery  and  endurance  in  their  long 
struggle  with  the  Moors,  which,  however,  had  also  made  them  intolerant,  cruel, 
and  avaricious.  Under  such  capable  leaders  as  Vasco  da  Gama,  Almeida,  and 
Albuquerque,  troops  of  this  nature  gained  great  successes ;  they  did  not,  however, 
win  the  good-will  of  the  natives  and  their  trade  prospered  only  under  the  protection 
of  the  sword.  The  best  of  the  Portuguese  were  killed  off  by  the  murderous  climate 
and  the  incessant  struggle  with  the  natives ;  the  heroes  were  succeeded  by  men 
like  Soarez,  Sequeira,  Menezes,  Lopo  Vaz,  etc.,  who,  in  place  of  the  brave  and 
honourable  soldiery  of  former  times  commanded  the  offscourmgs  of  the  country ; 
as  early  as  1538  it  had  been  necessary  to  open  the  prisons  in  order  to  provide  the 
Governor  Garcia  de  Noronha  with  the  necessary  contingents  of  troops.  The  lead- 
ers and  soldiers  rivalled  one  another  m  rapacity  and  mhumanity,  and  no  form  of 
cruelty  can  be  mentioned  with  which  the  name  of  Portugal  was  not  then  tarnished. 
Such  action  forced  the  territorial  princes  to  unite  for  their  common  defence ;  in 
15S7  the  Portuguese  were  opposed  by  an  alliance  of  all  the  princes  of  the  west 


452  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [rhaj.t.r  j r 

coast,  aud  in  lf)7S  it  became  uecessary  to  suppress  general  revolts  on  the  Malabar 
coast,  in  Ceylon,  and  in  Amboina.  Such  conflicts  were  naturally  not  calculated  to 
promote  commercial  success. 

As  liie  military  diameter  of  the  Portuguese  expeditions  had  changed,  so  also 
did  their  religious  successes  undergo  a  transformation.  After  the  tirst  exploring 
journey  of  Vasco  da  Gama,  Cabral  had  taken  out  monks  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the 
Indian  heathen ;  the  greatest  of  these,  the  apostle  of  Christianity  to  the  Malabar 
coast,  was  Francis  Xavier  (p.  24  (ul  Jin.) ;  his  diplomatic,  humble,  even  timid, 
methods  of  action  brought  him  many  converts,  and  under  Ciabriel  de  Sa  the  Jesuits 
gained  great  influence.  But  shortly  after  Xavier's  death  (Dec.  2,  l.")52)  the 
gloomy  Dominicans  brought  into  the  country  the  Inquisition  with  its  blighting 
influence  upon  all  intellectual  freedom.  As  long  as  every  form  of  belief  which 
dirtered  from  papal  orthodoxy  was  persecuted,  so  long  did  a  heavy  weight  of 
oppression  lie  upon  the  country. 

These  e\'ils  were  further  aggravated  by  the  lack  of  foresight  dis])layed  in  the 
commercial  policy  of  the  Portuguese.  Only  once  (in  1731),  when  Portugal  had  al- 
ready lost  almost  all  of  her  Indian  possessions,  was  a  commercial  company  founded 
upon  the  model  em])loyed  by  more  prudent  states;  but  only  once  did  the  king  allow 
the  company  to  send  a  ship  to  Sural  and  to  the  coast  of  Coromandel.  With  this 
exception,  Portuguese  commerce  with  India  remained  the  exclusive  monopoly  of 
the  crown,  which  u.sed  the  most  pettifogging  devices  to  protect  its  privilege  of 
exporting  Indian  products,  in  order  to  raise  the  prices  of  them  at  home  to  an  enor- 
mous height.  The  amount  of  cinnamon  to  be  placed  upcm  the  market  for  any  one 
year  was  prearranged,  and  any  excess  that  might  be  imported  was  burnt,  in  order 
to  maintain  prices  at  their  appointed  height.  At  first  Portugal  made  very  large 
profits ;  while  the  splendour  of  Venice  rajtidly  faded,  Lisbon  became  the  centre  of 
almo.st  the  whole  of  the  Asiatic  trade  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  ships  of 
every  European  state  came  up  the  Tagus  to  purchase  these  costly  wares.  The 
profits  thus  acquired  proved,  however,  of  little  permanent  benefit  to  the  country 
(cf.  Vol.  IV,  pp.  540  and  547) ;  the  crown  grew  rich,  as  did  certain  privileged 
families  and  most  of  the  churches  and  monasteries,  while  the  people  were  impov- 
erished. As  the  Portuguese  made  enemies  in  India,  the  profits  of  their  undertak- 
ings rapidly  diminished  and  were  eaten  up  by  the  necessity  of  providing  armed 
contingents. 

It  was  peculiarly  unfortunate  that  in  the  year  1580  Portugal  was  united  with 
Spain  under  Philip  II;  his  attention  was  rather  concentrated  upon  the  goal  of 
America  and  upon  the  religious  quarrels  in  Europe  than  upon  the  afTairs  of  the 
far  East.  The  bigoted  monarch  exhausted  the  strength  of  the  Iberian  peninsula 
in  disastrous  undertakings  against  the  Protestant  English  and  Dutch.  In  1588 
the  i)roud  Armada  perished  in  Briti.sh  waters  (Vol.  IV,  p.  54C) ;  yet  more  disastrous 
for  Portugal  was  Philip's  short-sighted  resolve  to  exclude  the  Dutcli  from  trade  in 
Lisbon,  iiiasmuch  as  they  had  formerly  been  the  carriers  of  the  retail  trade  be- 
tween Portugal  and  the  northern  countries  of  Europe  ;  this  regulation  obliged  the 
enterprising  spirit  of  the  Dutch  to  enter  into  direct  relations  with  the  countries 
which  produced  these  much  desired  wares. 

(fi)  The  Dutch  in  India.  —  At  first  the  Dutch  hoped  to  find  a  new  route  by 
which  they  would  avoid  meeting  the  Portuguese,  and  this  was  to  be  a  passag*  to 


/«H  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  453 

the  northeast.  WQlem  Barends(zou)  iu  1594-1596  led  three  expeditions  to  the 
Polar  Sea,  and  gained  lastuag  renown  as  the  discoverer  of  Xovaya  Zemlya  (Nova 
Zemblia);  otherwise  the  attempt  led  to  no  result,  and  cost  him  his  life  (June 
20,  1597).  Meanwhile,  however,  the  Dutch  had  been  dnected  to  the  Cape  by 
their  own  countrymen.  Jan  Huygen  van  Linschoten,  who  had  been  in  the  service 
of  the  archbishop  of  Goa  for  thirteen  years,  published  the  account  of  his  travels 
and  his  maps  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  A  still  stronger  influence  was 
exerted  by  Cornelis  de  Houtman  (Vol.  VII,  p.  88)  upon  his  countrymen.  While 
coufined  in  a  debtors'  prison  at  Lislnni  lie  had  gained  accurate  information  upon 
the  secret  of  the  Portuguese  route  round  tlie  Cape.  Liberated  by  the  voluntary 
contributions  of  rich  Dutchmen  (1594),  he  induced  his  patrons  to  send  a  Dutch 
expedition  to  India  under  his  leadership.  In  the  year  1595  he  sailed  out  of  tlie 
Texel,  reached  Sumatra  and  Java  after  seventeen  months,  and  returned  to  Holland 
in  1598.  The  commercial  success  of  the  enterprise  immediately  brought  about  the 
formation  of  several  commercial  companies.  Houtman  led  out  a  new  expedition 
in  person  in  1599,  wliich  captured  the  Mauritius  from  the  Portuguese  in  1600 ;  he 
himself  was  killed  during  the  voyage  and  lost  four  ships.  The  remaining  four, 
however,  brought  back  a  rich  cargo. 

In  1602  the  different  trading  companies  were  incorporated  into  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company.  It  was  now  possible  to  proceed  with  more  energ\-  against  the 
previous  masters  of  the  East  India  trade,  whose  maritime  incapacitj-  soon  became 
plainly  obvious.  In  1603  a  strong  Dutch  fleet  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
expel  the  Portuguese  from  the  coast  of  Mozambique  and  from  Goa ;  however,  in 
the  following  years  settlements  were  made  upon  districts  which  had  previously 
been  in  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  Portuguese,  namely,  on  the  coast  between 
Mecca  and  China,  and  also  on  Java  and  Sumatra.  In  1612  the  Dutch  established 
themselves  in  Ceylon  and  Timor,  and  in  1614  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel  (Masuli- 
patam)  and  Siam;  in  1619,  after  a  sharp  struggle  with  the  English,  the}'  secured 
the  sovereignty  of  part  of  Java.  Shortly  afterwards  they  made  an  attempt  to 
secure  the  sole  supremacy  of  the  valuable  Spice  Islands.  In  1622  the  English 
merchants  in  Amboina  were  accused,  on  the  evidence  of  a  Japanese  soldier,  of  a 
conspiracy  to  surprise  the  fort  of  the  local  Dutch  settlement.  They  were  put  to 
the  torture  until  they  confessed  whatever  was  required  of  them ;  and  ten  among 
them  were  then  beheaded  without  further  proof.  In  spite  of  this  outrage  all  seri- 
ous rivalry  for  the  possession  of  the  Moluccas  was  avoided  for  a  long  period ; 
Amboina  became  the  central  point  of  the  Dutch  East  India  trade,  and  from  that 
base  of  operations  the  Portuguese  were  gradually  expelled  from  such  settlements 
as  remained  to  them.  The  Dutch  first  advanced  into  Japan,  where  they  gained 
the  sole  privilege  of  trade,  and  where,  under  certain  limitations  (p.  29),  they  main- 
tained their  ground  for  more  than  two  centuries ;  in  1635  they  deprived  the  Portu- 
guese of  Formosa,  and  of  Malacca  in  1640.  Jaffna  (see  the  map,  p.  430),  the 
last  Portuguese  fortress  in  Ceylon,  fell  into  their  hands  in  1658.  In  1664  Goa 
was  almost  the  only  town  left  to  the  Portuguese ;  Dutch  forts  and  factories  now 
occupied  the  coasts  which  had  formerly  been  their  exclusive  holding.  The  stages 
of  Dutch  progress  are  marked  by  their  occupation  of  the  Cape,  and  of  Mauritius, 
which  was  so-called  after  their  Governor  Morit/,  of  Orange.  In  Persia  they  had 
two  settlements,  and  the  same  number  also  in  Gujerat;  on  the  Malabar  coast  they 
had  four,  on  the  Coromandel  coast  three,  in  Orissa  and  Bengal  five,  and  in  Ceylon 


454  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         ln.aj.ta-jr 

six.     Similarly  the  coasts  uf  East  Asia,  as  far  as  Japan  ami  the  Moluccas,  were 
dotted  with  their  fortified  stations. 

(7)  The  Commercial  Undertakings  of  other  Ejiropcan  States.  —  Tlie  extension 
of  Dutch  power  in  the  Old  World  was  accompanied  by  a  parallel  rise  in  pros- 
perity in  the  Xcw  World  (Vol.  Vll,  p.  S9),  and  llie  Dutcli  liecanie  a  (U)niinant 
commercial  and  maritime  power ;  then'  commercial  marine  included  four-Hflhs  of 
all  the  trading  ships  of  Europe,  and  their  trade  was  five  times  greater  than  that  of 
England.  The  latter  country  was  therefore  obliged  to  summon  iij)  all  its  power 
if  it  was  not  to  be  left  behind  in  the  race  for  prosperity.  Tlie  Ka\  igatiun  Acts 
of  1651  and  1660  (see  Vol.  VII,  p.  98),  which  excluded  the  middleman  from 
English  colonial  trade,  dealt  a  successful  blow  at  the  power  of  Holland.  The 
conse(iuence  was  a  bitter  struggle;  tlie  two  sea  powers  measured  their  strength  in 
the  three  wars  which  took  place  in  the  years  Ui52-1654,  16ti4—1667,  and  1672- 
1674.  England  proved  the  stronger,  and  Holland  began  irrevocably  to  decline ; 
in  consequence  it  was  impossible  any  longer  to  insist  upon  the  complete  exclusion 
of  all  other  commercial  rivals  fnun  East  Asia. 

At  the  outset  of  the  seventeenth  century  some  states,  roused  by  the  success  of 
the  first  Dutch  undertakings  in  Asia,  had  followed  the  example  of  Holland.  The 
foundation  of  smaller  Dutch  trading  companies  was  followed  on  the  31st  of 
December,  1600,  by  the  foundation  of  the  English  East  India  Company  (Vol.  VII, 
p.  95)  ;  in  1604  a  French  company  was  founded,  as  was  a  Daiush  company  in 
Copenhagen  on  the  17th  of  March,  1616.  The  Danish  company  lost  one  of  their 
ships  off  the  coast  of  Tanjore.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  crew  were  murdered  by 
the  natives ;  the  captain  alone  succeeded  in  escaping  to  the  court  of  the  raja  of 
Tanjore,  where  lie  was  hospitably  received,  and  allowed  to  found  a  settlement  in 
Trauquebar  on  the  19th  of  November,  1620.  However,  neither  this  settlement  nor 
that  which  was  made  in  the  same  year  in  Serampur  on  the  Hugli  (in  Bengal)  at- 
tained any  political  or  commercial  importance ;  the  jealousy  of  earlier  companies 
in  the  same  locality  excluded  the  newcomers  from  all  business.  These  settle- 
ments, however,  attained,  as  against  the  Dutch  and  tlie  Engli.sli,  llie  fame  of  intro- 
ducing the  first  Protestant  mission  into  India  in  1705  (cf.  the  explanation  to 
the  plate,  p.  358  of  Vol.  VII).  After  a  long  period  of  gradual  decay  Trauquebar 
([uietly  surrendered  to  the  English  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century;  in 
the  Peace  of  Vienna  it  was  restored  to  the  Danes,  who  sold  it  to  the  English  in 
1845,  together  with  Serampur,  for  £125,000.  The  Danish  mission  was  transferred 
to  the  Evangelical-Lutheran  mission  in  Leipsic  in  1847. 

During  the  seventeenth  century  (Jeriiiany,  torn  by  the  horrors  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  and  reduced  to  the  extremity  of  weakness  upon  its  conclusion,  was 
unable  to  entertain  any  projects  of  enterprises  beyond  the  seas.  It  was  not  uutU 
1723  that  the  Imperial  East  India  Company  was  founded  in  Ostend  and  given 
special  privileges  by  Charles  VI.  In  Coblun,  near  Madras,  and  in  I'auhiinir,  on  the 
Hugli,  two  imperial  German  settlements  rose  to  rapid  prosperity  and  became  a 
source  of  anxiety  to  their  neighbours.  Prince  Eugene  brought  forward  a  ])roposal 
to  found  a  German  fleet,  and  to  make  Ostend  and  Trieste  the  two  jirincipal  har- 
bours of  the  empire.  However,  at  the  ie<piesL  of  the  sea  jiowers  the  emperor 
withdrew  for  a  period  of  seven  years  the  privileges  granted  to  the  East  India  Trad- 
ing Company  at  Ostend  in  1727,  a  measure   which  immediately  destroyed  the 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  455 


vitality  of  the  undertaking.  Further  the  ^Mohammedans  in  the  north  and  soulh 
had  been  stirred  up  against  the  two  fortified  factories  by  rival  traders.  Banhipur 
was  besieged  in  form,  and  after  a  heroic  defence  against  overwhelming  numbers, 
the  garrison,  which  had  been  reduced  to  fourteen  men,  was  forced  to  embark  for 
Europe.     In  1784  the  Ostend  Incha  Company  ended  its  existence  in  bankruptcy. 

Upon  the  withdrawal  of  the  privileges  gi-anted  to  the  Ostend  company  the 
officials  were  left  without  means  of  subsistence ;  the  Swede  Heinricli  vou  Konig 
(1686-1736)  attempted  to  avail  himself  of  their  experience  in  commercial  matters. 
However,  the  Swedish  company,  which  was  founded  in  1731  and  received  a  royal 
patent,  became  extinct  after  a  short  and  troubled  existence. 

Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  also  turned  his  eyes  toward  the  far  East.  He 
was  anxious  to  make  a  great  harbour  and  commercial  centre  at  Emden,  the  capital 
of  East  Friesland,  which  he  had  gained  in  1744;  he  therefore  did  his  best  to 
further  the  aims  of  the  Asiatic  Company  which  was  founded  in  that  town  in  1750  ; 
the  company  sent  six  ships  at  intervals  to  China,  but  the  profits  were  so  small  that 
it  collapsed  in  three  years.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Bengal  Company,  the  founda- 
tion of  which  was  inspired  by  the  king  himself,  had  been  forced  to  struggle  with  the 
hostility  of  those  European  settlements  which  had  long  previously  existed  upon  the 
Hugli.  When  their  ships  appeared  l)efore  the  Ganges  Delta,  every  Dutch,  French, 
and  English  pilot  declined  to  give  them  any  assistance  upon  their  entry  into  the 
dangerous  and  difficult  passage  of  the  Hugli.  However,  the  ships  made  their  way 
up  the  river  and,  with  the  help  of  bribes  bestowed  upon  the  officials  of  the  English 
Company,  a  vigorous  secret  trade  was  begun  between  the  English  and  German 
officials ;  the  latter  liad  neither  the  experience  nor  the  adroitness  of  the  English, 
and  came  worst  out  of  every  bargain.  Tlie  necessities  of  diplomacy  whicli  were 
forced  upon  Frederick  the  Great  during  the  height  of  his  struggle  with  Austria 
soon  led  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Bengal  Trading  Company. 

(S)  The  First  English  Settlements.  —  The  first  Englishman  who  visited  Indian 
waters  with  a  fleet  was  Francis  Drake.  During  his  voyage  round  the  world  in 
1578  he  touched  at  the  island  of  Ternate  in  the  Moluccas,  and  gained  a  promise 
from  the  native  chief  that  all  the  spice  products  of  the  island  should  be  sold  to  the 
English.  Drake  did  not  touch  the  coast  of  India  ;  the  first  to  enter  that  laud  was 
the  Catholic  clergyman,  Thomas  Stephens,  who  arrived  at  Goa  in  1579  in  a  Portu- 
guese ship,  and  then  became  rector  of  the  Jesuit  college  in  Salsette.  His  letters 
excited  some  attention  in  England  and  induced  three  merchants,  Ealph  Fitch, 
J.  Newberry,  and  Leedes,  to  travel  to  India  overland  by  way  of  Tripoli  and  Ormuz. 
After  many  difficulties  Fitch  reached  Ceylon,  Bengal,  and  Farther  India,  and  re- 
turned home  as  he  had  come,  while  Newberry  set  up  as  a  merchant  in  Goa,  and 
Leedes  entered  the  serx-ice  of  the  Grand  Mogul. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada  in  1588,  the  greater  English 
merchants  sent  private  expeditions  to  East  Indian  waters  which  met  with  com- 
plete failure.  It  was  not  untd  the  Dutch  had  proved  more  successful  and  had 
been  so  short-sighted  as  to  raise  the  price  of  pepper,  in  1599,  to  more  than  double 
the  usual  rate  (from  3s.  to  6s.  and  8s.),  that  the  first  English  East  India  Trading 
Company  was  formed  in  England,  indirectly  by  the  influence  of  Thomas  Cavendish 
and  Drake  (  "  The  Governor  and  Company  of  Merchants  of  London  trading  to  the 
East  Indies;"  cf.  above,  p.  454).     Queen  Elizabeth  granted,  December  31,  1600, 


450  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  IchapterJV 

this  company  the  privilege  of  free  trade  wiih  East  India,  Africa,  and  Asia,  and 
gave  it  the  right  of  making  laws  and  exacting  penalties  in  so  far  as  these  regu- 
lations did  not  conflict  with .  the  laws  of  the  realm  of  England,  togetlier  with 
exemption  fiom  taxation  upon  all  exports.  The  charter  of  the  company  was 
issued  oidy  for  a  jjeriod  of  fifteen  years,  but  contained  a  clause  providing  for  its 
renewal  "  in  the  event  of  the  undertaking  proving  advantageous  to  England ; "  and 
the  queen  recommended  the  expedition  to  the  good-will  of  all  rulers  and  peoples 
whose  lands  it  miglit  visit.  As  first  founded  its  capital  amounted  to  £72,000,  in 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  shares.  Eor  the  moment,  e\ery  voyage  was  an  expe- 
dition in  itself ;  the  necessary  money  was  provided  and  the  profits  were  tlien 
shared,  these  amounting  to  more  than  one  hundred  per  cent  upon  one  expedition 
alone,  thuugli  a  change  took  place  in  1612  when  the  capital  of  the  company  was 
raised  to  £400,000.  Before  that  date  the  imdertakings  led  by  James  Lancaster, 
Henr}-  Middleton,  and  others  had  been  little  more  than  piratical  raids  ujxjn 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  ships.  Middleton  felt  no  pricks  of  conscience  in  station- 
ing himself  in  1(J09  at  the  straits  of  Bab  el-Mandeb,  seizing  every  ship  laden 
with  Indian  wares,  and  transferring  these  valuables  to  his  own  vessels  after  giving 
in  exchange  the  cargoes  he  had  brought.  Edward  ilichelborne,  who  was  sent 
out  by  private  individuals  in  1605,  also  jilundered  the  native  caravans. 

On  the  whole,  these  expeditions  brought  back  immense  profits,  and  as  in  this 
respect  they  contributed  "  to  the  welfare  of  England,"  the  patent  was  readily  re- 
newed by  James  I  in  the  year  1609.  However,  the  Portuguese  were  predominant 
throughout  India,  and  jealously  resented  all  attempts  at  interference.  England  was 
therefore  forced  in  1612  to  send  four  sliips  of  war  under  Captain  Best  to  protect 
her  trade.  Hardly  had  these  arrived  in  Surat,  when  they  were  attacked  by  a 
numerous  Portuguese  fleet  before  the  mouth  of  the  TaptL  The  Portuguese  were 
defeated.  Thereupon  Jeliangir  executed  a  compact  permitting  the  English  to  trade 
throughout  the  Mogul  Empire  and  extending  his  imperial  protection  to  their  set- 
tlement in  Surat ;  branch  factories  from  Surat  were  set  up  in  Gogra,  Ahmedabad, 
Cambay,  and  Ajmir,  and  an  English  ambassador  was  .sent  to  the  imperial  court  in 
Dellii  (during  the  years  1615-1618;  this  was  Sir  Thomas  Roe;  cf.  p.  436).  It 
was  to  the  favour  of  JehSngir  that  the  English  owed  their  commercial  settlements 
in  Agra  and  Patna.  They  also  established  themselves  in  the  south  on  the  Malabar 
coast,  in  Calicut,  and  the  important  district  of  Cannauore;  in  1619  a  large  area 
of  land  was  acquired  by  purchase  at  Nellore  on  the  Coromandel  coast.  The  be- 
haviour of  tlie  English  to  tlie  native  princes,  especially  to  the  rulers  of  the  great 
Mogul  kingdom,  was  at  that  time  modest  to  the  point  of  subservience;  they 
appeared  as  peaceful  traders,  desirous  neither  of  acquiring  territory  nor  of  inter- 
fering in  the  affairs  of  the  country,  anxious  only  to  devote  themselves  to  trade 
which  was  beneficial  to  India  itself. 

SiiahJehan,  when  fleeing  from  his  stepmother,  Xur  Mahal,  into  the  lower 
Ganges  district,  had  summoned  the  Portuguese  commanders  on  the  llugli  to  his 
help.  His  request  had,  however,  been  haughtily  refused,  and  no  sooner  had  he  re- 
gained his  power  than  he  proceeded  to  revenge  himself ;  in  1631  he  stormed  the 
fortified  settlements  of  the  Portuguese  and  drove  them  out  of  Bengal,  while  his 
father's  good-will  toward  the  Englisli  was  continued  by  himself.  The  emperor's 
friendly  bearing  was,  however,  disturbed  by  the  fact  that  the  rival  English  company 
(founded  in  1635  by  Sir  William  Comten)  piratically  captured  two  Mogul  ships, 


maia-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  457 

and,  as  the  report  went,  tortured  the  crews.  The  older  company  sent  an  embassy 
to  Delhi  in  1637  to  recover  tlie  emperor's  good-will.  It  so  happened  that  one  of 
the  princesses  had  been  severely  burnt,  and  the  ship's  doctor,  Gabriel  Broughton, 
who  was  brought  up  from  Surat,  succeeded  in  curing  her.  When  asked  to  name 
his  reward,  he  requested  and  obtained  from  the  emperor  that  the  outrage  above 
mentioned  should  jjroduce  no  further  consequences,  and  tliat  the  English  Conqiany 
should  be  allowed  to  estend  its  business  throughout  Bengal.  A  second  service  of 
this  nature,  performed  by  the  same  doctor,  gained  for  the  company  the  right  of 
founding  new  factories  on  the  Hugli  and  in  Balasore  in  Orissa. 

These  excellent  relations  with  the  Mogul  Empire  did  not  long  remain  unim- 
paired. The  insolence  of  the  emperor's  subordinates  increased  as  the  power  of  the 
empire  diminished.  During  the  years  1664-1677,  and  again  from  1679  to  1689, 
the  English  settlement  was  hindered  in  its  trade  by  the  rapacity  of  a  viceroy  con- 
nected with  the  imperial  house.  In  January,  1686,  the  directors  in  London  decided 
that  armed  resistance  was  the  only  means  of  putting  an  end  to  this  arbitrary  and 
intolerable  interference.  The  decision  was  taken  with  reluctance,  because  the 
policy  of  the  company  had  been  guided,  up  to  this  moment,  by  the  principle  that 
war  with  the  native  princes  was  the  worst  possible  danger,  and  at  all  costs  to 
be  avoided.  But  when  once  a  change  of  policy  had  been  decided  on,  the  war  was 
vigorously  pursued.  Ten  ships,  mounting  from  ten  to  seventy  cannon,  and  carry- 
ing Seven  companies  of  soldiers,  about  one  thousand  men,  under  the  command  of 
Sir  John  Child,  "  the  Governor-General  and  Admiral  of  India,"  were  to  attack  the 
Mogul  kingdom  on  the  west  and  on  the  east ;  in  Bengal  the  Indian  town  of  Hugli 
was  bombarded  ;  on  the  west  coast  the  emperor's  ships  carrying  harmless  pilgrims 
to  Mecca  were  confiscated  and  inland  raids  were  made.  The  company  made  no 
attempt  to  stop  these  movements,  but  threw  the  responsibility  on  to  the  com- 
mander-in-chief. Aurang  zeb  then  gave  orders  to  expel  the  English  from  India ; 
their  factories  were  attacked  and  the  agents  were  taken  prisoners ;  Masulipatam, 
Vizagapatam,  Chatanati,  and  Surat  were  captured  and  Bombay  was  threatened. 
Negotiations  for  peace  were  then  begun,  but  the  situation  became  even  more 
strained  when  Captain  Heath  was  sent  o\-er  with  orders  to  continue  hostilities, 
and  the  agents,  from  fear  of  the  Mogul,  abandoned  tlieir  posts  in  a  body.  At 
last,  however,  the  company  disowned  the  action  of  their  own  governor-general  and 
admiral,  who  had  to  bear  the  whole  of  the  blame;  and  after  making  representations 
of  great  humility  and  paying  a  tine  of  £150,000,  they  succeeded  in  softening  the 
emperor's  anger.  A  fresh  rival  company  again  infuriated  the  emperor  bj'  repeated 
acts  of  piracy  upon  his  vessels ;  he  deprived  the  old  companies  of  their  property, 
imprisoned  all  the  English  and  Dutch  in  Surat,  and  blockaded  Madras.  Once 
again  excuses  were  made,  accompanied  by  the  payment  of  heavy  indemnities. 

The  company  was  beset  with  even  more  serious  difficulties  arising  from  the 
rivalry  of  its  compatriots.  Notwithstanding  the  privileges  that  had  been  granted, 
individual  merchants  constantly  sent  out  expeditious  on  their  own  account.  More- 
over the  g(jverument,  disregarding  the  monopolies  wliich  it  had  given  to  the 
old  company,  often  issued  patents  to  new  undertakings,  which  proceeded  to  exert 
pressure  upon  the  older  foundation  until  their  incorporation  with  it  followed.  The 
old  company  was  constantly  obliged  to  pay  for  piracies  committed  by  new  societies. 
A  rival  company  of  this  nature  was  that  founded  in  1635  by  Sir  William  Courten, 
which  was  named  Assada,  from  a  place  of  settlement  in  Madagascar,  and  was  in- 


458  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         la.,.j,f,'r ] r 

corporaied  in  1650  wilh  the  old  Loudon  company.  Similar  instances  are  the  Com- 
pjuiy  <'f  Merchant  xVdventurers,  founded  in  16")5  and  also  incorporated  with  the 
Loudon  company  in  1657,  ami  the  Geueral  East  Indian  Trading  Company,  which 
started  with  a  capital  of  £2,000,000  and  joined  tiie  London  company  in  1709  under 
the  title  of  "  The  United  Company  of  Merchants  of  England  trading  to  the  East 
Indies."  The  following  instance  will  show  the  nature  of  tlie  rivalry  then  existent, 
lu  1703  Aurang  zeb  had  imprisoned  the  officials  of  the  old  company  stationed  at 
Surat.  Wien  the  order  of  their  release  arrived,  the  agent  of  the  Company  of 
Merchant  Adventurers  bribed  the  imperial  officials  with  £2,700  to  prolong  the 
imprisonment  of  his  colleagues. 

The  company  was  also  in  constant  difficulties  with  the  parliament.  Its  patent 
had  been  issued  for  a  specified  ])eriod  of  years,  and  its  renewal  could  only  be 
brought  about  by  pressure  upon  the  national  representatives,  each  of  wliom  had  his 
price.  The  company  was  accused  of  working  its  officials  on  insufficient  pay,  of 
lending  itself  to  intrigue  and  to  private  trade,  of  neglectiug  to  protect  its  Indian 
settlements,  etc.  ^Vhen  such  charges  had  procured  a  sufficient  amount  of  "  gratifi- 
cations "  for  the  parliamentary  leaders,  the  patent  was  renewed  for  a  certain  num- 
ber of  years.  Judicial  investigation  has  made  it  plain  that  the  expenditure  in  this 
direction  over  a  number  of  years  amounted  to  £100,000,  in  which  many  personages 
of  importance  shared. 

However,  notwithstanding  these  disadvantages  the  prosperity  of  the  East  Indian 
company  steadily  increased.  Its  first  settlement  on  the  Coromandel  coast  was  a 
small  agency  iu  Masulipatau ;  this  was  followed  by  a  fort  in  Xellore  in  1619,  by 
Palipat  iu  1622,  by  Armagaou  in  1626,  and  by  Madras  (Patam)  in  1C39.  Arma- 
gaon  was  placed  in  an  unfavourable  position,  and  was  abandoned  in  1638 ;  but 
Madras,  protected  by  Fort  Saint  George  (erected  by  Francis  Day,  March,  1639), 
soon  became  the  chief  centre  of  the  company  on  the  Coromandel  coast.  In  163-1 
Madras  was  separated  from  the  presidency  of  Bantam  iu  Java  and  became  the 
centre  of  a  special  presidency,  the  boundaines  of  which  soon  included  all  the  settle- 
ments of  Bengal. 

AMieu  the  Euglish  first  entered  India,  Surat  was  the  main  harbour  of  the  Mogul 
kingdom,  and  naturally  became  the  centre  of  Anglo-Indian  trade.  A  rapidly 
growing  number  of  agencies  and  factories  sprang  up  about  the  town.  Surat,  how- 
ever, was  exposed  to  the  southwest  monsoon,  and  was  unjirotected  against  hostile 
attacks  both  by  laud  and  sea.  For  these  reasons  Bombay  proved  a  more  favour- 
able settlement ;  it  was  provided  with  an  excellent  harbour,  and  the  islands  within 
the  harbour  mouth  were  a  natural  refuge  to  the  inhabitants  from  the  attacks  of  the 
Mahrattas.  Bombay  (Bom  bahia,  or  Good  Harbour)  had  originally  been  a  small 
Portuguese  settlement.  Ujion  the  marriage  of  Charles  II  with  the  Portuguese 
princess  Catherine  of  Braganza,  Bombay  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Euglish 
king  as  part  of  her  dowry,  and  in  166S  Charles  ceded  this  uninteresting  fishing 
town  to  the  company  for  a  yearly  rent  of  £10.  After  the  Malnatla  attack  of 
1670  the  company  determined  to  transfer  to  Bombay  the  presidency,  the  bound- 
aries of  which  embraced  the  whole  of  the  west  coast  together  with  the  settlements 
on  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Euphrates. 

The  development  of  British  trade  in  Bengal  began  at  a  later  period  than  upon 
the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  Deccan.  Surat  remained  the  harbour  for  the 
reception  of  that  commerce  which  extended  far  into  the  Ganges  district  up  to 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  459 


Patna,  situated  near  the  begiuiiLag  of  the  delta.  Owing  to  their  unpopularity  the 
Portuguese  had  been  unable  to  make  any  great  use  of  their  settlement  in  the 
Ganges  delta,  the  town  of  Hugli,  situated  thirty  English  miles  above  the  modern 
Calcutta,  When  Shah  Jehan  drove  out  the  Portuguese  in  1631  and  Iianded  over  the 
settlement  to  the  English  nine  years  later,  the  trade  with  Bengal  naturally  followed 
so  admirable  a  route  as  this  great  waterway.  Formerly  British  ships  only  ventured 
as  far  as  Pippli  in  Orissa;  now  they  passed  up  the  Ganges  as  far  as  the  tide  would 
carry  them,  and  collected  in  Hugli  the  wares  brouglit  down  from  every  part  of  the 
great  river  system  of  Hindostan.  After  the  good  services  rendered  to  the  imperial 
court  by  the  physician  Dr.  Broughton  (p.  457),  the  English  gained  the  exclusive 
right  in  1645  of  trading  in  Bengal,  and  prosperity  followed  rapidly.  In  1681  the 
settlements  in  Bengal  and  Orissa  were  made  an  independent  presidency  distinct 
from  Madras.  However,  in  16S6  the  governor,  Charuock,  and  all  the  officials  of 
the  company  were  driven  out  of  Bengal  by  the  Mogul  governor,  Shaista  Khan,  and 
were  obliged  to  take  refuge  upon  a  swampy  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  At  a 
later  period  they  again  advanced  up  stream  to  Chatauati,  near  which  Fort  William 
was  erected  for  then-  protection.  On  the  24th  of  August,  1690,  they  effected  a 
reconciliation  with  Aurang  zeb,  and  permission  to  trade  was  restored  to  them,  to- 
gether with  their  factories.  In  1700  the  emperor's  favourite  son,  'Azim  Sliah, 
gained  them  a  piece  of  territory,  where  the  villages  of  Chatanati,  Govindpur,  and 
Kali  Ghat  as  it  is  known  in  Akbar's  memorials,  became  the  nucleus  of  the  rapidly 
growing  Calcutta.  The  protection  afforded  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  British  district 
while  the  Jlogul  Empire  was  passing  through  its  period  of  decay  and  the  prospect 
of  rich  profit  rapidly  attracted  Indian  settlers.  In  sixty  years  the  three  villages 
had  become  a  capital  town,  with  a  population  estimated  at  four  hundred  thousand 
in  1752. 

(6)  The  Struggle  of  the  English  and  French  for  Predominance  in  India 
{1740-1700).  —  The  English  were  now  firmly  established  in  India,  and  nothing 
seemed  likely  to  disturb  the  rapid  development  of  their  influence.  At  this  moment, 
however,  their  very  existence  was  endangered  by  the  appearance  of  a  dangerous 
rival  in  the  person  of  France.  From  the  moment  wlien  the  bitter  struggle  for  pre- 
dominance in  Nearer  India  begins  between  England  and  France,  a  new  period  also 
opens  for  the  population  of  those  districts  wliich  became  the  seat  of  war.  The 
Mohammedan  age  comes  to  an  end,  and  tlie  two  following  decades,  at  the  end  of 
which  the  struggle  had  been  decided  in  favour  of  the  British,  form  the  first  section 
of  the  "  modern  period  "of  East  India. 

As  early  as  the  sixteenth  century  the  attention  of  France  had  been  directed  to 
India,  but  in  vain.  When  the  weakness  of  the  Portuguese  became  apparent  there 
was  formed,  almost  simultaneously  with  the  Dutch  and  English  companies,  a 
French  company  under  royal  patronage  (1604;  cf.  p.  455).  Henry  IV  conferred 
extensive  privileges  upon  the  company,  which  founded  settlements  in  Madagascar, 
but  attained  no  great  success  for  more  than  sixty  years.  It  was  not  until  Colbert 
(Vol.  VII,  p.  104)  interested  himself  in  the  company  in  1664  that  its  real  impor- 
tance began.  In  1668  the  first  settlements  were  founded  in  Surat  and  Golconda; 
in  1672  San  Thom^,  near  the  modern  Madras,  was  taken  from  the  Dutch,  and  the 
islands  of  Mauritius  and  Bourbon  were  occupied  as  ports  of  call  on  the  road  to 
India.    In  1674  the  Dutch  recovered  San  Thomd ;  but  a  portion  of  the  French  there 


460  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLIJ)         Ic/.aj.hrir 

settled  obtained  from  one  of  the  jtetty  princes  tlie  cession  of  a  jiiece  of  territory  on 
the  Coroiuandel  coast,  where  I'ondicherry  was  founded  by  Martin  (1701)).  'I'lie 
French  were  deprived  of  tlieir  new  settlements  by  tlie  Dutch,  hut  tliese  were  re- 
stored at  the  peace  of  liyswick  (1697).  In  17J9  tiie  town  wiiich  iiad  been  founded 
by  sixty  Frenchmen  already  contained  forty  thousand  inhabitants. 

(a)  Duplei.c.  —  The  French  also  entered  into  rivalry  with  the  English  and 
Dutch  in  Bengal.  In  1676  Chaudernagore  was  founded,  and  fortified  in  1688. 
But  the  short-sighted  commerial  jiolicy  of  1687  forViade  the  importation  into  France 
of  tlie  most  important  Indian  products.  In  1719  the  privileges  granted  were  with- 
drawn, and  the  company  was  at  the  point  of  dissolution,  when  its  reorganisation  as 
a  simple  trading  company  gave  it  a  new  lease  of  life  and  revived  the  prosperity 
of  IVindichcrry.  A  jjcriod  of  great  jirosperity  now  followed  between  1740  and 
1750.  In  the  year  1730  Joseph  Francois  Dupleix  had  been  apiniinted  director  of 
the  settlement  of  Chanderuagore ;  he  proved  so  capable  a  governor  that  ten  years 
later  this  town  with  one  hundred  and  three  thousand  inhabitants  became  one  of 
the  most  important  factories  in  Bengal.  In  1742  Dupleix  was  promoted  to  the 
generalship  of  I'ondicherry,  and  gained  so  great  an  intiueuce  over  the  native  princes 
that  in  1743,  when  the  rumour  came  to  the  defenceless  town  of  I'ondicheny  of  a 
war  between  France  and  England,  the  Xuwab  of  the  Carnatic  (y.  449)  forbade  all 
hostilities  among  the  Eurojieans  in  his  district,  at  the  request  of  Dupleix.  However, 
in  1746  La  Bourdonnais,  governor  of  Bourbon  and  Mauritius,  appeared  off  the  town 
with  a  French  fleet,  and  Dupleix  persuaded  the  Nuwab  to  remove  his  prohibition 
of  hostilities  by  a  promise  to  secure  for  him  the  possession  of  Madras.  La  Bour- 
donnais first  defeated  an  English  fleet  at  Negapatam,  and  then  captured  JIadras, 
which  was  unable  to  offer  a  resistance.  An  unusually  strong  monsoon  and  a  ([uar- 
rel  with  Dupleix,  who  was  anxious  to  proceed  to  extremities  against  the  English, 
determined  La  Bourdonnais  to  return  to  France  with  his  fleet.  Madras  was  then 
withheld  from  the  Nuwab  of  the  Carnatic,  Anwar  ed-din,  notwithstanding  the 
promise  of  Dupleix;  this  rulei-,  therefore,  marched  with  ten  thousand  men  to 
expel  the  French,  who,  however,  repulsed  his  attack,  though  they  could  only 
oppose  him  with  two  hundred  and  thirty  European  soldiers  and  seven  hundred 
Indians  drilled  in  European  fashion.  This  battle  at  Sau  Thmin^  is  not  without 
importance  in  the  history  of  India,  for  here  for  the  first  time  native  troops  were 
employed  by  Europeans,  —  the  sepoys;'  in  this  battle  also  the  European  troops 
gained  so  great  a  reputation  that  henceforward  the  success  of  Europeans  against 
the  troops  of  native  princes  was  practically  assured. 

Dupleix  made  a  vain  attempt  to  drive  the  Engli.sh  out  of  Fort  David,  which 
was  defended  by  Major  Stringer  Lawrence ;  on  the  other  hand  the  English  com- 
mander-in-chief, Edward  Boscawen,  after  losing  one-fourth  of  his  troops,  was  obliged 
to  retire  from  Pondichen-y  (October  18, 1748),  which  he  had  besieged  for  fifty  days 
with  a  strong  fleet  and  four  thousand  men.  Shortly  afterward  tlie  war  between 
England  and  France  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  by  which  Madras 
was  restored  to  the  English. 

Dupleix  had  now  made  for  himself  an  enemy  in  the  person  of  Anwar  ed-din, 
and  his  immediate  object  was  the  removal  of  this  foe.     The  prince  Chauda  Sahib 


'  From  tlie  niodurn  Persian  Sipalii  =  soldier. 


/"H  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  461 

of  Trichinopoli,  the  most  enterprising  and  therefore  the  most  popular  of  all  the 
princes  of  Southern  India,  had  been  made  prisoner  in  1741  by  the  Muhrattas;  this 
man  appeared  to  the  diplomatic  Frenchman  as  an  eminently  suitable  implement 
for  the  expulsion  of  Anwar.  Dupleix  paid  his  ransom,  and  Chanda  soon  collected 
a  force  of  six  thousand  men  for  the  purpose  of  attacking  the  Nuwab  of  the 
Carnatic,  who  was  hated  by  his  own  subjects.  A  fortunate  event  for  Dupleix  was 
the  death  of  the  old  Nizam  ul-mulk,  which  occurred  at  this  period  (p.  449).  He 
had  named  his  grandson  Mozaffar  Jang  as  his  successor  in  the  Deccan;  but 
immediately  after  his  death  Nasir  Jang,  one  of  the  five  sons  of  the  NizSm,  had  seized 
the  treasury  and  thereby  won  over  the  army.  The  legitimate  successor  had  won 
over  Chanda  to  his  side  by  a  promise  to  make  him  ruler  of  the  Carnatic,  and  troops 
were  now  sent  to  him  by  the  French  under  the  ilarquis  de  Bussy.  Anwar  ed-din 
was  killed  at  Amber  on  the  3d  of  August,  1749,  and  his  son  Mohammed  Ali 
fled  to  Trichinopoli.  As  a  reward  for  this  victory  Mozaffar  invested  his  ally 
Chanda  with  the  possession  of  the  Carnatic,  and  ceded  to  the  French  eighty-one 
villages  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Pondicherr)-.  Immediately  afterward,  however, 
he  was  defeated  at  "Walathawur  by  his  uncle  Nasir  Jang,  supported  by  tlie  English 
troops  under  Major  Lawrence,  was  taken  prisoner  and  thrown  into  chains,  while 
Chanda  escaped.  The  conqueror  declared  Mohammed  Ali,  the  son  of  the  former 
Nuwab,  to  be  ruler  of  the  Carnatic.  However,  the  fortune  of  war  changed  once 
more  with  no  less  rapidity  ;  Mohammed  was  defeated  by  Dupleix  at  Gingen  on  the 
4th  of  December,  1750,  while  Nasir,  after  losing  a  battle  to  Bussy,  was  killed  in  a 
revolt.  Thus  Dupleix  gained  the  rulers  he  had  desired  in  the  Deccan  and  Carnatic ; 
the  Frenchman  received  from  Mozaffar,  on  the  15th  of  December,  1750,  in  the  name 
of  the  Grand  Mogul,  the  title  of  governor  of  all  the  land  between  Kistna  (Krishna) 
and  Cape  Comorin.  Mozaffar  Jang  was  killed  three  weeks  afterward  by  Euro- 
peans. Thanks,  however,  to  the  efforts  of  Bussy,  his  place  was  taken  by  a  brother 
of  Nasir  Jang,  who  was  no  less  favourable  to  the  French.  Thus  the  influence 
of  Dupleix  extended  over  the  larger  part  of  the  Deccan,  and  France  was  now  at 
the  height  of  her  power  in  India. 

(/3)  Clive's  First  Appearance  and  Militari/  Success.  —  Robert  Clive  was  bom  on 
September  29,  1725.  The  son  of  a  county  magistrate  at  Styche,  in  Shropshire,  he 
went  to  India  in  1743,  where  he  was  given  the  position  of  a  writer,  the  duties 
of  which  he  fulfilled  as  little  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  superiors  as  to  himself. 
Upon  the  capitulation  of  Madras  he  was  taken  prisoner,  escaped  to  Fort  St.  David, 
and  was  given  an  ensign's  commission  under  Major  LawTcnce  in  1746.  After  the 
battle  of  Amber,  Mohammed  Ali,  the  son  of  the  deposed  Nuwab  of  the  Carnatic, 
had  fled  to  the  strong  fortress  of  Trichinopoli,  and  there  offered  a  brave  resistance 
to  the  troops  of  Chanda.  When  Dupleii  had  sent  a  strong  reinforcement  of  French 
soldiers  to  support  Chanda,  the  besieged  fortress  was  upon  the  point  of  surrender 
in  1751.  Clive,  who  had  already  distinguished  himself  in  an  assault  upon 
Diivicotta  (1749),  made  a  proposal  to  his  commander  to  draw  off  Chanda  from  the 
siege  of  Trichinopoli  by  advancing  upon  Arcot,  his  capitid.  Clive  himself  marched 
upon  Arcot  with  a  little  force  of  two  hundred  European  soldiers  and  three  hundred 
sepoys,  and  established  himself  in  the  town  on  August  30,  1751.  His  plan  was 
entirely  successful ;  the  Nuwab,  with  ten  thousand  men,  abandoned  Trichinopoli, 
and  Clive  held  out  for  seven  weeks  in  an  inadequately  fortified  town  against  the 


462  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD  Ici.arU;- iv 

furious  assaults  nf  the  eueiuy,  to  whrnu  he  cnuld  at  last  oinxise  ouly  one  hundred 
and  twenty  Euroj^n-aiis  and  two  lumdred  sejioys ;  eventually  Chanda  retired  upon 
the  approach  of  a  Iiody  of  Mahrattas  and  English  reinforcements.  This  brilliant 
exploit  immediately  placed  Clive  in  the  tirst  rank  of  the  heroes  of  Imliau  military 
history ;  his  defence  made  a  great  impression  upon  the  Indians,  and  the  splendour 
of  the  French  arms  was  dimmed.  Tlie  French  were  defeated  by  Clive  at  Arni ; 
their  force  besieging  Trichinopoli  was  obliged  to  surrender  at  discretion  to  the 
English  in  June,  17;V2,  and  C'iianda  Sahib,  who  had  surrendered  at  the  same  time, 
was  murdered  by  Mohammed  Ali,  without  interference  on  the  part  of  Major 
Lawrence.  During  the  next  three  years  Olive  was  invalided  home  to  England, 
wliich  he  reached  in  1753,  and  the  struggle  between  the  English  and  the  P'rench 
continvied  with  varying  success,  until  Dujileix  was  recalled  in  August,  17r)4,  and 
his  ambitious  schemes  came  to  an  end  with  the  convention  of  October  11  and  the 
great  concessions  which  F"rance  then  made. 

The  power  of  the  French  was  now  broken  upon  the  coast.  In  the  interior, 
however,  the  military  and  diplomatic  skill  of  Russy  preserved  their  influence  with 
the  Nizfim.  Bussy  utterly  defeated  the  Mahrattas,  who  attacked  him  with  far 
superior  forces,  and  compelled  them  to  conclude  a  peace;  he  rose  superior  to 
dangerous  intrigues  and  overcame  the  hostility  of  the  fickle  Nizam  with  such 
success  that  he  secured  to  the  French  the  ces.sion  of  the  four  nortiiern  Circars  (in 
the  northern  part  of  the  Kistna  i)lain).  However,  in  1758  he  also  was  recalled  on 
the  projwsal  of  the  count  Lally-Tollendal,  who  was  jealous  of  his  success,  and 
had  meanwhile  been  appointed  governor  of  Pimdicheny. 

Hitherto  the  struggle  between  the  French  and  the  English  for  predominance 
in  India  had  been  confined  to  the  district  of  the  two  southern  capitals;  now, 
however,  an  imexpecled  danger  threatened  the  victorious  British  on  the  north. 
The  dynasty  founded  in  Bengal  by  Murshid  Kuli  Khan  had  lasted  but  a  short 
time.  In  1740  Ali  Wardi  secured  the  supremacy,  and  upon  an  incursion  of  the 
Mahrattas  allowed  tlie  English  to  fortify  their  settlements  at  Calcutta  with  a  wall 
and  trench,  the  so-called  "  Mahrattas'  ditch."  He  died  in  1756  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  grandson  Surajah  ed-dowlah,  a  passionate  and  fickle  libertine  of  eighteen 
years,  of  low  origin,  who  liated  the  English  and  feared  their  growing  power.  He 
immediately  marched  upon  Calcutta.  The  English  made  a  vain  a])peal  for  help  to 
the  neighbouring  French  and  Dutch  settlements ;  the  town  was  insufficiently 
fortified,  and  was  forced  to  surrender  on  June  20,  1756,  after  a  defence  of  four 
days,  during  which  the  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  had  fled  down  stream  in 
boats.  Of  the  survivors,  one  hundred  and  forty-six  men  were  confined  for  the 
night  in  the  prison  which  has  attained  a  gloomy  notoriety  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Black  Hole,"  a  room  a  few  yards  square  and  ventilated  only  by  two  small 
barred  windows ;  in  the  morning  twenty -three  survivors  were  alone  able  to  .stagger 
out  of  the  contaminated  atmosphere. 

(c)  The  Period  of  Extortion,  17G0  to  17!i>'^.  —  (a)  dive's  Srcond  Appearance  in 
India.  —  News  of  the  disaster  at  Calcutta  reached  Madras  in  August,  1756,  where 
Clive  had  at  that  moment  returned  from  England.  As  s<K>n  as  the  monsoon 
permitted,  he  sailed  in  October  for  the  Ganges  delta  with  Admiral  Watson,  who 
had  been  stationed  at  Madras,  and  they  recovered  Calcutta  on  January  2,  1757. 
Clive  was  anxious  to  continue  his  operations,  but  any  further  advance  was  pre- 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  463 


vented  by  the  news  of  an  outbreak  of  war  with  France,  at  that  period  the  most 
ill-omened  tidings  conceivable;  he  was  also  obliged  to  consider  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Bussy,  and  the  influence  of  that  general  upon  the  Nizam.  A  convention 
which  the  Nuwab  of  Bengal  concluded  with  tiie  British  was  immediately  broken. 
With  the  object  of  intimidating  the  French,  Clive  stormed  Chandernagore,  the 
French  settlement  on  the  Hugli.  To  cope  with  the  overwhelming  forces  of  Surajah 
ed-dowlah  he  called  conspiracy  and  treachery  to  his  aid.  The  succession  was 
promised  to  a  relative  at  the  court  of  the  Nuwab,  by  name  Mir  Jatir,  on  condition 
tliat  he  should  desert  his  master  with  liis  troops  in  the  course  of  the  expected 
battle.  The  Bengal  army  had  taken  up  a  fortified  position,  numbering  fifty  thou- 
sand men,  at  Plassey  (Palashi,  near  Murshidabad;  or  Moxudabad)  ;  Clive  delivered 
his  attack  with  a  force  of  only  two  thousand  nine  hundred  men,  and,  thanks  to  the 
treacliery  of  Mir  Jafir  and  the  cowardice  of  the  Nuwab,  gained  a  decisive  victory 
(June  23,  1757).  As  a  reward  for  his  treachery,  Mir  Jatir  was  created  Nuwab  of 
Bengal,  and  as  a  matter  of  form  his  appointment  was  confirmed  from  Delhi.  The 
Nuwab,  wlio  had  been  taken  prisoner,  was  murdered  by  a  son  of  Mu-  Jafir.  As 
the  price  for  his  exalted  position,  the  Nuwab  paid  to  the  English  ccmipany  and 
to  its  officials  rich  "presents,"  amounting  in  all  to  more  than  £.3,000,000,  Clive 
alone  receiving  £260,000.  Moreover,  he  invested  the  company  with  the  rights  of 
Zemindar ;  that  is,  the  right  of  raising  taxes  for  the  Nuwab  over  a  district  round 
Calcutta  of  eight  hundred  and  eighty-two  square  mQes  (the  modern  twenty-four 
Pergauas).  In  1760  the  amount  of  this  tax,  which  rose  to  £30,000  yearly,  was 
appropriated  to  Clive  in  person  by  the  Grand  Mogul.  Clive  thus  became  in  a 
sense  landlord  to  the  company,  which  was  thus  raising  taxes  on  his  behalf.  This 
monstrous  state  of  affairs  was  altered  in  1765  by  the  action  of  Parliament,  which 
permitted  Clive  to  retain  the  income  for  ten  years,  at  the  end  of  which  period  it 
was  to  be  paid  to  the  company  for  the  future. 

The  oewly  appointed  Nuwab  of  Bengal  was  speedily  threatened  by  danger  from 
the  Hindus.  'All  Guhar,  the  son  of  the  Grand  Mogul  'Alamgir  II,  had  fled  from 
his  father's  court  and  been  well  received  in  Oudh  and  Allahabad ;  after  the 
emperor's  murder  in  1759,  he  declared  himself  emperor  of  Hindustan,  and  assumed 
the  title  of  Shah  'Alam  II  (cf.  p.  443).  With  an  army  of  forty  thousand  men.  com- 
posed of  Afghans  and  Mahrattas,  he  marched  against  Mir  Jafir  and  won  a  victory 
over  the  troops  of  the  Nuwab,  which  had  been  reinforced  by  British  sepoys,  at 
Patna ;  afterward,  however,  he  was  repeatedly  defeated  with  the  help  of  English 
troops  (1760),  and  was  forced  to  renoimce  his  projects  of  conquest  in  Bengal. 

Meanwhile  the  Seven  Years'  War  had  broken  out  in  Germany  (Vol.  VII, 
p.  537);  France  and  Paissia  had  joined  Austria  against  Prussia,  which  was  now  in 
alliance  with  England.  Count  LaUy-ToUendal  (p.  462),  who  had  been  appomted 
French  governor  in  Pondicherry  in  1756,  though  u  man  of  high  military  experience 
and  bravery,  continually  made  enemies  by  his  want  of  tact,  with  the  result  tliat 
his  enterprises  invariably  ended  in  disaster.  After  Bussy  had  been  recalled 
through  jealousy,  Forde,  who  had  been  despatched  by  Chve,  succeeded  in  taking 
the  northern  Circars  from  the  French;  on  April  7,  1759,  the  English  got  posses- 
sion of  Masulipatam,  the  last  French  fortress  in  the  Deccan. 

Shortly  after  his  arrival  (April,  1758)  Lally  had  seized  the  English  fort  of 
St.  Dav-id  on  June  1 ;  he  had  intended  to  lose  no  time  in  attacking  Madras,  which 
was  in  no  position  to  make  a  defence,  but  the  French  admiral  declined  to  co- 


464  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         {chapter  if 

operate,  aud  as  the  council  in  Pondicherry  declined  to  vote  the  necessary  supjJies, 
the  attempt  came  to  nothing ;  he  then  made  a  vain  elTort  to  procure  the  necessary 
money  by  storming  Tanjore.  Ultimately  lie  besieged  Madras  aud  breached  the 
walls  of  the  town,  but  liis  own  otticers  then  declined  to  advance  to  the  assault, 
and  the  appearance  of  an  English  fleet  before  Madras  forced  the  French  to  beat  a 
hasty  retreat,  leaving  the  whole  of  their  siege  train  behind  (February,  1759). 
The  Nizam  now  cnuchided  a  convention  with  tlie  English,  and  promised  to  take 
no  more  Freuchmen  into  his  service.  Tlie  appearance  of  a  stn)ng  French  fleet  off 
Pondicherry  raised,  some  final  sparks  of  hope;  but  after  a  vigorous  and  indecisive 
sea  fight,  the  British  reuiained  in  jiossession  of  the  giound,  and  the  French  retired 
to  the  Isle  de  France.  Lally  made  a  last  effort  ami  attacked  the  English  port  of 
Wandewash ;  he  was,  however,  opposed  by  Colouel  Eyre  Coote,  who  had  been  sent 
out  by  Clive,  and  defeated  on  January  22,  1760..  Lally  was  besieged  in  Pondi- 
cherry by  land  and  sea  from  March,  1760,  and  was  forced  to  surrender  on  January 
16,  1761.  In  1764  he  returned  to  Paris;  there  the  invariably  unfortunate  general 
was  thrown  into  the  Bastille  and  beheaded,  to  the  lasting  disgrace  of  his  judges, 
on  Maj'  17,  1766.  His  son  owed  much  to  the  undaunted  representations  of  Vol- 
taire to  Louis  XVI,  who  cleared  the  honour  of  this  wrongly  condemned  general  in 
a  decree  of  May  21,  1773. 

Thus  the  second  great  rival  for  the  supremacy  of  India  had  been  crushed, 
although  under  the  "Treaty  of  Paris"  (Febniary  10,  17G3),  Pondicherry  and  Chan- 
demagore  were  restored  to  the  French  for  a  short  period  (cf.  below,  p.  470). 
Olive's  activity  also  reduced  the  importance  of  the  Dutch  in  India  to  a  vanishing 
point.  In  1760,  when  the  British  foimd  themselves  in  an  embarrassing  situation, 
the  Dutch  East  India  Company  came  to  a  secret  understanding  with  the  treach- 
erous Mir  Jafir,  aud  sent  out  seven  large  ships  with  troops  from  Java  to  tlie  Hugli. 
Clive,  however,  captured  these,  marched  upon  the  Dutch  settlement  of  Chinsurah, 
and  forced  the  Dutch  to  conclude  a  convention,  in  which  they  undertook  to  raise 
no  further  fortifications,  and  to  disband  all  troops,  with  the  exception  of  a  small 
body  of  police.  Any  breach  of  these  regulations  was  to  be  punished  by  their 
immediate  expulsion. 

(/3)  Mir  Kasim  ;  Further  Success  on  the  Part  of  the  Company  {1761-1765), 
and  Corruption  of  its  Officials.  —  Clive  returned  to  England  in  1760,  was  created 
Lord  Clive  of  Plassey  with  an  Irish  Peerage  in  1762,  and  became  a  popular  hero. 
However,  in  India  the  need  of  his  strong  government  was  everywhere  felt.  "  He 
had  left  no  regular  system  of  government  in  Bengal,  but  merely  the  tradition  that 
by  the  terror  of  the  English  name,  unlimited  sums  of  money  could  be  extorted 
from  the  natives."  The  success  of  his  intrigues  with  Mir  Jafir  proved  a  bad 
example  for  the  council  at  Calcutta.  The  installation  of  this  Nuwab  had  been 
attended  with  such  unexpected  profits  that  nothuig  seemed  easier  than  to  renew 
the  attempt  Pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon  this  self-created  ruler  until  he 
abdicated.  One  of  his  relatives,  Mir  Kasim,  was  .set  up  in  his  place.  Besides 
giving  immense  sums  of  money  to  individual  civil  and  military  officials,  he  ceded 
the  districts  of  Bardwan,  Midnapur,  and  Chitlagong  to  the  company  as  a  reward 
for  their  services.  However,  the  new  Nuwab  was  an  independent,  ambitious,  and 
energetic  man.  He  gave  his  attention  to  the  creation  of  an  independent  army, 
organised  and  drilled  upon  European  patterns.     He  showed  no  inclination  to  bow 


M'o-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  465 

to  the  aggi-ession  of  the  English  traders.  It  had  become  a  generally  recognised  cus- 
tom for  the  officials  of  the  company  down  to  the  poorest  clerk  to  supplement  their 
miserable  pay  by  private  enterprises  of  their  own ;  the  ruler  of  Bengal  had  remitted 
all  taxes  upon  the  commerce  of  the  company  in  its  corporate  capacity,  and  similar 
privileges  were  now  demanded  for  the  private  trade  above  mentioned.  The  Nuwab 
made  complaints  to  the  council ;  these  were  naturally  unsuccessful,  and  yet  further 
demands  were  made  of  him ;  he  replied  by  reimposing  the  taxes  upon  the  company 
in  his  own  country.  This  action  was  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war.  The  army 
of  the  Nuwab,  which  included  the  remnants  of  the  French  troops,  numbered  fifteen 
thousand  men,  but  was  defeated  by  the  military  skill  of  Major  Tobias  Adams  at 
Katwa,  Gharia,  and  Udwa  Nala  (Rajmahal).  Mir  Kasim  fled  to  Patna  with  one 
hundred  and  Hfty-five  English  prisoners,  and  when  he  was  followed  by  the  hostile 
army,  murdered  his  prisoners  and  retired  with  the  remnant  of  his  troops  to  Oudh 
to  the  court  of  Shuja,  the  ruling  Nuwab  Wazir.  The  former  Nuwab,  Mir  Jafir, 
was  replaced  upon  the  throne  of  Bengal,  and  once  again  his  installation  was 
accompanied  by  the  usual  stream  of  gifts  to  the  company  and  its  officials. 

Meanwhile  the  storm  of  the  Afghan  invasion  (p.  447)  had  burst  upon  the 
Delhi  kingdom  and  had  utterly  defeated  the  Mogul  army  at  Panipat  on  January 
6,  1761,  ten  days  before  the  fall  of  I'ondicherry.  Dellii  was  in  a  state  of  complete 
confusion ;  the  emperor  fled  to  Shuja  ed-Doula,  the  Nuwab  Wazir  of  Oudh.  Both 
monarchs  recognised  the  great  danger  to  themselves  in  the  rapidly  growing  power 
of  the  English  on  the  lower  Ganges,  and  Mir  Kasim,  who  brought  with  him  a 
considerable  contingent,  was  well  received  at  the  court  of  the  Nuwab  Wazir.  The 
united  armies  advanced  against  the  English  at  the  moment  when  the  English 
sepoy  troops  mutinied ;  the  rebellion,  however,  was  quickly  and  sternly  suppressed, 
and  on  October  23,  1764  (not  1761,  as  appears  by  a  mistake  on  the  map,  p.  4.'^0) 
the  English,  under  Major  Hector  Munro  at  Baksar  (Buxar),  utterly  defeated  the 
overwhelming  forces  of  the  allied  Hindu  princes.  Mir  Kasim  died  in  obscurity 
and  misery  at  Delhi  in  1777. 

The  victory  of  Baksar  was  to  prove  even  more  fruitful  in  consequence  to  the 
Englisli  than  that  of  Plassey.  It  brought  them  into  direct  contact  with  the  ruler 
of  Hindustan,  who  had  hitherto  maintained  his  dignity  unimpaired,  though  his 
practical  power  had  been  reduced  to  nothing.  In  the  treaties  of  peace  the  com- 
pany was  officially  recognised  as  the  vassal  of  Shah  'Alam,  as  feudal  owner  of 
lower  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa ;  in  1765  it  received  the  Diwanat,  that  is,  the 
whole  civil  and  mihtary  administration  of  the  province.  In  return  for  this  the 
company  was  obliged  to  make  a  yearly  payment  of  £250,000  to  the  Mogul,  to 
whom  was  secured  the  possession  of  the  lower  Duab  (Allahabad  and  Kora). 
Shuja  retained  his  power  in  Oudh  in  return  for  a  war  indemnity  amounting  to 
£500,000  ;  the  Nuwab  of  Bengal,  the  son  of  Mir  Jafir,  who  had  died  hi  Februarj-, 
1765,  received  as  recompense  for  the  loss  of  his  Bengal  income,  £600,000  yearly 
and  the  Nizamate,  or  right  of  criminal  jurisdiction. 

Notwithstanding  the  huge  income  which' flowed  into  the  coffers  of  the  com- 
pany, it  was  not  possible  to  regard  the  further  development  of  Indian  affairs  with- 
out some  feelings  of  alarm.  Every  branch  of  the  administration  was  utterly 
rotten ;  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  every  official  was  wholly  possessed  witli 
the  desire  of  enriching  himself  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  by  any  and  every 
means,  with  the  object  of  spending  the  rest  of  his  days  in  England  as  a  "  nabob." 

VOL.  11  —  30 


406  HISTORY    OF    llll'.    WORLD         Ichaj.i.r/r 

The  resources  of  the  country  were  drained  with  the  most  appalling  rapidity ; 
"  Enormous  fortunes  were  rapidly  accumulated  at  Calcutta,  while  tliirty  millions 
of  human  beings  were  reduced  to  the  extremity  of  wretchedness.  They  had  been 
accustomed  to  live  under  tyranny,  but  never  under  tyranny  like  this.  They  found 
the  little  Knger  of  the  company  thicker  than  the  loins  of  Shuja  ed-Doula" 
(Macaulay,  Essay  on  Clive).  The  army  also  had  been  alTccted  by  the  bad  example 
of  the  otlicials;  greed,  luxury,  and  lack  of  discMjjline  invaded  its  ranks. 

(7)  Olive's  Inst  Appearance  in  India,  and  his  Dcntli.  —  Thus  when  Clive  entered 
Calcutta  in  May,  1765,  as  governor  for  tlie  second  time,  he  was  confronted  with  a 
heavy  task.  He  had  himself  contributed  to  the  abuses  which  he  now  desired  to 
check  ;  as  an  otticial  of  the  company,  he  had  acquired  enormous  wealth,  and  had 
contributed  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  country  by  the  extortion  of  enormous  treasures 
from  its  rulers.  In  spite  of  the  resistance  of  every  class  of  the  officials,  who 
openly  mutinied  against  him,  he  put  down  many  abuses  with  a  strong  hand,  and 
checked  the  general  corruption.  Officials  were  Hrmly  forbidden  to  accept  presents, 
and  their  private  trade  came  to  an  end ;  they  were  recompensed,  though  insuffi- 
ciently, by  a  rise  in  salaries  which  was  covered  by  the  salt  monopoly. 

Clive  was  obliged  to  leave  India  in  January,  1767,  in  consequence  of  illness,  and 
he  was  never  destined  to  see  the  country  again.  The  animosity  which  his  actions 
had  aroused  among  all  Europeans  in  Bengal  reached  his  native  land  before  his 
arrival  home.  He  did  not  find  the  brilliant  reception  that  had  awaited  his  former 
arrival.  Most  extraordinary  rumours  were  in  circulation  concerning  him.  Ulti- 
mately a  parliamentary  investigation  was  begun,  and  he  was  impeached,  —  a 
process  which  ended  in  a  declaration  by  the  House  of  Commons  that  Clive  had 
performed  "  great  and  meritorious  services  to  his  country."  None  the  less,  Clive 
remained  embittered  in  heart ;  excessive  indulgence  in  opium  undermined  his 
health,  and  in  a  fit  of  despondency  he  committed  suicide  on  November  22,  1774. 

(8)  77ie  First  War  of  the  English  Company  with  Hyder  Ali  of  Mysore.  —  After 
Clive's  departure  from  the  scene,  embarrassments  in  India  increased  apace.  His  first 
political  action  had  been  the  conclusion  of  pea(;e  with  the  (Irand  Mogul,  and  the 
acquisition  of  an  enormous  territory  for  exploitation  by  the  company ;  European 
officials  were,  however,  lacking  to  carry  out  the  administration.  Trained  English- 
men were  to  be  found  only  in  the  highest  posts,  and  the  administration  of  pro- 
vincial districts  was  left  to  native  officials,  whose  divergent  theories  upon 
questions  of  right  and  wrong  naturally  resulted  in  the  greatest  difficulties ;  the 
higher  European  authorities  must  be  responsible  for  any  disturbance  arising  from 
this  cause,  since  they  sliowed  a  complete  inability  to  grasp  the  situation.  Dis- 
honesty and  corruption  had  been  for  centuries  the  special  privilege  of  inferior 
Hindu  officials,  and  the  Europeans  also  reverted  to  their  old  customs  of  private 
trade  and  the  receipt  of  "  presents  "  as  soon  as  Clive's  strong  hand  was  removed. 
The  revenues  of  the  company  diminished  to  an  alarming  extent,  while  the 
expenditure  rapidly  rose  in  consequence  of  military  embarra.ssments  in  the  south. 

During  the  sixteenth  and  seventeentli  centuries  a  native  Hindu  dynasty, 
the  Wodeyar,  had  been  settled  in  the  modern  Mysore  and  from  comparative 
insignificance  had  risen  to  considerable  power.  However,  during  the  struggle  of 
the  British  and  the  French  the  Mohammedan  (Jeneral  Ilydcr  Ali  (born  1728)  had 


/"«']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  467 

expelled  by  means  of  treachery  and  armed  force  the  weak  ruler  Chikka  Krishna 
Eaja  Wodeyar;  in  1761  he  established  himself  at  the  head  of  the  government  and 
with  the  aid  of  French  commanders  extended  his  new  dominions  at  the  expense  of 
his  neighbours.  In  1767  he  threatened  an  attack  upon  the  Nizam,  who  secured  a 
defensive  alliance  with  the  English  at  the  price  of  the  cession  of  the  northern  Cir- 
cars  (p.  463) ;  hardly,  however,  had  war  broken  out  between  the  English  and  Hyder 
Ali,  than  the  cunning  Mohammedan  won  over  the  Nizam  to  himself  by  promises 
of  pecuniary  help.  The  mounted  troops  of  Mysore  drove  back  the  Uriti.sh  to  Trino- 
malai ;  at  this  point,  however,  in  September,  Hyder's  career  was  checked  by  a  defeat 
which  forced  him  to  withdraw  his  troops  to  the  highlands.  A  vigorous  advance 
upon  the  west  coast  relieved  him  from  the  troops  of  Bombay  and  secured  him  in 
the  pos.session  of  Mangalore.  For  a  considerable  time  the  struggle  continued  with 
varying  success  upon  either  side  until  on  the  3d  and  4th  of  April,  1769,  the  English 
arranged  a  peace  somewhat  inglorious  to  themselves,  upon  the  condition  that  almost 
,all  the  acquisitions  made  by  either  party  should  be  restored. 

■  (e)  Warren  Hastings.  —  So  far  from  gaining  any  advantage  from  the  war,  the 
company  found  its  expenses  considerably  increased.  It  was  impossible  to  extort 
money,  as  previously,  by  changing  the  rulers  of  Bengal,  and  the  larger  proportion 
of  the  profits  upon  the  ordinary  trade  flowed  into  the  pockets  of  the  officials. 
These  embarrassments  were  further  increased  in  1770  by  a  terrible  famine  which 
swept  away  one-third  of  the  population  of  Bengal  and  reduced  the  profits  of  the 
company  to  a  vanishing  point.  In  1772  the  company  was  threatened  with  bank- 
ruptcy and  could  only  maintain  its  position  with  the  help  of  a  considerable  subsidy 
from  the  English  government.  The  truth  was  that  only  a  fundamental  reform 
could  produce  any  lasting  or  beneficial  result.  During  dive's  period  Warren 
Hastings  had  been  a  member  of  the  council  of  Calcutta  from  1761  (born  Dec.  6, 
1732,  at  Churchill) ;  he  was  distinguished  for  his  discretion,  integrity,  and  industry. 
After  several  years'  absence  in  England  he  was  sent  out  in  1769  to  Madras  as  a 
member  of  the  council ;  at  the  present  moment  (1772)  he  was  appointed  head  of 
the  council  of  Bengal.  Owing  to  the  previously  mentioned  embarrassments  a 
regulating  act,  issued  in  February,  1773,  had  fundamentally  changed  the  whole 
constitution  of  the  Indian  Trading  Company,  and  Hastings  found  himself  at  the 
head  of  all  the  company's  Indian  settlements.  By  the  new  constitution  the  presi- 
dency of  Bengal  became  of  predominant  importance,  for  the  president  as  general 
governor  assumed  the  political  guidance  of  the  other  presidencies  (Madras  and 
Bombay).  He  was  assisted  by  four  councillors  and  had  a  casting  vote  in  cases 
where  their  opinions  were  equally  divided  ;  in  Calcutta,  moreover,  a  supreme  court 
of  justice  was  established  in  complete  independence  of  the  council. 

The  first  general  governor  found  himself  in  an  extremely  difficult  position. 
His  task  was  to  cleanse  the  whole  Augean  stable  from  the  many  malpractices 
which  had  grown  up  in  every  branch  of  the  administration,  and  eveiywhere  his 
efforts  met  with  the  strongest  resistance.  An  even  more  serious  obstacle  was  the 
opposition  which  Hastings  encountered  in  the  council  itself ;  of  the  four  members, 
three  were  utterly  opposed  to  his  views  on  every  administrative  subject,  and  of 
these  the  most  vigorous  was  the  capable  but  ambitious  and  somewhat  jealous 
Philip  Francis  (the  supposed  author  of  the  "  Letters  of  Junius,"  1768-1772).  The 
powers  and  duties  of  the  council  and  tlie  supreme  court  of  justice  were  ill  defined 


4GS  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter iv 

and  often  conflicted,  thus  increasing  the  emharrassment  of  the  situation.  The 
adroitness,  energy,  and  perseverance  displayed  by  Hastings  ultimately  conquered 
these  obstacles.  A  distinguished  Brahman,  Nanda  Kumar  (Nuncomar),  who  hated 
the  general  governor,  attempted  to  use  the  weakness  of  his  position  in  the  council 
to  overthrow  him  by  the  production  of  false  evidence ;  the  governor,  however, 
brought  the  Brahman  to  trial  before  the  supreme  court  on  an  independent  charge  of 
forging  a  Hindu  banker's  signature.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Nanda  Kumar  was  guilty 
on  the  charge  which  was  brought  against  him.  But  it  was  something  more  than 
harsh  to  apjdy  in  his  case  the  Engli.-h  V.iw  of  forgery,  which  had  never  before  been 
used  against  a  native  of  India.  He  fell  a  victim  to  the  resentment  of  the  governor 
general,  and  his  execution  was  a  lesson  to  the  Hindus  not  to  meddle  with  the 
intrigues  of  Hastings'  English  enemies.  Hastings  rid  himself  of  his  most  furious 
enemy  in  the  council,  Francis,  by  challenging  him  to  a  duel  and  shooting  him 
through  the  body;  Francis  was  obliged  to  return  definitely  to  England  in  1780. 
Henceforward  Hastings  had  a  majority  in  the  counc'l  and  was  able  to  continue 
his  task  of  reform  without  further  interference  in  that  quarter.  The  system  of 
taxation  was  thorouglily  reorganised,  and  Europeans  were  set  over  the  administra- 
tion of  larger  districts.  The  salaries  of  all  officials  were  raised  and  they  were 
strictly  forbidden  to  engage  in  private  trade ;  the  administration  of  justice  was 
improved  by  the  institution  of  local  courts,  etc.  In  view  of  the  depth  of  the  pre- 
vailing corruption  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  this  process  of  reform  could  be 
completed  during  the  lifetime  of  one  man ;  but  those  administrative  principles 
which  are  in  force  at  the  present  day  were  then  laiid  down  and  the  ground  was 
thus  cleared  for  a  course  of  healthier  development. 

Warren  Hastings  had  been  sent  out  to  stop  the  abuses  prevalent  in  the  ad- 
ministration, but  above  all  to  wipe  out  the  company's  deficit  and  enable  it  to 
pay  the  highest  possible  dividend.  The  country,  however,  was  exliausted,  and 
the  process  of  reform  was  expensive,  and  brought  no  immediate  return.  However, 
the  governor-general,  with  his  elastic  standards  of  political  morality  and  his  ruth- 
less perseverance,  succeeded  in  bringing  the  second  part  of  his  task  to  a  no  less 
brilliant  conclusion.  Upon  a  change  of  rulers  in  1766,  Clive  had  reduced  the 
yearly  subsidy  which  the  company  paid  to  the  Nuwab  under  the  convention  from 
£600,000  to  £400,000,  and  on  a  similar  occasion  in  1768  a  further  reduction  of 
£100.000  was  made.  Hastings  reduced  the  subsidy  by  an  additional  £160,000. 
The  Nuwab  was  a  child  in  his  minority,  from  whom  there  was  notliing  to  fear,  and 
the  breach  of  convention  implied  in  this  action  did  not  trouble  anybody's  con- 
science. The  original  convention  had  been  concluded  only  with  Mir  Jafir,  and  his 
successor  might  well  be  satisfied  that  so  much  had  been  left  to  him. 

The  governor-general,  who  was  never  at  a  loss  for  means  to  accomplish  his 
object,  found  a  second  rich  source  of  income  in  the  relations  of  the  English  to  the 
Grand  Mogul.  In  1765  the  two  provinces  of  Allahabad  and  Kora  and  two  and  a 
half  millions  of  rupees  frnm  the  revenue  of  Bengal  liad  been  promised  to  the  em- 
peror 8hrdi  '.\lam.  In  1765  the  emperor  ceded  both  provinces  to  the  Mahrattas 
in  exchange  for  his  former  province  and  capital  of  Delhi,  to  which  he  removed  in 
1771.  Thereupon  the  English  not  only  withheld  the  payments  due  to  the  emperor 
but  sold  the  two  provinces  which  did  not  even  belong  to  them  for  hard  ca.sh  to 
Shuja,  the  Nuwab  Wazir  of  Oudh,  the  excuse  being  that  the  emperor  was  under  the 
influence  of  the  Mahrattas,  who  were  hostile  to  England.     There  was  a  mixture  of 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  469 


political  and  pecuniary  motives  in  this  transaction.  Hastings  set  the  interests  of 
the  company  above  all  other  considerations.  But  he  was  far  from  thinking  that  its 
interests  were  limited  to  the  pecuniary  profit  of  the  moment.  He  regarded  the 
territory  of  the  company  as  a  State, and  in  his  dealings  with  the  native  princes  he 
played  for  political  ascendency  of  a  lasting  kind.  This  must  be  borne  in  mind 
when  we  criticise  his  policy  toward  the  Rohillas.  This  tribe,  living  at  the  foot  of 
the  Himalayas,  had  never  come  into  actual  conflict  with  the  English.  When  Hast- 
ings led  troops  to  the  Xuwab  Wazir  of  Oudh  to  be  employed  against  the  Eohillas, 
his  enemies  saw  in  the  move  nothmg  but  a  device  for  raising  money.  The  fact 
was,  however,  that  the  Eohillas  had  threatened  to  invade  the  company's  territory, 
and  might  one  day  put  their  threat  into  action ;  and  that  by  handing  them  over 
to  Oudh  the  governor-general  sowed  dissension  between  the  Nuwab  Wazir  and  the 
Mahrattas,  and  secured  the  fidelity  of  the  former  in  perpetuity.  But  there  are 
some  other  transactions  in  which  the  pecuniary  motive  was  the  chief  one.  After 
Shuja's  death  in  1776  the  company  made  a  complaint  against  his  mother  and  his 
widow  (the  two  Begums),  to  whom  the  ruler  had  left  ten  millions  of  rupees,  which, 
moreover,  the  council  of  Calcutta  had  adjudged  to  them  on  the  occasion  of  a  quarrel 
with  the  successor,  Asaf  ed-Doula.  They  were  now  charged  with  inciting  the  Eaja 
of  Benares  to  revolt  against  the  English,  were  imprisoned  and  threatened  with  severe 
punishment  until  they  surrendered  their  property.  Finally,  attention  was  paid  to 
the  rich  Raja  of  Benares,  Chait  Sing.  After  he  had  submitted  to  an  extraordinary 
course  of  extortion,  he  was  asked  without  the  smallest  excuse  to  provide  a  special 
contingent  of  auxiliary  troops.  A  dangerous  rising  of  his  people  was  suppressed, 
and  a  more  pliable  raja  was  set  up  in  his  place.  By  these  means  the  yearly 
revenue  of  the  company  was  raised  some  £200,000  sterling. 

(5')  The  First  War  of  the  English  Company  with  the  Mahrattas  ;  the  Second  War 
with  Mysore  ;  the  Return  of  Hastings.  —  In  1761  Peshwa  Balaji  (p.  447)  died  in 
Poonah.  His  son  and  grandson  soon  followed  him  to  tlie  grave,  and  failing  direct 
heirs  to  the  succession,  Eaghnat  Eao  (commonly  known  as  Raghuba)  declared  him- 
self Peshwa.  He  was  a  brother  of  Balaji,  but  his  succession  was  disputed,  as  a  son 
posthumously  born  of  the  last  Peshwa  was  shown  to  exist.  Accordingly,  Eaghnat 
turned  for  help  to  the  presidency  of  Bombay  in  1774,  promising  the  two  harbours 
of  Bassein  and  Salsette,  which  the  presidency  immediately  aiuiexed.  When  he 
was  attacked  by  the  Mahrattas  under  Siudia  and  Holkar,  he  immediately  fled  to 
Bombay  and  handed  over  the  two  harbours  by  the  compact  of  Bassein  (1775).  By 
the  new  regulations  (p.  467)  the  presidency  was  no  longer  allowed  to  conduct  a 
foreign  policy  of  its  own.  None  the  less,  troops  were  sent  out  under  Colonels 
Egerton,  Cockburn,  and  Carnac,  but  were  so  utterly  defeated  by  Sindia  in  War- 
gaon  in  1779  that  the  whole  army  was  forced  to  surrender.  The  Calcutta  govern- 
ment had  not  authorised  this  proceeding  on  the  part  of  Bombay,  but  it  now  became 
a  point  of  honour  to  support  the  defeated  party.  In  1780  troops  were  sent  west- 
ward, Ahmedabad  was  captured,  and  on  the  5th  of  August  the  Mahratta  fortress  of 
Gwalior,  which  had  been  reputed  impregnable,  was  stormed  by  Major  Popham,  who 
surprised  and  defeated  Sindia  by  a  night  attack.  The  convention  of  Saldai  (1781) 
freed  the  English  for  the  moment  from  this  most  dangerous  adversary,  his  pre- 
dominance in  the  IMahratta  territory  being  practically  recognised  by  the  agreement. 
Wlien  peace  was  definitely  concluded  in  1782,  the  Mahrattas  received  Gujerat, 


470  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [c/,.,/,/,;- ir 

while  the  presidency  of  Bombay  remained  in  possession  of  15asseiii  and  Salsette, 
and  Kaj;hnat  renounced  the  pi)siliou  of  I'eshwa  in  return  for  a  yearly  subsidy.  A 
year  before  the  defeat  of  Wargaou  (1778),  war  had  again  broken  out  between  Eng- 
land and  France,  and  I'ondicherry  was  captured  in  October  (restored  to  France  in 
the  Peace  of  Versailles  in  17S3).  The  project  was  formed  of  taking  Mahd  on  the 
west  coast  (see  map,  p.  430)  from  the  French,  and  troops  were  sent  to  Madras 
through  the  State  of  Mysore  without  obtaining  permission  from  the  ruler,  llyder 
Ali,  who  was  smarting  under  earlier  provocations,  invaded  the  Carnatic  with  a 
strong  force  in  July,  1780,  and  on  the  10th  of  December  utterly  defeated  at 
Perambokam  the  army  of  Madras,  which  was  inferior  in  numbers,  and  feebly  com- 
manded by  Baillie.  The  commander  had  himself  hoisted  the  white  flag.  However, 
when  the  Mohammedans  advanced  without  pi'ecautioii,  tliey  were  received  with  a 
sharp  tire.  In  their  fur}-  at  this  treachery  they  would  have  cut  the  English  to 
pieces  had  they  not  been  restrained  by  their  French  officers.  Thomas  Munroe,  the 
leader  of  the  second  English  army,  threw  his  guns  into  a  tank  and  fled  to  take 
shelter  in  Madras.  The  whole  Carnatic  was  devastated  by  Hyder  in  order  to 
deprive  the  English  of  the  means  of  continuing  the  war.  As  soon  as  the  news  of 
these  disasters  reached  Calcutta,  Hastings  concluded  the  war  with  the  Mahrattas, 
and  sent  out  fresh  forces  under  Sir  Eyre  Coote  (p.  464),  whieh  arrived  at  Madras  at 
the  end  of  1780.  On  the  1st  of  July,  1781,  the  forces  of  Mysore  were  defeated  at 
Porto  Novo.  After  long  manwuvring  on  either  side,  Coote  defeated  the  enemy  on 
the  2d  of  June,  1782,  at  Cbittvu-.  In  the  same  year  (10th  of  December)  Hyder 
Ali  met  his  death  at  the  siege  of  Vellore.  His  son,  Tippu  Sahib,  contiinied  hostili- 
ties with  much  success  (April,  1783,  the  investment  of  General  Matthews  in 
Bednar;  20th  of  June  the  victory  of  the  French  admiral  Suffren,  allied  with 
Mysore,  at  Cuddalore).  It  was  not  until  the  11th  of  March,  17.'>4,  that  the  peace 
of  Mangalore  was  concluded  on  the  condition  of  a  mutual  restoration  of  conquests. 
In  the  spring  of  1785  Warren  Hastings  returned  to  England.  His  financial 
measures  met  with  the  approbation  of  the  company,  though  not  of  the  public  con- 
science. Under  the  India  bill  passed  by  Pitt  on  the  ISth  of  May,  1784,  which 
subjected  the  control  of  Indian  affairs  to  a  ministerial  board,  he  was  impeached 
before  parliament  in  1787  for  various  breaches  of  justice  and  acts  of  extortion. 
The  trial  ended  in  1795  with  his  acquittal,  after  his  property  had  been  exhausted 
in  legal  expenses.  However,  after  the  payment  of  his  debts,  the  company  assigned 
to  him  a  yearly  pension  of  £4,000  for  the  relief  of  his  old  age.  He  died  on  the 
22d  of  August,  1818,  honoured  by  the  king  and  restored  to  popular  favour. 

(j?)  Lord  Cornwallis  ;  the  Third  War  against  Mysore.  —  The  governorship  of 
John  MacPherson  was  marked  by  no  event  of  special  importance  (1785-1786) ;  he 
was  relieved  by  Lord  Cornwallis  (1786-1793).  This  governor  had  fought  unsuc- 
cessfully in  the  North  American  war  of  independence  (Vol.  I,  p.  472),  but  was 
reputed  to  be  an  honourable  and  benevolent  gentleman,  and  for  this  reason  was 
entrusted  with  the  task  of  establishing  a  definite  system  of  land  taxation  in  Bengal. 
The  new  governor-general  immediately  arranged  that  the  land  tax  should  be  estab- 
lished for  ten  years  at  a  rate  determined  by  the  previous  receipts.  In  1793  this 
arrangement  was  made  permanent.  Opinions  are  divided  as  to  the  value  of  this 
reform,  which  fixed  the  revenue  of  Bengal  from  ground  taxation  at  three  millions 
of  pounds  sterling.     Local  rights  and  customs  which  could  not  be  left  out  of  con- 


India]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  471 

sideration  in  determining  the  amount  of  taxation  were  highly  complicated,  difficult 
to  understand,  and  widely  divergent  in  different  districts.  Injustice  could,  there- 
fore, hardly  be  avoided.  Generally  speaking,  the  large  landed  proprietor  (Zemindar) 
was  too  leniently,  and  the  peasant  (Ryot)  too  heavily  taxed.  Cornwallis  intro- 
duced changes  which  made  for  progress  ia  other  branches  of  the  administration. 
The  officers  of  the  company  were  placed  on  an  equality  with  those  of  the  military 
forces,  courts  of  crimiual  justice  were  placed  exclusively  under  European  control, 
the  salaries  of  the  higher  administrative  officials  (collectors)  and  of  the  judges  in 
the  provinces  were  raised,  etc. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Lord  Cornwallis  was  not  free  from  embarrassment.  Tippu 
Sahib  (Tipu  Sultan),  the  new  ruler  of  Mysore,  was  a  passionate  and  revengeful 
character,  brave,  cunning,  and  persevering.  In  1787  he  had  sent  an  embassy  to 
Louis  XVI,  and  had  entered  into  relations  with  the  governor  of  Pondicherry  and 
with  the  Afghans,  the  Mohammedan  power  on  the  north.  In  December,  1789,  he 
attacked  the  Raja  of  Travancore,  who  was  in  alliance  with  the  English.  Though 
his  attempt  proved  unsuccessful,  he  was  a  dangerous  neighbour  for  the  English  in 
Madras,  and  Cornwallis  immediately  allied  himself  with  the  Mahrattas  and  the 
Nizam  with  the  object  of  overthrowing  Tippu  and  dividing  his  land  among  the 
allies.  However,  the  war  of  1790  was  carried  on  without  energy.  Lord  Corn- 
wallis then  took  the  lead  of  the  English  army  in  person,  and  in  1791  a  victory  was 
gained  at  Bangalore,  followed  by  a  rapid  advance  upon  the  capital  of  the  enemy. 
Cornwallis,  however,  was  abandoned  by  his  allies  and  was  forced  to  return,  leaving 
his  siege  train  behind.  In  1792  he  brought  up  reinforcements  and  stormed  the  fort 
at  Tippu,  captured  his  person  in  Seringapatam,  and  dictated  conditions  of  peace  to 
him  on  the  24th  of  February.  Tippu  was  obliged  to  pay  a  war  indemnity  of  three 
million  pounds  and  to  cede  half  his  territory,  Malabar  and  Kurg  (Coorg),  to  the 
allies,  who  divided  it  among  themselves. 

(0)  Sir  John  Shore  and  the  Compulsory  "  Suhsidiarij  Alliances."  —  Lord  Corn- 
wallis was  succeeded  by  a  colleague  who  had  taken  the  largest  share  ia  the  work 
of  reforming  the  taxation,  and  who  also  possessed  a  profound  knowledge  of  Indian 
affairs.  Sir  John  Shore  (1793-1798;  Baron  Teignmouth  since  1797).  His  govern- 
ment was  chiefly  remarkable  for  his  introduction  of  the  principle  of  "  subsidiary 
treaties  "  into  the  Indian  policj'  of  the  English.  Upon  similar  devices  to  regulate 
the  doubtful  relations  between  the  company  and  the  States  of  India,  see  below, 
pp.  481  and  488.  The  Nuwab  Asaf  ed-Doula  of  Oudh  (p.  469)  had  died  in  1797, 
and  the  accession  of  his  son,  Wazir  Ali,  was  cordially  accepted  by  the  government 
in  Calcutta.  It  was,  however,  soon  discovered  that  the  youthful  neighbour  was 
not  a  pliable  subject  and  might  possibly  be  added  to  England's  enemies.  Shore 
hastened  to  the  capital  of  Lucknow,  and  discovering  that  Wazir  Ali  was  not  of 
pure  birth,  transported  the  prince  to  British  territory,  and  placed  on  the  throne 
Asafs  brother,  who  seemed  of  a  more  pliant  disposition.  The  price  paid  by  this 
ruler  was  the  cession  of  the  fortress  of  iUlahabad,  the  promise  to  enter  into  polit- 
ical relations  with  no  other  State,  and  to  pay  a  yearly  subsidy  of  £760,000  to 
support  ten  thousand  British  soldiers,  who  were  intended  rather  to  suppress  any 
seditious  movements  on  the  part  of  the  subsidised  ally  than  to  protect  him  against 
his  foes. 


472  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Ichapter  ir 

(</)    TJic  Imperialist  Idea  ami  the  Age  of  great  Territorial  Aequisition  (1799- 

J82S). While  the  English  power  was  thus  rapidly  growing  in  India,  Euroiiean 

politics  had  been  shaken  to  their  foundation.  From  the  ruins  of  the  French 
Kevolution  had  risen  the  gigantic  figure  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  (Vol.  VIII),  a 
power  apparently  aiming  at  world  supremacy.  The  English  had  good  reason  to 
tremble  for  the  safety  of  their  foreign  possessions.  Bonaparte  athanced  ujx)n 
Eg^•pt  to  subject  Mohammedanism  to  his  power  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  691);  Mauritius 
(1715-1810,  French)  and  Bourbon  (1646-1810)  formed  excellent  calling  .stations 
on  the  road  to  India.  French  otticers  and  soldiers,  the  remnants  of  the  age  of 
Dupleix  (p.  460),  were  to  be  found  in  the  different  Hindu  and  Mohammedan 
States  of  India  in  the  service  of  the  native  princes,  whose  armies  they  drilled  upon 
European  models.  Thus  the  troops  of  the  Nizam  had  been  excellently  trained  by 
Bussy  (p.  460),  and  at  a  later  period  by  his  successor,  Joachim  Maria  Raymond. 
In  the  service  of  the  sultan  of  Mysore,  and  in  the  armies  of  the  Mahrattas,  num- 
bers of  Frenchmen  were  to  be  found  in  higher  and  lower  positions  (V.  Pen-on,  de 
Boif^ne,  etc.).  The  more  capable  were  the  troops  entrusted  to  their  leadership, 
the  more  difficult  was  it  for  the  English  to  secure  their  power  in  India  from  the 
attacks  of  the  enemies  which  surrounded  it. 

(a)  Wellesley  ;  the  Death  of  Tippu  ;  the  Second  Mahratta  War.  —  For  such  a 
task  no  more  capable  man  could  have  been  found  than  the  successor  of  Shore, 
Richard  Cowley,  Baron  WeUesley,  Earl  Mornington  (1798-1805),  a  man  "of  the 
stuff  of  which  conquerors  are  made,"  ambitious  and  not  wholly  unselfish,  of  lofty 
and  far-reacliing  projects.  A  warm  friend  of  Pitt,  he  hated  the  French  no  less 
bitterly  than  that  statesman,  and  England's  great  enemy  aroused  in  him  the 
thought  of  world  supremacy.     Thus  he  was  the  first  pioneer  of  British  imperialism. 

His  views  were  largely  helped  by  the  state  of  political  affairs  in  the  native 
governments  of  India.  The  treaty  proposed  to  the  Nizftm  of  Haidarabad,  providing 
that  instead  of  French  he  should  maintain  English  troops,  and  should  enter  ijito 
an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance,  was  accepted,  after  some  hesitation,  on  the 
1st  of  September,  1798.  In  Februarj-,  1799,  Tippu,  Sahib  of  Mysore,  was  requested 
to  break  oft'  all  connection  with  the  French  and  the  Mahrattas,  a  demand  which 
he  met  with  an  emphatic  refusal.  Mornington  reinforced  the  English  army  and 
assured  himself  of  the  neutrality  of  the  Peshwa  in  Poouah.  He  then  ordered  his 
troops  to  advance  in  two  divisions  from  Madras  upon  the  enemy's  capital,  one 
dixasion  being  under  the  command  of  General  Stuart  of  Bombay,  the  other  under 
his  brother  Arthur  (the  future  Duke  of  Wellington,  1814).  On  the  4th  and  6th 
of  March  the  sultan  was  defeated,  and  on  the  4th  of  May,  1799,  General  Harris 
took  Seringapatam  by  storm ;  Tii'pu  fell  fighting  bravely  on  the  threshold  of  the 
palace.  The  State  of  Mysore  was  reduced  in  extent  upon  the  north  and  east,  and 
the  confiscated  territory  divided  between  the  allied  Nizam  and  the  presidency  of 
Madras.  The  throne  thus  vacant  was  occupied  by  a  child  of  three  years  old,  the 
grandson  of  the  last  Hindu  ruler  of  the  family  of  Wodeyar,  who  had  been  expelled 
by  Hyder  Ali  (p.  466).  Tiiijui's  son  received  a  yearly  pension,  and  lived  at  first  in 
Vellore  and  afterwards  in  Calcutta. 

The  imperialist  views  of  the  governor-general  were  not  satisfied  by  these  small 
successes.  Between  the  earlier  possessions  on  the  coast  of  the  Carnatic  and  the 
new  acquisitions  in  the  interior  were  situated  two  principalities,  the  acquisition  of 


maia-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  473 

which  was  wanted  to  complete  the  presidency  of  Madras.  The  Enja  of  Tanjore 
was  deposed  without  ceremony  (1799),  and  his  place  was  given  to  a  nominal  ruler, 
who  promised  to  surrender  his  territory  on  receipt  of  one-fifth  of  the  gross  revenue. 
In  the  Carnatic  (Arcot)  the  old  Nuwab,  famous  in  Clive's  first  exploits  (p.  461), 
had  died  in  1795.  His  feeble  successor  was  unable  to  pay  the  large  subsidies 
demanded  by  the  English  for  their  assistance  against  the  Mahrattas  in  Mysore, 
and  was  therefore  obliged  to  abdicate.  The  new  ruler  was  forced  to  agree  to 
a  convention  in  ISOl  which  left  the  English  in  possession  of  the  whole  of  the 
administration,  military  and  civil. 

The  governor-general  had  meanwhile  received  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Wellesley 
for  his  services  in  the  war  with  Mysore ;  he  now  found  a  heavier  task  before  him 
in  the  north  of  India.  Shah  'Alam  had  returned  to  Delhi  from  Allahabad,  but  l\ad 
been  blinded  by  a  Rohilla  rebel.  The  few  square  miles  which  he  possessed  around 
the  ancient  palace  buildings  of  his  ancestor,  Shah  Jehan,  were  in  themselves  of 
far  less  importance  than  his  hereditary  dignity  of  Grand  ilogul,  his  possession  of 
which  was  recognised  or  tolerated  throughout  India  by  the  various  claimants  for 
supremacy,  according  as  these  were  weak  or  strong.  The  Mahratta  confederacy 
offered  a  much  stronger  opposition  to  the  aims  of  Wellesley.  In  this  case  also  the 
position  of  the  Peshwa  as  commander-in-chief  (p.  448)  had  long  since  disappeared. 
Individual  princes  were  careful  not  to  dissolve  the  confederacy,  but  did  their  best 
to  obtain  the  utmost  possible  independence  for  themselves,  while  the  stronger 
among  them  made  continual  efforts  by  treachery  or  force  to  secure  a  dominant 
position  at  the  expense  of  the  Peshwa.  The  overthrow  of  this  system  must  neces- 
sarily begin  with  the  destruction  of  the  Peshwa. 

After  the  death  of  Tukai  Holkar  in  1797  in  the  Mahratta  State  of  Indore 
(Holkar  dynasty,  p.  449),  a  dispute  concerning  the  succession  had  broken  out 
between  his  two  legitimate  and  one  natural  son,  Jaswant  Rao.  Notwithstanding 
the  hostility  of  his  neighbour,  Doulet  Eao  Sindia  (at  Gwalior  since  1794),  the  last- 
named  held  the  upper  hand.  His  troops  marched  upon  Poonah  to  secure  the 
co-operation  of  the  Peshwa  by  force.  Wellesley  now  had  an  opportunity  of  pro- 
posing an  offensive  alliance  to  the  weak  Mahratta  chief,  and  had  already  reinforced 
his  troops  against  the  company's  desires  in  view  of  these  approaching  complica- 
tions (1801).  The  Peshwa,  however,  shuffled  and  prevaricated.  In  the  following 
year  Wellesley  repeated  his  proposals,  but  was  unable  to  gain  a  hearing;  the 
Peshwa  preferred  to  trust  himself  to  Sindia  than  to  the  English.  "When,  however, 
his  army  was  utterly  defeated  at  Poonah  by  the  bold  Jaswant,  the  Peshwa  in 
terror  took  refuge  within  the  English  lines  at  Bombay.  Proposals  were  again 
offered  to  send  British  troops  into  his  territory,  for  whose  maintenance  he  should 
cede  a  district  of  some  size.  The  Peshwa  still  hesitated.  Two  English  armies 
were,  however,  approaching,  and  Wellesley  threatened  to  raise  his  demands.  The 
hard-pressed  ruler  therefore  signed  the  Convention  of  Bassein  on  the  31st  of 
December,  1802,  in  which  the  British  were  associated  with  him  in  a  "defensive 
alliance "  which  implied  the  renunciation  of  all  political  independence  on  the  part 
of  the  Peshwa. 

The  conclusion  of  this  convention  naturally  aroused  all  the  Mahratta  princes 
to  the  highest  point  of  excitement,  especially  Doulet  Eao  Sindia,  who  had  acquired 
the  greatest  influence  over  the  Peshwa.  As  things  were, "  the  turban  had  been 
taken  from  his  head."     Wellesley  left  him  little  time  for  action.     The  English 


474  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         la.nj.ter  iv 

truops  ailvanced  by  forced  marches  and  occupied  Pooiiah  in  May,  1S03.  A  similar 
offer  of  defensive  alliance  was  now  made  to  Siudia  and  Ilagliuji  Bhonsla  of  Berar, 
and  was  in  both  eases  refused.  The  English  civil  officials  about  Sindia's  peraon 
were  now  witlidrawn,  and  his  adherents  and  his  army  were  bribed  to  treachery. 
At  the  same  time  two  Englisli  armies  advanced  against  the  two  Mahratta  princes, — 
one  into  Hiudostan,  under  the  leaderehip  of  the  Indian  commander-in-chief,  (fCrard, 
General  Lake ;  the  other  into  the  Mahratta  States,  under  Major-General  Arthur 
Wellesley.  Ahmadnagar  was  captured  by  the  latter.  A  special  division  under 
Colonel  Murray  stormed  Darotsh  (l>roach)  on  tlie  lower  Narbada.  On  the  2'M  of 
September,  1803,  Siudia  himself  met  with  a  severe  defeat  at  Assaye  (Berar).  A 
force  now  advanced  upon  liaghuji  Bhonsla  of  Berar.  Kattak  in  Orissa  was  occu- 
pied, the  fortress  of  Burhanpur  was  captured,  as  also  was  Asir,  though  reputed 
impregnable,  and  ultimately  Bhonsla  was  himself  totally  defeated  by  Wellesley  at 
Argaon.  After  several  further  disasters  he  sued  for  peace  at  the  end  of  1803.  In 
the  compact  of  Argaon  on  the  17th  of  December  he  was  obliged  to  renounce  his 
right  to  the  Mahratta  tribute,  to  cede  Orissa  to  the  British,  and  Northern  Berar  to 
the  Nizam. 

Sindia,  however,  hesitated  to  conclude  peace,  hoping  that  affairs  in  the  north 
would  take  a  more  favourable  turn.  On  the  14th  of  September,  Lake  had  stormed 
the  Mahratta  fortress  of  Aligarh  (Alighur)  which  had  been  reinforced  by  the 
Frenchman  Perron  (p.  472) ;  on  the  11th  of  September  the  troops  of  Sindia  under 
his  second  military  adviser,  de  Boigne,  had  been  defeated  before  Delhi,  and  the 
blind  Shah  'A lam  had  been  definitely  freed  from  his  dependency  upon  the  Mah- 
rattas.  The  P^uglish  provided  a  monthly  subsidy  of  ninety  thousand  rupees  and  the 
revenues  of  the  old  capital  with  its  immediate  surroundings  for  the  support  of 
the  Mogul ;  however,  they  themselves  had  seized  the  whole  of  the  Duab  between 
the  Jumna  and  Ganges.  From  Delhi,  Lake  marched  to  Agra  and  obliged  a  Mah- 
ratta garrison  to  surrender  on  the  17th  of  October,  1803.  On  the  1st  of  November 
the  last  Southern  army  of  Sindia,  under  Ambaji,  was  finally  defeated  at  Laswari. 
Sindia  now  consented  to  the  treaty  of  Surgi  Arjangaon,  in  which  he  resigned  all 
claims  to  Hindostan  and  promised  to  take  into  his  service  no  Europeans  whose 
native  countries  might  be  in  a  .state  of  war  with  England. 

Hitherto  Jaswant  Rao  Holkar  liad  maintained  an  attitude  of  neutrality. 
Wellesley,  however,  demanded  that  he  sliould  renounce  his  right  to  the  Maliratta 
tax,  as  not  being  the  lawful  governor  of  Indore.  Holkar  declined  to  agree,  and  a 
year  of  bitter  struggle  followed,  in  which  the  British  suffered  severe  losses.  General 
Monson,  having  pursued  a  retreating  army  too  hotly  into  Central  India,  was  cut 
off  from  his  base,  and  threw  away  live  battalions  of  sepoys ;  Lake  Iiimself  fared 
little  better  at  the  siege  of  Bhartpur ;  Jaswant  secured  favourable  conditions  on 
the  10th  of  April,  1805.  After  a  resumption  of  hostilities  against  the  English, 
Holkar  was  forced  definitely  to  submit;  in  the  treaty  of  Amritsar  (December, 
1805)  the  town  and  district  of  Gwalior  were  left  in  his  possession,  but  the  Cham- 
bal  Eiver  was  fixed  as  the  boundarj'  (d  his  territories. 

(^3)  Sir  George  Barlow.  —  Richard  Wellesley  was  in  advance  of  his  times. 
Even  minds  like  Pitt,  David  Dundas,  Canning,  and  Arthur  Wellesley  could  not 
observe  with  equanimity  the  growth  of  the  British  power  with  such  rapid  strides ; 
at  the  same  time  the  general  political  conscience  had  not  been  sufficiently  developed 


India 


.<■]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  475 


to  see  no  harm  in  the  constraint  laid  upon  foreign  princes.  The  dangers  that 
might  be  expected  to  arise  from  these  actions  were  also  a  cause  for  apprehension. 
The  peddling  spirit  of  the  company  during  this  period  of  military  action  was 
occupied  solely  with  the  two  facts  of  heavy  expenditure  and  diminishing  income. 
Criticised  on  more  grounds  than  one,  Wellesley  was  thus  recalled  by  the  British 
government.  In  1805  Lord  Cornwallis  was  again  sent  out  to  India  as  governor- 
general  with  orders  to  keep  the  peace  at  all  costs. 

Ten  weeks  after  his  arrival  he  died  (the  5th  of  October)  and  his  place  was 
taken  by  a  civilian,  Sir  George  Barlow,  who,  from  1805  to  1807,  conducted  the 
course  of  affairs  and  attempted  to  complete  his  appointed  task  of  restoring  peace. 
Even  then,  however,  the  war  with  the  Mahrattas  had  not  been  definitely  ended, 
but  Lord  Lake  (died  February  21,  1808,  as  viscount  and  governor  of  Plymouth) 
was  forbidden  to  undertake  any  further  operations.  The  Mahratta  princes  were 
conciliated  by  a  policy  of  concession  ;  negotiations  with  Sindia  reached  their  con- 
clusion and  Holkar  (see  p.  473)  secured  a  peace  by  no  means  disadvantageous  to 
himself.  Both  were  left  free  to  act  against  the  Eajputs  who  were  friendly  to  the 
English,  and  these  powers  were  soon  involved  in  mutual  quarrels  without  English 
interference.  The  government  having  thus  declared  its  weakness,  the  Moham- 
medan troops  stationed  at  Vellore  were  easily  induced  by  the  sons  of  Tippu  to 
revolt ;  on  the  10th  of  July,  1806,  a  dangerous  revolt  broke  out,  which  was  only 
suppressed  at  the  cost  of  considerable  bloodshed.  Barlow  was  shortly  after  re- 
moved in  consequence  and  given  the  post  of  governor  in  Madras. 

(7)  Lord  Minto  ;  the  Opening  of  Political  Relations  with  non- Indian  States.  — 
Barlow's  place  was  taken  by  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot,  Baron  Minto,  a  more  vigorous  and 
energetic  ruler,  who  held  his  post  from  1807  to  1813.  His  immediate  task  was 
the  solution  of  small  difficulties  with  robber  hordes  and  unimportant  princes,  which 
was  easily  performed.  French  influence  had  raised  greater  fears.  With  Portu- 
guese permission  Minto  occupied  Goa  and  the  Danish  colonies  (Tranquebar),  and 
further  proceeded  to  seize  the  French  Asiatic  Islands  in  order  to  place  the  maritime 
route  to  India  in  English  hands.  A  welcome  pretext  to  interference  was  provided 
by  the  growth  of  piracy  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  Bourbon  (Reunion)  was  easily  cap- 
tured on  the  8th  of  July,  1810,  as  also  was  Mauritius  (Isle  de  France)  after  a 
harder  struggle,  the  latter  remaining  in  English  hands,  while  the  former  island 
was  given  back  to  France  on  the  2d  of  April,  1815,  after  the  first  Peace  of  Paris 
of  1814  had  restored  Minto's  other  conquests  to  their  former  owners.  He  then 
proceeded  against  the  islands  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  which  the  French  had 
taken  from  the  Dutch ;  a  small  English  expedition  seized  Amboina,  Celebes,  and 
Ceylon  in  1810,  while  a  larger  force,  accompanied  by  the  governor-general  in 
person,  occupied  Java  in  1811,  which  Napoleon  had  strengthened  with  reinforce- 
ments of  French  troops;  in  1812  the  Dutch  colonies  in  Sumatra  and  Borneo 
suffered  the  same  fate. 

The  fear  of  a  possible  French  invasion  also  led  to  the  opening  of  political  rela- 
tions with  non-Indian  States ;  Lord  Minto  sent  ambassadors  to  his  neighbours  on 
the  northwest.  Of  these  the  most  successful  was  Sir  Charles  Metcalfe,  whose 
calm  bearing,  supported  by  the  approach  of  British  troops,  brought  abnut  the  con- 
clusion of  a  convention  with  Eanjit  Singh,  the  prince  of  the  Sikhs  (p.  445)  on  the 
25th  of  August,  1809  ;  it  was  arranged  that  the  treaty  should  remain  in  force  for 


470  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  [c/<aj,trr  / 1 

thirty  years  to  the  mutual  advantage  of  the  conlraelmK  parlies  aud  to  that  of  the 
Kajput  Stales.  On  the  otlier  hand,  Mouutstuart  Elphinstone  secured  little  by  the 
treaty  which  he  concluded  at  Cabul  ou  the  17th  of  June,  1809  ;  the  compact  with 
the  Prince  of  Siudh  at  Haidarabad  ou  the  23d  of  August,  1809,  led  to  no  great 
result.  Equally  unsuccessful  was  Colonel  John  Malcolm  at  the  court  of  Fath'Ali 
of  Persia,  where  he  was  anticipated  by  General  Matthieu  Claude  de  Gardane,  who 
had  been  sent  out  by  Napoleon  I  in  February,  1807  ;  however,  the  development 
of  affairs  in  Europe  speedily  ended  the  prospect  of  a  Franco-Eussian  alliance  with 
Persia;  Gardane  left  the  country  on  the  16th  of  February,  1809;  aud  in  1814 
England  secured  the  conclusion  of  a  convention  with  the  shah. 

ilinto's  predecessor,  Barlow,  had  been  forced  while  general  governor  to  sup- 
press a  bloody  revolt  of  the  troops ;  a  similar  aud  far  more  dangerous  movement 
broke  out  uuder  his  governorship  in  Madras.  Quarrels  between  him  aud  his 
superior  officers  resulted  in  a  general  mutiny  of  the  staff  against  his  presidency 
which  extended  to  Mysore  aud  Haidarabad.  More  than  a  thousand  officers  were 
in  open  revolt,  but  Lord  Minto  by  the  exercise  of  cousiderable  tact  was  able  to 
recall  the  mutineers  to  their  duty.  Barlow,  however,  was  deprived  of  his  office  as 
governor  of  Madras. 

(8)  Lord  Moira  {Hastings) ;  the  War  with  the  Ghurkas,  Pindaris,  and  Mah- 
rattas.  —  Lord  Alinto's  policy  had  been  directed  almost  exclusively  against  Eng- 
land's hereditary  enemy ;  in  accordance  with  his  iustructions  he  had  attempted 
no  interference  in  the  affairs  of  India  itself.  Francis  Rawdon,  T^ord  Moira  (1813- 
1823)  was  the  tirst  to  re-enter  the  path  which  WeUesley  had  opened  and  to 
bring  the  imperialist  policy  which  he  had  begun  to  a  definite  conclusion.  He  was 
a  statesman  of  high  capacity  and  excellent  training,  of  lofty  aud  benevolent  ideas, 
with  clear  foresight,  and  enthusiastically  determined  to  make  England  the  para- 
mount powef  in  India. 

The  storm  which  was  to  definitely  subjugate  the  yet  independent  parts  of  India 
to  England  under  his  government  rose  in  a  quarter  where  it  had  been  least  ex- 
pected, in  Nepal.  This  long  stretch  of  territory  ou  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Himalayas  (see  the  map,  p.  430)  had  been  inhabited  from  the  remotest  ages 
of  antiquity  by  a  mixed  race  of  Dra vidians,  Mongolians,  and  Aryans;  the  brave 
Gurkhrili  or  Ghurkas  situated  in  the  western  ]uirt  of  Nepal  could  not  deny  their 
mixed  origin,  though  they  also  claimed  to  be  descended  from  immigrant  Kajputs. 
Their  energetic  rulers,  Prithwi  Narayan  (1771)  and  Efija  Bahadur  Sahi  (1775-1806) 
had  made  them  the  dominant  power  in  Nepal,  and  they  now  required  space  for 
expansion ;  ou  the  west  their  i)ath  was  barred  by  the  mountain  ranges  and  the 
powerful  States  of  the  Sikhs ;  they  therefore  advanced  southward,  following  the 
path  of  the  river,  and  attempted  to  make  the  Gauges  their  frontier.  War  couse- 
quently  broke  out  in  1814.  Lord  Moira  sent  out  two  divisions,  wliich  were  to 
meet  at  Khatmandu,  the  western  under  Major-Geueral  Sir  Eobert  EoUo  Gillespie, 
the  eastern  under  Major-General  Sir  David  Ochterlony.  The  western  army  tirst 
came  into  action  before  Fort  Kalanga,  and  was  defeated  by  the  Ghurkas  with  their 
short  knives,  Gillespie  being  slain ;  from  that  jioint  disaster  repeatedly  overwhelmed 
the  troops,  which  were  led  by  officers  who  were  either  reckless,  careless,  or  cowardly. 
The  advance  guard  of  Ochterlony's  army  was  taken  prisoner  with  its  imprudent 
leader.     Tiien,  however,   fortune   changed.     The   Ghurkhas,    numbering    twelve 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD  477 


thousand  only  could  not  hold  out  for  an  indefinite  time  against  the  superior  num- 
bers of  the  English,  their  better  armament  and  superior  military  science ;  one  after 
another  their  fortresses  fell,  and  most  of  them  were  forced  to  surrender  hi  Ma}-, 
1815.  Peace,  however,  was  not  concluded  until  the  3d  and  4th  of  March,  1816, 
in  Segauli.  The  British  thereby  acquired  Kauiaon,  a  belt  of  land  on  the  southern 
frontier  of  Nepal,  where  are  now  situated  the  health  resorts  in  the  Ganges  terri- 
tory for  the  recuperation  of  European  officials  (Simla,  Dagoshan,  Eanikhat,  Naini 
Tal,  etc.).  The  Mahratta  princes  whom  Wellesley  had  reduced  were  inspired  with 
malicious  joy  and  increased  hopes  when  they  saw  a  handful  of  bold  native  war- 
riors inflict  heavy  losses  upon  the  English,  and  tarnish  the  halo  of  victory  which 
had  surroimded  them  since  the  time  of  Clive.  Gloomy  and  portentous  rei)()rts 
passed  from  the  residency  to  the  courts  of  the  princes  in  defensive  alliance  with 
the  company.  Moreover,  robber  bands  from  the  armies  of  the  shattered  IMogul 
kingdom  had  made  their  appearance,  and  had  united  into  a  powerful  force  under 
the  leadership  of  dismissed  officers.  These  Pindari,  living  like  gipsies  in  the 
jungles,  appeared  from  time  to  time  to  carry  tire  and  murder,  plunder  and  rapine 
throughout  the  prosperous  districts.  The  Mahratta  princes  recognised  their  exist- 
ence in  so  far  as  they  exacted  tribute  from  the  robbers  infesting  their  own  country. 
Thus  the  bands  of  Amir  Khan  became  a  regular  institution  in  tlie  state  of  Holkar, 
while  the  Pindari  of  the  robber  chieftains  Karim  Khan,  Dost  Mohammed,  Chitu, 
and  others  devastated  the  territories  of  Sindia,  and  paid  tribute  to  the  ruler  for  the 
privilege.  They  now  turned  their  greedy  gaze  upon  English  territory.  The  gov- 
ernment in  London  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  representations  of  the  governor-general. 
It  was  not  until  the  Pindari  had  made  an  incursion  mto  the  British  Carnatic  and 
inflicted  damage  to  the  extent  of  several  thousand  rupees  that  the  more  energetic 
George  Canning  came  into  office  as  president  of  the  India  Board  of  Control  (p.  470) ; 
and  after  the  Ghurka  war  had  been  brought  to  a  prosperous  conclusion,  the  gover- 
nor-general, who  had  been  created  Marquis  of  Hastings,  obtained  permission  to  act 
vigorously. 

With  considerable  prudence  Hastings  had  already  prepared  two  armies,  the 
numbers  of  which  (120,000)  were  far  superior  to  the  scantier  hordes  (23,000) 
of  the  Pindari ;  he  contemplated  a  severer  task,  and  intended  to  overthrow  the 
sovereignty  of  all  Indian  princes  once  and  forever.  In  his  proclamation  Hastings 
claimed  general  paramount  power  for  England  for  the  first  time;  lawlessness 
was  to  cease,  and  peace  to  be  restored  "  under  the  protection  and  supreme  power 
of  the  English  government."  Notwithstanding  the  Convention  of  Bassem  Cp.  473), 
the  Peshwa,  Baji  Eao  II,  continued  to  lay  claim  to  the  leadership  of  the  Mah- 
rattas,  and  maintained  a  body  of  troops,  a  proceeding  now  contrary  to  rule. 
However,  the  watchfulness  and  the  firm  behaviour  of  the  resident  at  his  court, 
Mountstuart  Elphinstone,  forced  him  to  sign  a  new  convention  in  June,  1817; 
in  this  he  recognised  his  position  as  dependent  on  the  company  for  the  future, 
renounced  all  political  alliances,  and  gave  up  a  piece  of  land,  the  revenue  of  which 
to  the  extent  of  two  million  five  hundred  thousand  rupees  was  to  maintam  a  body 
of  English  troops  for  his  protection.  It  was  an  easier  task  to  secure  the  promise  of 
Sindia  to  observe  neutrality,  and  the  consent  of  Appa  Sahib  (Mudhaji  II)  of  Berar 
to  a  subsidiary  alliance. 

In  July,  1817,  the  two  great  armies,  led  by  the  governor-general  in  person,  set 
out  from  north  and  south  against  the  robber  bands,  with  such  cu-cumspection  that 


478  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD         [(7<«y,<,,- yr 

thev  wei-e  etiually  ablo,  iu  case  of  need,  lo  turn  ujion  a  revdlled  Mahratta  prince. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  Pesliwa  speedily  regtctted  the  compact  that  had  l>een 
forced  upon  him,  burnt  the  residency  and  made  a  furious  but  futile  attaci<  upon 
the  sepoys  of  the  resident  The  British  troops  soon  appeared,  occupied  I'oonah, 
and  drove  out  the  I'eshwa,  who  at  once  tied  to  Mudhaji  11  of  Berar  and  induced  him 
to  attack  Jenkins,  the  resident  at  his  court,  iu  like"  manner.  The  attempt  i)roved 
no  less  unfortunate,  and  the  attack  ended  with  the  imprisonment  of  Mudliaji. 
Sindia,  whose  behaviour  was  equally  suspicious,  was  so  closely  blockaded  in  his 
capital  of  Itwalior  by  the  Eiiglisli  troops  that  lie  was  imable  to  begin  any  aggres- 
sive movement;  in  1S27  he  died  and  left  tlie  regulation  of  the  succession  to  the 
British  resident.  Ultimately  the  I'eshwa  abandoned  Holkar  after  his  troops  liad 
been  beaten  by  General  Sir  Thomas  Hislop  at  Mahidpur.  The  Peshwa  with  llie 
remnant  of  his  troops  suftered  a  last  reverse  at  Ashia,  not  far  from  Satara  ;  lie  him- 
self escaped,  but  after  a  period  of  tliglit  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  At  a 
later  period  Nagpur,  the  capital  of  Mudhaji  who  had  escaped  the  English,  was  cap- 
tured and  his  troops  defeated  at  Simajar  ;  fortress  after  fortress  was  stormed,  the 
stronghold  of  AsLughar  being  the  last;  the  e.xiled  prince  ultimately  took  refuge  in 
the  Punjab  with  the  Rajput  prince  of  Jodhpur,  where  he  ultimately  died. 

Thus  in  the  year  1818  the  three  Mahratta  princes  who  took  part  in  the  war 
against  the  English  were  aU  reduced.  The  possessions  of  the  Peshwa  (Poouah) 
were  chiefly  incorporated  iu  the  presidency  of  Bombaj- ;  a  small  district  was  made 
a  principality,  and  a  forgotten  descendant  of  Sivaji  (p.  440),  was  installed  as  ruler, 
while  the  deposed  ruler  of  Poonah  was  coiiHned  to  Bittur  near  Cawnpore,  with  a 
yearly  income  of  eight  hundred  thousand  rujiees.  As  rulers  of  IiuUne  (Holkar 
dynasty)  and  Nagpur  (Bhonsla  dynasty),  children  were  appointed,  with  a  British 
regent  during  their  minority. 

During  the  course  of  this  struggle,  the  other  task  of  destroying  the  Pindari  was 
accomplished ;  it  was  an  unceasing  chase  of  an  animal  to  be  hunted  to  death. 
Bands  of  robbers  were  wiped  out  of  existence ;  some  of  the  leaders  escaped  into 
concealment  (e.  g.  Chitu,  who  was  devoured  by  a  tiger).  Those  who  escaped  the 
persecution  settled  down  as  peaceful  peasants;  the  happiest  fate  was  that  of  Amir 
Khan,  who  made  a  timely  surrender  an '  -eceived  a  part  of  the  land  taken  from 
Holkar  as  a  vassal  of  England. 

(e)  Lord  Amherst  and  the  First  War  with  Burmah.  —  By  the  prosperous 
conclusion  of  the  last  Mahratta  war  the  boundaries  of  the  British  rule  had 
been  completed  and  determined  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century.  During 
this  period  no  military  disturbances  of  any  importance  took  i>lace  in  Central 
India,  although  the  storm  continued  to  mutter  in  small  revolts  for  many 
years  afterwards.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rule  of  the  next  governor.  Lord  Amherst 
(August,  1823-1828)  was  occupied  by  a  great  war  with  Burmah.  In  Assam,  which 
Shembuan  (p.  522 )  liad  incorporated  with  P.urniah,  dissensions  had  long  existed 
concerning  the  delimitation  of  the  extensive  frontier,  and  the  imposition  of  custom 
duties.  Eventually  (the  new  governor-general  had  not  been  two  months  in  office) 
a  sepf)y  outpost  was  destroyed  by  the  Burmese,  and  Lord  Amherst's  request  for 
indemnity  was  answered  by  a  fresh  incursion  of  the  Burmese  into  the  Island  of 
Shapuri  before  the  eastern  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  and  the  capture  of  two  British 
officers.  War  thus  ])ecame  inevitable,  though  the  conduct  of  operations  was  care- 
less, slack,  and  improvident.  ^ 


Indi> 


.^J  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  479 


Divisions  were  sent  out  from  Bengal  and  Madras ;  these  effected  a  junction  on 
the  Andaman  Islands  (see  the  map,  p.  539;.  The  troops,  under  Archibald 
Campbell,  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Irawaddi  and  occupied  Kangoon  on  May  11, 
1824;  this  town,  though  only  seventy  years  of  age,  had  already  risen  to  be  the 
second  most  important  city  in  Burmah.  However,  as  it  happened,  the  southwest 
monsoon  had  begun,  and  the  whole  country  was  transformed  into  a  malarial 
swamp,  in  which  movement  was  impossible  ;  the  Irawaddi  was  also  so  swollen  as 
to  be  uiinavigable ;  the  soldiers  died  by  thousands  of  malaria  (forty-five  per  cent  of 
the  whole  number  perished  without  ever  having  seen  an  enemy).  It  was  not  until 
December  that  the  most  capable  of  the  Burmese  generals,  Bandula,  appeared  before 
Eangoon  and  blockaded  the  town;  the  troops  there  stationed  had  improved  in 
health,  and  had  been  strengthened  by  reinforcements;  after  a  siege  of  several 
weeks  the  Burmese  forces  were  driven  back  from  Rangoon.  The  British,  however, 
abandoned  the  plan  of  advancing  by  the  river  in  ships,  and  proposed  to  send  out 
two  new  expeditions  from  Assam  and  from  Chittagong  and  to  advance  through  the 
enemy's  country  upon  his  capital.  The  lirst  division  spent  three  months  wandering 
in  the  forests  of  the  fi-ontier,  and  failing  to  discover  the  enemy  returned  home. 
The  second  division,  even  before  its  despatch  in  October,  1824,  had  been  disturbed 
by  the  mutiny  of  a  native  Bengal  regiment  which  was  excited  by  the  obvious  lack 
of  preparations.  The  mutineers  were  shot  or  cut  down.  The  expedition  then  marched 
by  land  to  Chittagong,  reached  Arakan,  and  captured  the  chief  town  of  the  province, 
but  was  then  decimated  by  malaria.  In  February,  1825,  the  military  authori- 
ties determined  to  send  another  army  up  the  Irawaddi  under  Campbell.  The  brave 
Bandula  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball  at  Douabew ;  his  troops  were  thrown  into 
confusion  and  put  to  flight  at  Prome  during  the  first  three  days  of  December; 
negotiations  were  then  begun  in  Pagan.  These,  after  many  interruptions  resulted 
in  the  peace  of  Yandabo  on  February  24,  1826,  when  the  British  troops  were  only 
a  few  days  march  from  Ava.  King  Phagyi-dau  was  obliged  to  cede  to  the  com- 
pany the  provinces  of  Assam,  Arakan,  and  Tenasserim  (two  valuable  rice-gi'owing 
provinces)  with  a  territory  at  the  mouth  of  the  Salwin  (where  Moulmein  was 
founded)  ;  the  war  had  cost  the  English  five  thousand  men  (72;}  per  cent  of  the 
forces  employed)  and  one  hundred  and  thirty  millions  of  rupees. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  Nepal  war,  so  also  the  disturbance  of  the  Burmese  war 
sent  its  last  waves  deep  into  the  heart  of  India.  With  the  exception  of  the  earlier 
British  possessions  in  Bengal  and  Madras,  the  country  was  in  a  state  of  ferment ; 
robber  bands  appeared  in  many  places,  petty  princes  constantly  showed  hostile 
tendencies,  while  others  broke  into  open  revolt  and  were  suppressed  hy  force  of 
arms.  The  unsuccessful  siege  of  the  capital  of  Bhartpur  by  Lake  (1805  ;  cf.  p.  474) 
had  spread  the  conviction  of  its  impregnable  power  far  beyond  the  boiuidaries  of 
its  petty  State,  and  it  became  urgently  necessary  for  the  English  to  destroy  this 
idea.  The  raja  who  died  in  1825  had  left  a  son  who  was  a  minor ;  Durjan  Sal, 
the  brother  of  the  deceased  ruler,  seized  the  regency  on  behalf  of  his  nephew  ;  the 
English  then  accused  him  of  trjing  to  supplant  the  lawful  heir  and  imited  him  to 
abandon  the  country  in  return  for  an  indemnity.  Upon  his  refusal,  the  fortress 
was  vigorously  attacked  and  stormed  after  a  siege  of  live  weeks  by  Lord  Comber- 
mere  (1826) ;  Durjan  Sal  was  captured  in  flight  and  confined  in  British  territories 
as  a  State  prisoner. 


480  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [r,u,j^terir 

(<•)  lord  William  Bentimk  (^JS.'S-lS-io}. —  During;  the  period  hetween  tlie 
last  Mahratta  aud  the  first  Sikh  war,  that  is,  the  period  between  the  year  IS  18  and 
1845,  those  parts  of  India  subject  to  English  government  enjoyed  upon  the  wlude 
the  blessings  of  peace.  This  advantage  was  entirely  due  to  the  statesmanlike 
adininisiration  of  William  Henry  Cavendish,  Lord  Bentinck  (1828-1835),  who  had 
largely  developed  the  excellent  foundations  laid  by  Lord  Hastings  in  Central 
India.  Comprehensive  improvements  had  been  brought  about  in  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  (the  installation  of  petty  courts  composed  of  natives  for  cases  of 
minor  importance,  the  beginning  of  a  general  criminal  code,  etc.).  Indians  were 
admitted  in  larger  numbers  to  judicial  aud  administrative  pt)sts,  and  their  reliability 
was  increased  by  a  higher  scale  of  salary  ;  special  official  schools  (in  Agra)  were  set 
up  to  train  natives  for  official  posts,  and  English  was  made  the  official  language. 
The  taxation  of  the  new  provinces  was  also  placed  upon  a  better  footing,  aud 
greater  consideration  was  given  to  the  old  rights  of  territorial  proprietors;  the 
several  villages  were  surveyed  and  ordnance  niajis  made,  cultivation  was  improved 
by  European  instruction,  etc.  Notwithstanding  expensive  wars,  Hastings  had 
raised  the  annual  profits  of  the  company  to  £3,500,000,  while  under  his  predecessor, 
Jlinto,  they  had  amounted  to  £2,000,000.  Lender  the  somewhat  careless  adminis- 
tration of  business  under  Lord  Amherst  considerable  deficits  had  appeared,  but 
under  Bentinck's  carefully  calculated  regulations  (reduction  of  interest  on  govern- 
ment bonds,  etc.),  the  profits  soon  recovered  tliemselves.  In  short,  the  period 
when  the  maritime  European  States  had  gained  fabulous  profits  by  Indian  trade 
(1600-1800)  was  passed  for  ever;  the  prosaic  business-like  methods  of  the  English 
had  destroyed  the  fairy -like  splendour  of  the  Great  Mogul  court  as  depicted  to 
European  imagination,  and  imix)ssible  expectations  were  no  longer  raised  by  the 
much  read  travels  of  Olfert  Dappert  aud  his  imitators. 

By  an  act  of  jiarliament  of  August  28,  1833,  the  privileges  of  the  British  East 
India  Company,  so  often  renewed,  were  decisively  reduced.  The  company  became 
and  remained,  until  April  23,  1851,  nothing  but  a  political  body  for  carrying  on 
the  government  of  India  under  the  supervision  of  the  Board  of  Control  (p.  470) ; 
its  existence  as  a  commercial  company  with  a  monopoly  thus  came  to  an  end. 
A  further  pro\'ision  of  this  important  act  created  a  sinking  fund  with  the  object  of 
redeeming  the  company's  shares  at  their  current  value  (two  hundred  per  cent) 
within  forty  years ;  on  the  expiry  of  this  period  parliament  would  have  to  decide 
whether  the  patent  of  the  company  were  to  be  renewed  or  not.  The  second  of  these 
alternatives  was  adopted;  by  the  act  of  May  4,  1854,  the  supervisory  power  of 
the  crown  was  extended,  and  a  judicial  investigation  into  the  company's  affairs  was 
made  possible  at  any  time ;  this  was  the  Ijeginning  of  the  end,  which  came  in  1858 
(cf.  p.  493).  The  taxation  regulations  of  the  act  of  1833  were  abrogated  by  that 
of  July  16,  1842,  and  its  new  regulations  for  British  colonial  trade. 

Two  successes  will  place  Bentinck's  name  forever  among  the  great  benefactors 
of  India :  the  abolition  of  widow  burning  (Sati  or  Suttee,  p.  415),  and  the  suppression 
of  the  Thugs.  Before  his  government  the  only  attempt  at  controlling  the  custom 
introduced  by  the  Brahmans,  had  been  the  regidation  that  no  widow  should  be 
burnt  against  her  will.  The  supervisory  power  implied  by  this  ordinance  led  to 
statistical  calculations  by  which  it  was  proved  tliat  the  pmctice  was  on  the  decline ; 
in  Bengal,  in  1828,  out  of  sixty  million  inhabitants,  only  four  hundred  and  twenty 
cases  of  self-sacrifice  took  place,  whereas  seven  hundred  had  occurred  in  1817. 


ino'a]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  481 

Consequently,  notwithstanding  the  resistance  of  the  Brahmans,  and  the  fears  of 
the  Europeans,  Bentinck  made  a  sudden  end  of  the  custom;  on  December  4,  1829, 
a  decree  was  issued  making  it  an  offence  punishable  with  death  to  be  implicated 
in  the  burning  of  a  widow.  Thus  the  liorrors  of  Bati,  against  wliich  the  great  Akbar 
had  fought  in  vain,  came  to  an  end  iu  India.  The  last  case  of  widow  burning  took 
place  beyond  the  sphere  of  British  influence  in  1877  on  the  death  of  a  ruler  of 
Nepal,  Sir  Jang  Bahadur. 

Bentinck's  second  claim  to  honour  was  the  suppression  of  the  murderous  sect 
'of  the  Thugs.  In  that  district  where  the  PLndari  (p.  477)  had  grown  to  power  in 
Central  India,  there  had  existed  for  several  hundred  years  a  cult  of  the  goddess 
of  destruction,  the  bloody  Kali  (Bhawini ;  p.  412) ;  her  worshippers  had  become  a 
hereditary  sect  or  caste  who  made  a  living  by  the  worship  of  the  goddess,  their 
business  being  the  strangling  and  robbing  of  [non-European]  travellers.  Thuggism 
had  spread  throughout  the  country,  was  under  a  uniform  organisation,  and  had  a 
special  form  of  initiation,  and  a  thieves'  language  of  its  own  (ramasyana) ;  before 
each  attempt,  supplication  was  made  to  Kali  for  success,  and  part  of  the  spoil 
taken  from  the  victim  was  laid  at  her  altar.  The  victim  was  never  killed  by 
bloodshed,  but  always  by  means  of  the  noose  (rumal  or  phansi).  Bentinck  vigor- 
ously strove  to  extirpate  the  Tliugs.  He  was  so  admirably  supported  by  excellent 
officials  such  as  Molony,  Wardlaw,  Borthwick,  and  above  all.  Major  Sleeman,  that 
by  1835  no  less  than  1,526  of  these  pious  murderers  had  been  captured,  and  the 
remainder  were  forced  to  abandon  their  time-honoured  trade  of  murder. 

Upon  two  occasions  only  was  England  obliged  under  Lord  Bentinck  to  interfere 
in  the  affairs  of  individual  S:;ates.  In  Mysore,  a  Hindu  prince  whom  the  English 
had  set  up  and  educated,  had  governed  so  badly  that  a  general  revolt  of  his  subjects 
broke  out  (1831).  The  Maharaja  was  deposed  and  the  government  was  hence- 
forward carried  on  by  a  European  with  three  coadjutors.  At  a  later  period  Kliama 
Eajendra  Wodeyar,  whom  the  deposed  prince  had  adopted  in  1865,  was  recognised 
as  successor  by  the  Enghsh,  instructed  by  them  in  his  new  duties,  and  placed  upon 
the  throne  of  Mysore  on  March  25,  1881.  In  Kurg  (Coorg)  the  three  last  princes, 
and  particularly  Wira-rajendra  Wodeyar,  who  was  a  homicidal  maniac,  had  been 
distinguished  by  their  cruelty.  The  paramount  power  of  India  was  forced  to 
maintain  her  good  name  by  the  despatch  of  troops,  which  occupied  the  capital, 
Merkara,  and  made  the  country  British  territory  at  the  wish  of  the  population 
(1834).  The  prince  was  sent  to  Benares  with  a  good  pension,  and  at  a  later  period 
■went  to  England,  where  he  died  in  186S. 

(/)  A  uchlaad,  Ellenhorowjli,  and  Hardinge  (1836-184S).  —  With  the  governor- 
ship of  Lord  Metcalfe  (1835-1836)  ended  the  period  of  visible  improvement  in 
internal  affairs.  George  Eden,  Baron  Auckland,  a  party  candidate  who  replaced 
Lord  William  Heytesbury,  appeared  in  India  as  general  governor  from  1838  to  1842, 
and  with  his  rule  begins  a  series  of  military  operations  lasting  over  twenty  years. 
His  first  task  was  the  settlement  of  a  succession,  and  in  doing  so  he  found  an 
opportunity  to  reduce  the  rights  of  the  native  ruler.  In  Oudh  the  "  king "  had 
been  poisoned  in  1837,  and  the  mother  of  the  prince  desired  to  set  her  son  upon 
the  throne,  to  which  his  father  had  already  destined  him.  Once  again  the  Calcutta 
government  discovered  that  this  son  was  illegitimate ;  a  distant  relation  was  there- 
fore chosen,  who  was  likely  to  be  more  compliant,  and  to  reign  but  a  short  time  in 

VOL.  II  —  31 


4S2  HISTORY    ()!■     IHK    WORLD         [chapter JV 

■N-iew  of  his  ailvanceil  age.  Howevor,  ihe  liereilitary  piiuce  liad  liimself  crowned, 
and  the  15iitish  resident  ordered  his  trtnips  to  tire  upou  the  people  in  tlie  streets, 
to  storm  the  coronation  hall,  and  to  set  his  own  candidate  upon  the  throne ;  the 
latter  in  return  signed  a  convention  in  Xoveniber,  1837,  giving  the  resident  full 
power  "to  enforce  any  regulation  that  niighi  seem  good  to  him,  as  supplementing 
the  needs  of  the  existing  administration."  Even  in  England  there  was  a  general 
conviction  that  these  needs  were  partly  imagiuarj-,  partly  exaggerated,  and  largely 
due  to  British  interference.  In  London  the  compact  was  not  acknowledged.  Lord 
Auckland,  however,  did  not  inform  the  prince  of  these  facts,  and  he  thencefore 
remained  bound  to  his  convention. 

At  the  end  of  1838,  if  small  differences  are  taken  into  account,  there  were  six 
different  modes  by  which  the  Anglo-Indian  government  was  in  relation  with  the 
native  States.  These  can  be  divided  into  the  following  classes,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  conventions  concluded :  ( 1 )  offensive  and  defensive  alliances,  with  a 
right  to  the  company's  protection  when  domestic  affairs  recpiircd  it  (Oudh,  Mysore, 
Berar,  Travancore,  and  Cochin);  (2)  the  same  as  1,  without  the  right  of  internal 
interference  (Haidarabad,  Gujerat,  and  Baroda);  (3)  as  2,  with  payment  of 
tribute,  and  in  most  cases  the  supply  of  contingents  (the  Eajput  States);  (4)  guar- 
antees of  good  faith  and  a  defensive  alliance  (Sikhs);  (5)  friendly  convention 
(Gwalior);  (6)  a  protectorate  convention,  with  a  more  or  less  complete  supervision 
of  internal  affairs  (Delhi,  Satra,  and  Kholapur). 

(a)  Tlie  Firxt  War  against  Afyhanidan. —  The  most  dangerous  occurrence 
during  Auckland's  government  was  the  struggle  with  Afghanistan.  Following  the 
method  of  his  predecessors,  he  had  hoped  to  acquire  this  coimtry  by  setting  up 
a  ruler  in  dependence  upon  the  English.  A  possible  invasion  on  the  jiart  of  Itussia 
now  became  as  dangerous  a  possibility  as  an  overland  march  by  Napoleon  had  for- 
merly been.  Russia  was  steadily  advancing  southward  in  Asia  (cf.  p.  222).  From 
early  ages  Afghanistan  had  been  divided  into  three  parts,  the  northwestern  part 
(Cabul)  being  imder  the  influence  of  northern  races  (the  Moguls,  etc.),  the  western 
part  (Herat)  was  for  the  most  part  dependent  upon  Persia,  while  the  valley  of  the 
llilment,  with  Kandahar  in  the  soutli,  was  constantly  subject  to  a  change  of 
rulers.  The  Persian  Nadir  Shah  (p.  445)  had  been  followed  in  the  supremacy  of 
Afghanistan  by  the  Durrani  chieftain  Ahmed  Shfdi.  His  grandson,  Shall  Slnija, 
had  been  expelled  by  a  younger  brother  in  1809,  who  was  driven  out  in  1826  by 
Dost  Mohammed  of  the  tribe  of  the  Barakzai ;  the  latter  was  ruler  of  Cabul,  while 
Herat  remained  in  the  power  of  a  Durrani  ]>rince.  The  directors  of  the  company 
were  glad  to  see  Afglianistan,  which  had  often  threatened  India  with  danger  in 
earlier  times,  shattered  and  weakened  by  internal  dissension.  A  further  cause  of 
satisfaction  was  the  rise  of  the  Sikli  kingdom  mider  Ranjit  Singh  (p.  485),  which 
formed  a  barrier  of  defence  between  their  west  frontier  and  the  territory  of  their 
unruly  neighbour.  Soon,  however,  they  were  to  come  into  closer  relations  with 
Afghanistan. 

The  Persians  sent  out  an  army  under  Eussian  officers  to  Herat  and  besieged  the 
capital.  Ranjit  then  started  from  Lahore  and  took  po.ssession  of  Peshawar,  the 
gate  of  entrance  to  Cabul.  Dost  Moliammed  at  once  made  friendly  overtures  to 
the  English,  and  in  September,  1836,  Auckland  sent  a  "commercial  mission  "to 
Cabul  under  Alexander  Burnes.     At  the  same  time  a  Russian  brought  to  Dost 


^«H  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  483 

Mohammed  an  autograph  letter  from  the  Czar.  Dost  Mohammed  thereupon  gave 
the  English  to  understand  that  he  would  break  with  Russia  if  they  would  support 
his  views  concerning  Peshawar ;  Auckland,  however,  returned  a  negative  answer. 
Bumes  was  recalled  and  Dost  naturallj-  turned  to  the  Eussians  (the  spring  of 
1838).  Auckland  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  Maharaja  of  the  Punjab,  with 
the  object  of  restormg  the  former  ruler  of  Cabul,  Shah  Shuja,  and  despatched  the 
British  agent,  Wdliam  Macnaghten,  to  accompany  his  future  rider,  finally  declaring 
war  upon  Dost  Mohammed  on  the  1st  of  October,  1838.  With  the  object  of  spar- 
ing the  allies  in  the  Punjab  the  expense  that  would  be  caused  by  the  passage  of  an 
army  through  their  territory,  the  authorities  occupied  the  country  of  the  SLudhs,  a 
confederation  of  petty  tribes  on  the  Indus,  a  proceeding  contrary  to  the  will  of  the 
population  and  in  defiance  of  earlier  conventions  ;  not  content  with  this,  they  even 
demanded  a  monetary  subsidy  from  the  confederation.  The  advance  was  then 
made  under  the  greatest  difficidties  through  the  Bolan  Pass;  the  columns  were 
constantly  attacked  by  hostile  trilies,  and  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  and  hardships 
of  a  cruel  climate ;  they  suHered  at  the  same  time  from  insufficient  commissariat  and 
ill-organised  transport.  Kandahar  was  reached  at  the  beginning  of  Maj',  1839,  and 
Shah  Shuja  took  solemn  possession  of  his  land.  In  June  the  army  marched  onward 
imder  John  Keane  to  CThazni ;  the  gates  were  blown  up  by  gunpowder  and  the  town 
was  stormed.  Dost  Mohammed  was  ultimately  forced  to  fly  to  the  Uzbegs  beyond 
the  Hindu  Kush,  and  the  new  rider  marched  into  Cabul  with  the  English  army  on 
the  7th  of  August,  1839.  He  was  but  coolly  received  by  the  native  population ; 
when,  however,  he  proceeded  to  organise  a  lifeguard  of  the  wildest  races  for  his 
personal  security,  popular  dislike  found  expression  in  repeated  i-evolts.  At  the 
same  time  the  Beluchis  threatened  the  southera  line  of  retreat  through  the  Bolan 
Pass.  Dost  Mohammed  re-entered  the  country  from  the  north.  After  a  fruitless 
struggle  he  surrendered  voluntarily  to  the  British  and  was  carried  back  to  India  as 
a  State  prisoner. 

The  government  was  by  no  means  satisfied  with  the  conduct  of  the  campaign 
up  to  this  point.  William  George  Keith  Elphinstone  was  sent  out ;  a  brigadier, 
old  and  past  his  prime,  and,  as  he  vainly  represented  to  his  superior,  both  bodily 
and  mentally  unfit  for  his  task.  In  vain  did  far-seeing  officers  utter  warnings  and 
advise  a  retreat.  Macnaghten  considered  it  a  point  of  honour  for  the  troops  to 
stand  by  the  prince  they  had  undertaken  to  protect.  The  expenses  of  the  war 
rapidly  rose  and  economy  became  imperative;  it  was  determined  to  meet  this 
necessity  by  reducing  or  withdrawing  the  sums  that  had  been  promised  to  hostile 
tribes  as  the  price  of  peace ;  the  only  result  was  an  outbreak  of  hostilities  in  every 
quarter.  The  heights  of  the  Khyber  Pass  were  occupied  by  the  rebels,  and  the  line 
of  retreat  through  the  other  passes  was  threatened.  On  the  2d  of  November,  1841, 
Burnes,  who  had  been  appointed  Macnaghten's  successor;  was  niin-dered  in  Cabul. 
Macnaghten  himself  was  also  struck  down  on  the  24th  of  December  during  a  con- 
versation with  Akbar  Khan,  the  son  of  the  exiled  Dost  Mohammed.  The  forts  of 
Cabul,  containing  the  supplies  for  the  army  of  occupation,  fell  into  the  enemy's 
hands,  and  the  position  of  affairs  became  desperate.  On  the  28th  of  December  it 
was  ultimately  determined  to  withdraw  the  garrison  of  Cabul,  consisting  of  four 
thousand  soldiers  and  twelve  thousand  camp-followers,  and  to  abandon  aU  the  cap- 
tured English  officers,  men,  and  women  alike.  Winter  had  now  set  in,  the  roads 
were  covered  with  snow,  provisions  for  men  and  animals  were  lacking,  and  a  cruel 


484  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [rhaj>t,rir 

enemy  surrouuded  the  expedition.  Under  these  circiunstances  tlie  rapidly  dimin- 
ishing column  traversed  the  passes  of  Kurd-Cabul,  and  Jagdalak  in  January,  1842  ; 
at  the  last  halt  at  Gandauiak  only  twenty  officers  and  twenty  soldiers  remained. 
These  ultimately  succumbed,  and  only  Dr.  Brydon  was  left  to  bring  the  tale  of  utter 
destruction  to  Jellalabad,  where  the  garrison  still  held  out  under  (leueral  Itobert 
Sale.  Together  with  this  post  the  garrisons  of  Ghazni  and  Kandahar  under 
William  Nott  alone  maintained  their  ground.  The  orders  of  the  commander-in- 
chief  (who  had  remained  with  Akbar  Khan  as  a  hostage,  but  soon  died  of  the 
gout)  to  surrender  the  fortresses  to  the  Afghans  were  disobeyed  by  the  brave 
troops;  however,  (Jhazni  surrendered  in  March,  1842. 

Meanwhile  important  changes  had  taken  place  iii  India.  In  1839  the  Mahfi- 
rfljah  uf  the  Punjab,  Kaujit  Singh,  had  died,  and  the  country  was  in  a  dangerous 
condition  of  lawlessness  (cf.  below,  p.  485).  In  liritish  India  Auckland,  whose 
lack  of  initiative  was  to  blame  for  the  whole  of  these  misfortunes,  was  removed  in 
October,  1841,  in  favour  of  Lord  Ellenborough  (1842-1844),  a  good-hearted  ruler, 
but  bumptious,  careles.s,  and  lacking  in  firmness.  He  entered  olHce  on  the  21st  of 
February,  1842,  and  was  immediately  confronted  with  the  urgent  necessity  of  reliev- 
ing as  soon  as  possible  the  garrison  ."^hut  up  in  Afghanistan.  General  Sir  George 
Pollock  forced  the  Khyber  Pass  and  at  Jellalabad  was  joined  by  Major-General 
Nott,  who  evacuated  Kandahar  on  the  10th  of  August  at  the  orders  of  Ellen- 
borough.  After  blowing  up  the  fortitications  of  Ghazni  on  the  6th  of  September 
Pollock  advanced  upon  Cabul  (September  16);  however,  he  discovered  that  the 
I'riti.sh  prot^g^,  Shiih  Shuja,  had  been  murdered  on  the  5th  of  April.  His  son  was 
placed  upon  the  throne,  the  prisoners  freed  and  the  whole  market-place  blown  into 
the  air  as  a  reminder  of  the  British  power.  On  the  12th  of  October  the  troops  left 
Cabul,  reached  and  destroyed  Jellalabad  on  the  24th,  and  arrived  at  Peshawar 
without  ditticidty  on  the  6th  of  November,  1842.  The  price  of  the  imdertaking  was 
a  heavy  loss  of  human  life,  pecuniary  expense  to  the  amount  of  X  1,200,000,  and 
a  dangerous  blow  to  the  British  prestige.  Tragedy  was  followed  by  comed}- :  the 
governor-general  made  a  solemn  display  throughout  the  country  of  specially  made 
imitations  of  the  gates  belonging  to  the  tomb  of  Mahnuid  Ghazni,  which  this  ruler 
had  stolen  in  1017  from  the  temple  of  Somudt  (p.  420),  as  "revenge  for  Somnat;" 
he  also  issued  a  boastful  proclamation,  and  a  commemorative  medal  was  struck 
with  the  inscription  "  Fax  Asiw  restituta." 

(;8)  TJie  Disturbances  in  Si7idh  and  Gwalior  ;  the  First  War  with  the  Silhs.  — 
Hardly  had  the  medals  been  issued  when  a  fresli  war  suddeidy  broke  out.  The 
news  of  the  English  disasters  in  Afghanistan  had  brouglit  the  greatest  joy  to  the 
oppressed  Sindh  confederacy,  the  Amirs  of  which  entered  into  secret  negotiations 
with  Lahore.  The  English  threw  masses  of  troops  into  Sindh  under  their  bold 
warrior.  Sir  Charles  James  Napier.  A  convention,  verj'  comprehensive  in  its 
demands,  was  laid  before  the  Amirs,  who  signed  it,  but  the  people  rose  against 
their  leaders.  On  the  17th  of  February  and  the  24th  of  March,  1843,  the  Sindh 
tribes  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  at  Miani,  and  were  forced  to  submit  to 
the  conditions  of  the  con(|ueror;  the  Amirs  were  deposed  and  banished,  the 
country  was  incorporated,  and  Nai)ier  was  appointed  governor.  He  himself  char- 
acterised the  whole  proceeding  as  a  "  piece  of  rascality."  The  director}'  condemned 
the  incorporation  as  too  severe,  expressed  their  dissatisfaction  in  a  decree  (August, 
1843),  and — retained  the  country. 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  485 


MeanwhUe  the  Maharaja  had  died  in  Gwalior  and  had  left  behind  an  adopted 
son  who  was  in  his  minority.  The  English  naturally  desired  another  ruler  during 
the  minority  of  the  successor  than  the  popular  candidate  of  the  time,  uttered 
threats,  and  issued  a  demand  for  tlie  reduction  of  the  native  army.  When  submis- 
sion was  refused  a  war  broke  out;  at  Mahariijpur  and  at  Panniar  the  native  troops 
of  Gwalior  were  utterly  defeated  after  a  brave  resistance,  reduced  to  two-thirds  of 
their  former  number,  and  a  British  division  was  placed  in  the  country  under  English 
officers. 

Even  greater  danger  broke  out  in  the  extreme  northwest  in  the  Sikh  kingdom 
(cf.  p.  445) ;  this  people  had  been  cruelly  persecuted  and  almost  exterminated  by  the 
Persian  king  Nadir  Shah  and  the  Afghan  prince,  Ahmed  Shah  Durrani  (1762, 1763, 
and  1767).  They  were,  however,  highly  tenacious  of  life.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Sikhs  had  again  taken  firm  root  in  the  Eastern  Punjab 
between  the  Beas  and  the  Sutlej.  The  chief  of  the  Shukarcharya  confederacy,  tiie 
often  mentioned  Ranjit  Singli,  had  been  invested  with  the  province  of  Lahore  by 
the  Afghans  in  1798  and  at  tlie  beginning  of  the  next  century  had  almost  made 
himself  independent  during  the  quarrels  about  the  succession  which  broke  out 
between  the  grandsons  of  Ahmed  Durrani.  He  had  transformed  the  loose  federa- 
tion of  the  Sikhs  into  a  strong  monarchical  system,  wliile  the  energies  of  Eurojjean 
officers  had  changed  the  wild  warrior  hordes  into  a  modem  army  (in  this  respect  a 
special  service  was  rendered  by  the  Frenchmen  Jean  Francois  AUard,  Ventura, 
Avitabile,  and  Court).  When,  however,  he  attempted  to  extend  his  power  east- 
ward beyond  the  Sutlej,  he  came  into  contact  with  the  British.  Beaten  in  diplo- 
macy by  the  British  agent,  Charles  Metcalfe,  he  was  forced  on  the  5th  of  April, 
1809,  to  renounce  all  claims  to  the  territory  beyond  the  Sutlej  in  return  for  the 
British  recognition  of  his  sovereignty  in  the  Punjab.  This  convention  he  faith- 
fully observed  until  his  death  (27tli  of  June,  1839) ;  he  extended  his  kingdom 
northward  (Kashmir,  1819)  and  west  (Peshawar,  1829).  Upon  his  death  a  vigorous 
struggle  began  for  the  throne.'  Three  parties  arose  from  the  general  disaster : 
the  chief  Sikh  nobles  (in  particular  Ghulab  Singh  and  Peshora  Singh) ;  Rajputs 
living  in  the  Pxmjab ;  and  the  chiefs  of  the  army,  the  strongest  of  the  three.  Find- 
ing the  compact  of  1809  a  troublesome  burden,  the  Sikh  army,  after  the  British 
misfortunes  in  Afghanistan,  conceived  hopes  of  making  a  successful  attack  upon 
the  British  power. 

Matters  were  in  this  condition  when  EUeuljorough  was  deposed,  the  council 
having  entertained  well-founded  doubts  upon  his  capacity ;  his  place  was  taken  by 
Lieutenant-General  Henry  Hardinge  (1S44-1848),  who  had  distinguished  himself 
against  Napoleon  in  Spain  and  at  Ligny,  and  had  twice  been  mmister  of  war 

>  EUiarat  Singh  (*  about  1725,  t  1773),  part  ruler  of  the  Sikhs 

I ' 1 

MahS  Singh  (»  1764,  1 1792)  Dal  Singh 

=  name  unknown,  of  the  Jind  Clan  (t  1797) 

Ranjtt  Sin^h  (»  2  Nov.  1780,  t  27  June,  1839) 
Names  unknown        1 .  r=  Mehtab  Kanwar  of  the  house  of  the  Ghanni-Sirdar  ; 

I  I       I  2.  —  Raui  Shonda,  queen-regent  1844/45  [favourite,  Lall  Smgh] 


^Sfefl^^*"'  (1.)  Kar(ra)k  Singh  (•  1802,  t  G  Nov.  1840)  (2  )  DhuUp  (Duleep)  Singh  (•  1835), 

=  Rani  Cendkaur,  queen  regent  30  Nov.  1840-20  Jaa  1841         MabSrgja  1!>44   appomted  part  ruler  1846, 
(•1795,  t  end  of  Jan.  1841)  deposed  1849. 

1 ^ 1 

Nou  Nehal  Singh  (•  1821,  t  beginning  Nov.  1840)  Shir  Singh,  MahSrSja  20  Jan.  1841-8ept.  18*3 

Perthab  Singh  (t  Sept.  1843) 


486  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         \_ch„i.t.r  iv 

(1S2S-1S30,  1S41-1S44).  lu  view  of  the  thieaieuiiig  iillitu.ie  of  the  Sikhs  his 
predecessor  ha«l  already  reinforced  the  British  trooj)s  iu  the  northwest.  The  col- 
lision was  not  long  delayed.  The  Sikhs  dismissed  their  European  leaders,  in  full 
consciousness  of  their  own  strength,  and  crossed  the  Sutlej  in  December,  1845, 
sLxtv  thousand  strong  and  well  provided  with  artillery  (one  hundred  and  tifty 
guns) ;  they  surprised  the  Englisli  troojis  at  breakfast  on  the  18th  of  December  at 
Mudki,  but  were  driven  back.  The  attack  of  the  English  at  Ferozshah  on  the  21st 
of  December,  where  Sir  Hugh  Gough  and  Hardinge,  who  had  taken  the  field  in 
person,  failed  to  co-ojierate,  was  a  day  of  heavy  losses  that  ended  witli  the  defeat 
of  the  Sikhs.  On  the  2Sth  of  January,  1846,  they  were  again  defeated  at  Aliwal 
and  entrenched  themselves  on  the  Sutlej  at  Sobraon.  Here,  too,  their  power  was 
broken  on  the  lOtli  of  February;  after  a  vigorous  resistance  they  were  obliged  to 
retire  beyond  the  Sutlej,  with  a  loss  of  eight  thousand  men,  and  the  British  entered 
Lahore.  The  conditions  of  peace  which  had  been  at  first  proposed  were  made  more 
severe  iu  consequence  of  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  defeated  enemy;  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  peace  on  the  9th  of  May,  184(),  Dhulip  Singh,  who  was  ten  years  of  age, 
was  appointed  raja  of  part  of  the  Sikh  territorv' ;  the  Sikh  army  was  limited  to  a 
specified  number  and  a  British  division  was  stationed  in  the  country  at  the  exj^wnse 
of  the  conquered  inhabitants  (amounting  to  two  million,  two  hundred  thousand 
rupees  yearly).  Henceforward,  a  British  resident  remained  definitely  in  Lahore 
(Colonel  Henry  Lawrence,  later  succeeded  by  Sir  Frederick  Currie) ;  the  higher 
official  posts  were  to  be  chiefly  occupied  by  Englishmen.  The  whole  of  the  Jalan- 
der  Duab  between  the  Beas  and  the  Sutlej  was  ceded  to  the  company,  as  also 
were  Kohistan  and  Kashmir  which  the  English  immediately  handed  over  to 
Ghulab  Singh,  a  friendly  raja  of  Jammu,  for  ten  million  rupees. 

Hardinge,  who  was  made  viscount  of  Lahore,  devoted  himself  especially  to  the 
improvement  of  the  internal  administration ;  he  was  a  man  devoted  to  his  work, 
exceedingly  anxious  for  the  welfare  of  the  people  entrusted  to  his  charge,  keen- 
sighted,  and  energetic.  Under  him  the  great  Ganges  Canal  was  begun  which  was 
intended  to  secure  a  fruitful  harvest  to  millions  of  men.  Preparations  were  made 
for  the  introduction  of  the  telegrajih  and  the  construction  of  an  extensive  railway 
system ;  the  trigonometrical  survey-  of  the  whole  of  India  was  begun  and  an  admi- 
rable series  of  taxation  regulations  were  introduced.  Excellent  hygienic  measures 
were  introduced  for  the  benefit  of  the  army  of  occupation  (liealth  stations,  etc.). 
The  government  ei-ected  experimental  plantations  for  the  cultivation  of  tea,  cin- 
chona, etc.  The  intellectual  welfare  of  the  natives  was  by  no  means  neglected  by 
the  governor-general ;  instruction  was  improved  and  Hindus  poured  in  hundreds 
to  the  government  schools  upmi  the  aiuiouucement  that  the  pupils  of  these  schools 
would  have  the  preference  for  all  official  posts.  A  ]iolyteolinic  school  at  Rurki 
was  erected  for  the  natives  in  connection  with  the  works  upon  the  great  Ganges 
Canal  From  Hardiiige's  time  Hindus  began  to  overcome  their  caste  prejudices 
so  far  as  to  conquer  their  horror  of  the  "  Black  "  Sea  and  visit  the  jniblic  schools 
of  England.  As  Beutinck  had  suppressed  those  extravagances  of  Hindu  belief 
which  were  expressed  in  the  burning  of  widows  and  the  religious  nuirders  of 
the  Thugs  (p.  480),  so  the  efforts  of  Hardinge  and  his  officials  (Sir  Colin  Campbell 
and  John  MacPherson)  suppressed  the  custom  of  human  sacrifice  among  the 
Khonds  (p.  353). 


inau,-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  487 

((/)  Dalhousie  {l84.S-18oG).  —  {a)  The  Second  War  with  the  Sikhs  and  with 
Bunmih.  —  The  new  governor-general,  Lord  Dalhousie  (1848-1856),  had  only 
entered  office  for  a  few  months  when  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  Sikhs  at  their 
enforced  submission  broke  out  in  open  rebellion.  On  the  19th  of  April,  1848, 
Vans  Aguew,  an  officer,  and  Anderson,  a  civil  servant,  were  attacked  and  iiuirdcred 
in  Multau :  the  Diwan  (tributary  prince)  Mulraj  declared  himself  independent. 
Two  young  captains,  George  Harris  Edwardes  and  Lake,  succeeded  in  offering  some 
resistance  at  Ahmedpur  on  the  18th  of  June  and  at  Sadusam  on  the  1st  of  July; 
however,  the  revolt  spread  with  lightning  rapidity.  The  Sikhs  were  further  re- 
inforced by  Afghan  bands  of  cavalry  whose  yearning  for  revenge  upon  the  English 
surpassed  their  animosity  to  the  Sikhs.  General  Whish  began  the  siege  of  Mullan 
on  the  2d  of  September,  but  was  forced  to  raise  it  on  the  14th.  Dalhousie  tlieu 
recognised  tliat  a  thorough  subjugation  of  the  Sikh  power  was  an  absolute  neces- 
sity. The  British  troops  in  the  Punjab  were  concentrated  about  the  middle  of 
November  in  Lahore  under  Lord  Gough  (p.  485)  but  suffered  severe  losses  at  first, 
owing  to  incompetent  leadership.  Meanwhde  the  division  of  Whish  came  up  from 
Sindh  and  began  a  second  siege  of  Multan  on  27th  of  December.  After  a  week's 
bombardment  the  town  was  captured  on  the  2d  of  January,  1849,  though  the 
citadel  did  not  surrender  until  the  21st  of  the  month.  A  week  earlier  Gough's 
careless  method  of  advance  lost  him  the  bloody  battle  of  Clidanwala  (or  liussur) 
agamst  the  rebels;  however,  on  the  21st  of  February  he  displayed  better  tactics 
and  destroyed  the  enemy  near  the  little  town  of  Gujerat.  The  remainder  of  the 
Sikh  troops  were  vigorously  pursued  by  General  W.  R.  Gilbert  and  forced  to  sur- 
render on  the  14th  of  March.  An  end  was  now  made  of  the  Sikh  State.  Dhulip 
Singh,  whom  the  English  had  recognised  three  years  earlier  (p.  380),  was  banished 
on  the  29th  of  March,  1849,  and  sent  to  Poonah ;  the  crown  treasures  with  the 
Kohi-nor  (p.  429)  and  the  royal  demesnes  were  seized  and  the  whole  of  the  Sikh 
territory  was  made  a  British  possession.  The  brothers  Henry  and  John  Lawrence 
were  entrusted  with  the  organisation  of  this  valuable  province  and  Dalhousie  was 
made  a  marquis  by  his  grateful  sovereign. 

The  Sikh  war  thus  prosperously  ended  had  brought  the  British  territory  in  the 
extreme  northwest  to  its  present  limits  and  its  natural  frontier;  to  tliis  territory 
a  new  province  was  added  by  the  second  war  with  Burmah  in  the  east.  King 
Pagan  Meng  (p.  523)  could  not  console  himself  for  the  loss  of  his  valuable  pro- 
vinces, and  let  no  opportunity  slip  of  harassing  the  English,  especially  the  mer- 
chants in  his  territory.  The  commercial  associations  iii  Rangoon,  therefore,  duected 
a  complaint  to  the  governor-general  in  1851,  and  he  replied  by  sending  a  warship 
in  November  to  the  mouth  of  the  Irawaddi  to  investigate  their  complaints.  The 
ill-treatment  of  English  officers  provided  an  excuse  for  the  declaration  of  war. 
In  February,  1852,  six  thousand  men  were  sent  out  on  a  fleet  of  steamers,  and  on 
the  14th  of  April  Rangoon  was  stormed  and  the  Burmese  troops  dispersed.  The 
rainy  season,  which  had  proved  so  destructive  in  the  first  Burmese  war  (p.  478), 
inflicted  but  little  damage  on  this  occasion,  thanks  to  careful  preparations.  After 
the  resumption  of  operations  the  troops  advanced  by  the  river  to  Prome  (the  3d  of 
October).  The  king,  however,  declined  to  enter  upon  negotiations  of  peace,  and 
on  the  20th  of  December  the  whole  of  Lower  Burmah  (Pegu)  was  incorporated 
with  the  British  Indian  Empire.  Its  prosperity,  commercial  and  general,  has 
since  wonderfuUv  increased. 


488  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [r/,„y,/e<- yr 

(/3)  Dal/umsic'g  Domestic  Aihninistration  :  the  Incorporatiuii  vf  Xaiire  States 
on  the  Prim-iple  of  "  Devolution."  —  In  llie  coiuluct  oi  liis  duiuestic  aduiini»ti-atiun, 
Dalhousie  followtnl  in  the  footsteps  of  his  predecessors.  To  his  goveruruent 
belong  the  completion  of  the  great  Ganges  Canal  (1854),  the  opening  of  the  first 
railway  (on  his  retirement  two  luuulred  English  miles  were  iu  working  order),  the 
establishment  of  steam  trafl'ic  upon  the  Indus  and  o[  a  regular  steamship  liue 
to  the  lied  Sea  (the  overland  route),  the  continuation  of  the  trigonometrical  survey, 
the  patrolling  of  the  coast-line  by  the  navy,  the  erection  of  a  system  of  telegraphs, 
tiie  improvement  of  postal  communication,  the  organisation  of  a  central  authority 
for  public  works,  etc.  In  spite  of  expensive  wars,  the  reveiuies  rose  so  rapidly  that 
a  surplus  was  available  after  the  fourth  year  of  his  administration.  Education  was 
also  improved  on  the  lines  which  his  predecessor  had  begun. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  England  to  overestimate  Dalhousie's  administrative 
success  at  the  expense  of  Hardinge ;  the  latter  had  already  planned  and  prepared 
most  of  these  improvements.  At  the  same  time  his  successor  deserves  credit  for 
the  care  and  energy  which  he  invariahly  employed  to  increase  the  general  pros- 
perity of  India.  English  historians  describe  Dalhousie  as  "  the  greatest  of  all  the 
Indian  proconsuls,"  and  are  justified  by  the  immediate  success  of  his  domestic  and 
foreign  policy.  His  wars  with  neighbouring  States  had  added  two  rich  provinces 
to  the  British  dominions;  the  policy  he  emjilnyed  in  dealing  with  the  Indian  prin- 
cipalities considerably  extended  the  territories  of  the  East  India  Company,  and 
this  b>'  means  of  the  happy  invention  and  execution  of  a  political  principle  (the 
seventh  ;  cf.  p.  482,  above),  the  doctrine  of  the  "  devolution  "  of  States.  Upon  this 
principle  the  succe-ssion  at  the  death  of  a  prince  was  only  recognised  if  a  legitimate 
son  of  the  deceased  happened  to  exist.  When  an  heir  of  this  kind  was  lacking, 
adoptive  sons  were  not  considered  in  the  succession  as  before,  but  the  principality 
in  (piestion  "  devolved." 

This  theory  was  put  into  practical  operation  in  eight  cases.  The  first  of  these 
was  the  case  of  Satara,  the  last  .shadow  of  the  once  powerful  Peshwa  rule,  which 
occurred  in  the  first  year  of  Dalhousie's  government.  In  1853  the  Kajput  States 
of  Jhausi  and  Xag])ur  were  incorporated,  the  last  Bhon.sla  having  died  without 
heirs.  In  three  other  cases,  which  occurred  in  the  same  year,  the  succession  of  titu- 
lar princes  without  territory  came  in  ijuestion ;  their  adopted  sons  were  disregarded, 
their  titles,  together  witii  the  pensions  appropriated  to  the  princes,  being  declared 
null  and  void.  This  policy  was  carried  out  upon  the  death  of  the  last  Xuwab  of 
the  Carnatic,  on  the  death  of  the  Efija  of  Tanjore  and  of  the  former  Peshwa,  Baji 
Rao,  whose  adopted  son,  Dundhu  Path,  afterwards  better  known  as  Nana  Sahib, 
was  to  revenge  this  disregard  of  his  claims  with  such  terrible  ferocity  upon  the 
British  some  few  years  later.  The  last  titular  ruler  was  the  last  Grand  Mogul, 
Mohammed  Bahfidur  Shah  II,  with  whom  disappeared  the  last  gleam  of  the  former 
splendour  and  power  of  the  Mogul  kingdom  (p.  443).  He  was  forced  to  assent  to 
an  agreement  whereby  his  descendants  should  abandon  the  imperial  capital  of 
Shall  JehSn  and  withdraw  into  private  life.  Ultimately  the  tender  conscience  of 
Dalhousie  could  no  longer  bear  tlie  sight  of  the  misgovernment  in  Oudh,  a  district 
watered  by  numerous  perennial  streams,  and  the  most  thickly  populated  province 
of  India.  It  is  true  that  according  to  the  convention  of  1837  (p.  482)  the  prince 
was  less  to  blame  than  the  resident  for  the  bad  state  of  the  country ;  the  latter 
possessed  the  express  right  of  introducing  any  regulation  that  he  thought  might 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  489 


obviate  misgovernment,  and  the  present  desperate  condition  of  affairs  w^as  largely 
due  in  the  first  instance  to  British  interference.  Moreover,  the  rulmg  dynasty  Iiad 
been  invariably  favourable  to  the  English,  and  had  rendered  them  valuable  services 
in  many  cases  of  necessity.  These  considerations,  however,  were  far  outweighed  in 
tlie  governor-general's  eyes  by  the  duty  of  furthering  the  prosperity  of  the  people 
of  Oudh,  and  on  the  7th  of  February,  1856,  he  added  the  richest  province  of  India 
to  the  British  possessions.  Certain  districts  were  also  taken  from  another  ally,  the 
Nizam  of  Haidarabad  (the  "assigned  districts  "in  Berar).  This  proceeding  was 
justified  by  the  fact  that  the  Nizam  was  unable  to  pay  the  debts  which  he  had 
incurred  for  the  maintenance  of  the  British  troops  obligatory  upon  him. 

Dalhousie  was  a  pious  Christian.  No  one  apjiealed  so  emphatically  to  the  will 
of  the  Almighty,  and  no  one  knew  that  will  better  than  lie.  His  first  consideration 
was  the  subject  races.  As  under  heathen  misgovernment  the  natives  could  never 
be  so  prosperous  as  under  a  Christian  ruler  of  England,  it  was  binding  on  his 
conscience  to  introduce  the  blessings  of  incorjioration  with  England  to  devolved 
States.  "  It  is  to  me  inconceivable  that  any  one  could  ever  dispute  the  policy  of 
using  every  opportunity  to  consolidate  the  districts  in  our  hands  by  the  occupa- 
tion of  intermediate  States  and  the  extension  of  our  government  over  all,  as  by 
such  extension  their  highest  interests  will  be  furthered.  Millions  of  God's  crea- 
tures will  gain  freedom  and  prosperity  from  the  change." 

The  revolt  of  1857  was  a  terrible  recompense  for  the  gifts  of  freedom  and  pros- 
perity under  British  rule.  Incorporation  not  only  deprived  the  people  of  any 
possibility  of  obtaining  higher  posts ;  a  more  cogent  argument  was  the  suj)])res- 
sion  of  those  feelings  of  fidelity  to  the  native  ruling  houses  with  which  the 
people  were  connected  by  long  tradition.  It  was  impossible  for  them  to  accom- 
modate themselves  in  a  moment  to  a  civilization  which  had  developed  under  totally 
different  conditions,  and  which  was  to  them  merely  an  object  of  hatred  and  fear. 
They  preferred  the  oppression  of  their  own  kin  to  the  favours  of  strangers  wlio 
trampled  upon  their  most  sacred  possessions  without  the  smallest  considerations 
for  tlieir  feelings,  deposed  their  princes,  and  carried  boundless  wealth  out  of  tlieir 
country.  It  was  their  religious  sentiments  that  were  most  deeply  wounded. 
Former  governor-generals  had  spared  the  creed,  the  laws,  and  the  customs  of  the 
Indians  as  far  as  possible;  principles  were  now  enforced  and  deeds  committed 
which  outraged  every  fundamental  conception  of  the  Hindu.  To  the  Hindu  the 
ideal  of  the  present  and  the  future  life  was  to  leave  behind  him  a  son  upon  his 
death,  who  should  close  his  eyes  and  maintain  the  sanctity  of  his  ancestors  by 
pious  worship.  Should  fate  deny  a  man  an  heir  of  his  body,  his  race  might  yet  be 
continued  by  adoption,  and  a  sou  thus  taken  to  himself  was  eiiually  capable  of 
securing  his  everlasting  salvation.  Upon  these  convictions  the  strangers  now 
trampled,  with  the  insolent  excuse  that  they  were  acting  for  the  good  of  the 
people,  and  with  the  consequence  that  they  outraged  the  inmost  feelings  of  the 
Hmdu  while  at  the  same  time  .securmg  material  advantage  for  themselves.  In 
the  profession  that  their  work  was  pleasing  to  God,  the  Hindu  could  see  nothing 
but  scorn  and  hypocrisy. 

(/,)  Lord  Canning;  the  Sepoy  Revolt  (/.SVT7).  —  Far-seemg  men  were  well 
aware  of  the  extent  and  mtensity  of  the  feeling  among  the  natives ;  the  directors, 
however,  lent  no  ear  to  their  voices,  and  the  attention  of  Viscount  Cliarles  John 


490  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [r/,„y,^,  y/ 

Caniiiii<i  (185(1-1302),  the  successor  of  Dalhousie,  was  for  the  moiueut  occuipieil  by 
the  eastward  advance  of  the  Persians.  This  naliou  had  beeu  encouraged  to  attack 
and  occupy  Herat  by  the  weakness  of  the  English  troops,  from  which  contingents 
had  been  drawn  off  to  the  Crimean  War;  however,  at  the  end  of  1856  a  fleet 
from  British  India  appeared  in  the  Persian  Gulf;  the  Persians  were  rapidly 
defeated  and  forced  to  evacuate  Herat.  In  the  Peace  of  Paris,  on  the  4th  of 
March,  1857,  they  undertook  to  refrain  from  further  interference  in  Afghan 
afifairs. 

Meanwhile  the  government  continued  to  trample  upon  Hindu  prejudice  with  a 
recklessness  which  seems  inconceivable  in  the  light  of  later  events,  but  was  in  fact 
the  natural  result  of  the  ignorance  which  prevailed  in  the  highest  administrative 
circles  as  to  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  subject  races.  The  government,  in  its 
humane  desire  to  ameliorate  the  lot  of  widows,  legalised  second  marriages  by  an 
act  of  1856.  It  abolished  the  privilege  of  polygamy  which  the  Brahman  class 
had  hitherto  enjoyed.  It  favoured  the  work  of  Christian  missionaries  and  allowed 
military  otticers  to  undertake  the  enteriirise  of  converting  their  own  sepoys.  It  also 
attacked  the  sepoy  on  the  point  where  he  was  most  susceptible,  by  llireateniug  him 
with  loss  of  caste.  In  his  first  year  of  office.  Lord  Canning  carried  a  measure  known 
as  the  General  Ser^-ice  Enlistment  Act,  under  the  terms  of  which  all  who  enlisted  as 
sejioys  for  the  future  were  to  be  liable  for  foreign  service.  The  classes  which  had 
hitherto  taken  the  militarj'  career  as  their  profession  were  thus  confronted  with  tlie 
disagreeable  alternatives  of  forfeiting  their  caste-rank  or  abandoning  the  soldier's  life. 
No  more  unfortunate  moment  could  have  been  chosen  for  these  innovations  than 
one  at  whidi  the  Indian  possessions  to  be  guarded  had  beeu  enormously  increased 
by  the  policy  of  Lord  Dalhousie,  while  the  European  element  in  the  army  had 
been  dimiui.shed  bj-  the  drafting  of  regiments  to  the  Crimea.  The  train  was 
already  laid  for  a  revolt,  and  it  only  needed  a  spark  to  produce  the  explosion 
■which  a  series  of  blunders  had  prepared.  That  spark  was  supplied  in  January, 
1857,  by  the  incident  of  the  "  greased  cartridges."  Owing  to  the  substitution  ol 
rifles  for  muskets,  it  had  become  necessary  to  supply  the  troops  with  cartridges  of 
a  new  kind.  A  fraudulent  contractor  contrived  to  make  use  of  cow's  fat  as  a 
lubricant  for  the  cartridges,  in  spite  of  the  pains  which  the  government  had  taken 
to  prevent  the  use  of  this  or  other  objectionable  substances.  To  the  Hindu  sepoy 
it  was  contamination  to  touch  the  fat  oi  an  animal  which  his  religion  held  sacred ; 
and  when  the  secret  leaked  out  the  new  cartridges  were  represented  as  a  device  of 
the  government  for  depriving  sepoys  of  their  caste.  It  was  rumoured  that  with 
a  somewhat  similar  object,  hog's  lard  had  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
cartridges  served  out  to  Mohammedans.  The  government  did  its  best  to  repair 
the  blunder  which  had  beeu  committed,  by  calling  in  the  suspected  cartridges, 
and  offering  to  let  the  sepoys  manufactuie  their  own  in  future,  or  to  give 
any  other  proof  which  might  be  thought  sufficient  that  the  use  of  contaminating 
materials  had  been  discontinued.  It  was  loo  late.  Before  the  end  of  April  two 
regiments  had  to  be  disbanded  at  Barrackpur  for  refusing  to  use  the  government 
cartridges.  On  May  3  there  was  a  similar  incident  at  Oudh,  which  necessitated 
the  disbanding  of  a  third  regiment.  The  crisis  came  when  eighty-five  native 
troopers  were  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  refusing  their  cartridges.  On 
May  10,  the  day  after  tlieir  imprisonment,  the  sepoys  of  Meerut  rose  in  a  body,  shot 
down  their  officers,  and  released  their  comrades.     The  English  garrison  of  Meerut, 


Tn.uq  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  491 

commanded  by  an  officer  who  should  have  been  superannuated  years  before, 
remained  inactive  in  its  cantonments  while  the  Europeans  in  other  parts  of  the 
city  were  massacred.  The  sepoys  left  Meerut  with  impunity ;  some  dispersed  to 
their  homes,  but  another  part  marched  to  Delhi,  seized  the  emperor  Bahadur  Shah, 
and  proclaimed  the  restoration  of  the  Mogul  Empire.  With  this  step  the  nmtiny 
may  be  said  to  have  commenced. 

The  revolt  spread  like  lightning  through  the  country  between  the  Tumna  and 
Patna,  and  far  beyond.  It  was  confined  to  those  districts  which  had  been  affected 
by  Dalhousie's  policy  of  "  devolution."  The  presidencies  of  Bombay  and  Madras 
remained  almost  unaffected.  It  is  true  that  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Xizam,  which 
had  been  roused  by  the  confiscation  of  certain  provinces,  the  resident  and  the 
Madras  troops  on  the  spot  were  able  to  stifle  the  impending  disaffection ;  and  there 
was  more  serious  trouble  in  Nagpore.  But  the  really  formidable  movements  origi- 
nated to  the  north  of  the  Nerbada  (Nerbudda)  Eiver,  among  the  JIahratta  States, 
in  the  middle  and  upper  Ganges  valley,  in  Eohilcand  and  the  Punjab ;  tliat  is  to 
say,  in  those  parts  of  India  where  some  sympathy  with  the  Mogul  cause  was  still 
to  be  found.  Where  this  did  not  exist,  as  in  Rajputana,  the  grievances  caused  by 
the  policy  of  devolution  were  not  in  themselves  sufficient  to  win  support  for  the 
mutineei-s. 

Within  the  disaffected  districts,  the  three  towns  of  Dellii,  Cawnpore,  and  Luck- 
now  were  the  main  centres  of  rebellion.  Fifty  thousand  sepoys  rallied  to  the 
Mogul  standard  at  Delhi  in  the  summer  of  1857.  Cawnpore,  where  the  English 
garrison  was  small  and  the  commander,  Sir  Hugh  Wlieeler,  had  to  the  last  refused 
to  believe  in  the  possibility  of  a  general  mutiny,  or  to  take  the  necessary  precau- 
tions, was  besieged  from  the  8th  to  the  26th  of  June  by  Nana  Sahib,  and  then,  owing 
to  want  of  provisions,  capitulated  on  condition  that  a  safe  conduct  should  be  given 
to  all  Europeans  within  the  walls.  On  June  27  the  garrison  embarked,  accord- 
ing to  the  agreement,  with  the  idea  of  proceeding  down  the  Ganges  to  Allahabad. 
Fire  was  opened  on  their  flotilla,  and  of  four  hundred  and  fifty-four  men  only  four 
escaped  by  swimming  to  the  opposite  shore,  while  the  women  and  children,  to  the 
number  of  one  hundred  and  fifty,  were  brought  back  to  Cawnpore  as  prisoners, 
only  to  be  massacred  in  July  when  the  advance  of  Havelock  forced  Nana  Sahib 
to  evacuate  the  town.  Meanwhile  in  Lucknow,  where  upwards  of  a  thousand 
Europeans  were  collected  under  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  a  staunch  resistance  was 
offered,  the  old  residency  being  converted  into  a  fortress.  Lawrence  was  killed 
by  a  cannon  ball  on  July  2,  but  the  defence  was  continued  by  Colonel  Inglis 
against  overwhelming  forces. 

The  troops  which  remained  faithful  to  the  English  were  concentrated  in  AUa- 
habaJ  under  General  Havelock,  who  reached  India  on  June  17,  and  was  at  the  head 
of  his  army  by  the  30th.  From  this  base,  and  under  this  leader,  the  attempt  was 
made  to  save  the  prisoners  at  Cawnpore  and  to  raise  the  siege  of  Lucknow.  Early 
in  July  Nana  Sahib  was  beaten  back  from  Cawnpore.  It  was  too  late  to  save  the 
prisoners,  but  thev  were  terribly  avenged.  Two  marches  upon  Lucknow  were 
frustrated  liy  the  rains  and  the  diseases  which  they  brought  with  them ;  but  at 
length,  on  September  25,  after  reir.forcements  had  been  brought  up,  Outram  and 
Havelock  led  the  relie\'ing  force  into  Lucknow.  The  numbers  of  the  relie%-ing 
force  were  so  small  that  the  siege  could  not  be  raised,  and  for  the  moment  the 
only  effect  of  Havelock's  entry  was  to  strengthen  the  defending  force.     But  the 


492  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapt.r  ir 

dauger  of  a  capitiilatiou  had  been  averted.  Havelock,  unfortunately,  did  not  live 
to  see  the  fruit  of  his  niagniKcent  etl'orts.  He  died  of  dysentery  in  Lucknow  on 
September  L'4,  while  the  siege  was  still  in  progress. 

Meanwhile,  under  able  leader^,  the  army  of  the  Punjab  dealt  a  decisive  blow  at 
the  heart  of  the  rebellion.  Under  normal  circumstances  the  Punjab  could  ill  have 
spared  troops  for  any  purpose,  however  pressing.  But  the  treaty  which  had  Iwen 
concluded  in  1S55  with  Dost  Mohammed  of  Afghanistan  now  bore  its  fruit.  The 
Amir,  though  urged  by  his  subjects  to  seize  the  opportunity  of  invading  India, 
remained  loyal  to  his  engagements;  and  it  was  therefore  possible  to  withdraw 
troops  from  tiic  Afghan  frontier;  only  in  the  all  important  post  of  Peshawar  was 
any  considerable  force  retained.  The  interior  of  the  Punjab  caused  the  less  anxiety, 
because  the  Sikhs,  who  had  never  forgotten  or  forgiven  the  devastations  of  the 
Moguls,  elected  to  suuid  by  tlieir  Kuropi-an  masters.  Lawrence,  in  sjiite  of  sporadic 
mutinies  among  his  sepoys,  could  send  down  eight  thousand  etticient  troop,  of 
whom  nearly  half  were  Europeans,  to  the  siege  of  Delhi.  The  attack  commenced 
in  June  with  the  occujiatiou  of  the  Kidge  by  the  advance  guard  of  the  English  army. 
But  reinforcements  were  unavoidably  slow  in  coming  up,  and,  since  the  enemy's 
force  numbered  some  thirt}"  thousand,  nothing  decisive  could  be  done  before  August. 
Then  the  scale  was  turned  by  the  arrival  of  John  Nicholson  from  the  Punjab  with 
liis  famous  flying  colunni.  He  led  the  assault  on  September  14,  and  though  he  fell 
mortally  wounded,  the  breaches  had  been  secured  before  his  fall.  After  si.\  days  of 
desperate  fighting  the  emperor's  palace  fell  and  the  last  positions  of  the  mutineers 
were  carried.  The  em]>eror,  Bahadur  Shah,  attempted  flight,  but  got  no  further 
than  the  tomb  of  Humayun,  some  si.x;  miles  from  the  city.  He  was  pursued  and 
captured,  with  two  of  his  sons,  by  Hodson  of  Hodson's  Horse.  Hodsou  shot  the 
two  princes  with  his  own  hand,  believing,  as  he  stated,  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  bring  them  in  to  Delhi  through  the  crowds  of  natives  by  whom  his  road  was 
thronged.  The  emperor  escaped  this  fate,  only  to  be  banished  to  Rangoon,  where 
he  died  in  1862. 

By  the  fall  of  Delhi  the  issue  of  the  mutiny  was  settled ;  but  much  had  still 
to  be  done  before  the  work  could  lie  regarded  as  complete.  The  residency  at 
Lucknow  was  still  closely  besieged,  and  the  supplies  of  the  garrison  were  running 
short.  In  the  Mahratta  country,  the  Kanee  Ganga  Bai  of  Jhansi,  one  who,  like 
Nana  Sahib,  had  been  robbed  of  the  reversion  to  a  principality  by  the  principle  of 
devolution,  had  a  formidable  army  in  the  held.  The  arrival  of  troops  from  Eng- 
land and  the  Cape  in  October,  1857,  made  it  possible  to  take  energetic  measures 
against  both  these  centres  of  rebellion. 

The  credit  of  relieving  Lucknow  belongs  to  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  a  veteran  who 
had  served  with  distinction  in  the  peninsida,  in  the  Sikh  wars,  in  China,  and  in 
the  Crimea.  He  arrived  at  Calcutta  in  August,  1857,  to  assume  the  otlice  of  com- 
mander-in-chief, and  organised  an  army  of  relief  with  such  energy  that  on  Novem- 
ber 17  he  was  able  to  extricate  tlie  hard-pressed  garrison  of  the  residency  at 
Lucknow.  The  advance  of  a  large  rebel  force  upon  Cawnpore  made  it  unadvis- 
able  to  deal  at  once  with  the  Lucknow  mutineers,  and  leaving  a  small  garrison 
under  Outrani  in  the  Alum  Ragh,  four  miles  from  Lucknow,  as  a  sign  that  Oudh  was 
not  to  lie  evacuated,  he  marched  to  Cawnpore,  and  there  on  December  G  inflicted 
a  decisive  defeat  on  the  sepoy  leader,  Tantia  Topee,  lieturning  to  Lucknow  in 
the  early  part  of  1858,  he  cleared  the  city  of  Nana  Sahib's  army  after  a  series  of 


;  M/'ii- 


/-'.>]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  493 

attacks  which  lasted  for  a  fortnight  (March  2  to  16).  Sir  Colin  Campbell  has  been 
criticised  for  want  of  decision  in  pressing  and  following  up  the  assault,  and  it 
would  have  been  a  great  advantage  if  the  rebels  had  been  surrounded  and  forced 
to  surrender.  But  the  \-ictory  was  a  great  one,  and  gained  with  hut  a  trifiincr  loss 
of  life  on  the  English  side.  As  the  result  of  it  Oudh  and  Kohilkhaud  wei-e  recov- 
ered without  furtlier  difficulty.  Nana  Sahib  fled  into  the  jungle,  where  it  is 
believed  tliat  he  succumbed  to  fever. 

Meanwliile  the  Mahratta  district  was  being  reduced  by  an  army  sent  from 
Bombay  under  the  command  of  Sir  Hugli  Rose.  The  Eanee  Ganga  Bai  was 
expelled  from  her  hill  fort  at  Jhansi  after  a  desperate  siege  (March  23  to  April  3, 
1858).  She  then  joined  forces  with  Tantia  Topee,  and  though  beaten  at  Kunch  and 
Kalpi,  contrived,  when  her  pursuers  had  halted  from  sheer  fatigue,  to  take  advan- 
tage of  an  offer  from  the  mutinous  army  of  the  loyalist  rajah,  Sindia  of  Gwalior, 
to  expel  Sindia,  and  to  occupy  his  territories.  Here,  however,  she  fell  in  battle 
against  Sir  Hugh  Eose  on  June  18.  With  her  death  the  main  conflagration 
ended.  The  power  of  the  English  in  India  was  flrmly  re-established  by  the 
end  of  1858. 

(i)  The  Incorporation  of  India  vjith  the  British  Empire  (^1858^.  —  The  sepoy 
revolt  was  the  last  struggle  for  independence  on  tiie  part  of  the  Indian  people,  and 
its  convulsions  were  the  birth  pangs  of  a  new  epoch.  On  August  3,  1858,  Queen 
•Victoria  signed  an  act  of  parliament,  which,  completing  the  work  of  the  acts 
of  1833  and  1854  (p.  480),  dissolved  the  East  India  Company  and  set  Her 
Majesty's  government  in  its  place,  with  the  English  crown  at  the  head  (jf  the 
management.  This  act  was  carried  out  on  September  1 ;  Lord  (since  1859 
Earl)  Canning,  the  first  viceroy  of  India,  continued  a  highly  beneficial  govern- 
ment until  the  spring  of  1862.  The  pacification  of  the  country  was  speedily  com- 
pleted; isolated  revolts  (in  Patna,  1863)  were  rapidly  suppres.sed  without  ditticulty. 
The  construction  of  railway  lines,  begun  under  the  governor-generals,  Hardinge  and 
Dalhousie  (cf.  pp.  487  to  488),  was  energetically  continued  (see  the  plate,  "The 
Victoria  Railway  Station  Terminus  in  Bombay,"  ),  and  materially  contributed  to  the 
expansion  of  European  civilization.  The  new  viceroys  of  India,'  which  was  de- 
clared an  empire  by  act  of  parliament  April  29,  1876,  devoted  themselves  to  the 
care  of  the  frontiers,  and  to  the  many  tasks  which  domestic  administration  involved 
(reorganisation  of  the  finances,  of  taxes  and  custom  duties,  of  the  administration 
of  justice ;  mming  and  forestry,  relief  in  cases  of  epidemic  and  famine,  necessary  in 
1873-1874,  1877-1878,  and  1899).  The  act  of  August,  1858,  concludes  the  his- 
tory of  India  as  an  independent  whole  ;  it  was  now  a  part  of  the  great  Briti.'^li  world 
empire,  and  its  later  history  belongs  more  properly  to  that  of  England  (Vol.  VI). 


1  ]  862-6.3,  James  Bruce,  Count  of  Elgin  and  Kincardine  ;  1863-68,  John  Laird  Mair,  Baron  Lawrence  ; 
1869-72,  Richard  Southwell  Bourke,  Count  Mayo;  1872-76,  Thomas  George  Baring,  Baron  Northbrook  ; 
1876-80,  Edward  Robert,  Baron  Bulwer-Lytton ;  1880-84,  George  Frederick  Samuel  Robinson,  Marquis 
of  Ripen  ;  1884-88,  Frederic  Temple  Blackwood,  Count  of  Dufferin  ;  1888-94,  Heury  Charles  Keith  Petty 
Fitzmaurice,  Marquis  of  Lansdowne;  1894-98,  Victor  Alexander  Bruce,  Count  of  Elgin  and  Kincardine, 
and  since  1899,  George  Nathaniel,  Baron  Curzon  of  Kedleston. 


404  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chajjtn-jr 

3.  CEYLON 
A.   The  Natdre  of  Ceylon 

(a)  The  Country.  —  The  history  of  India  at  the  very  earliest  times  known 
to  us  has  been  influenced  by  its  position  on  tlie  southern  boundary  of  a  great 
continent ;  its  frontier  mountain  ranges,  apparently  impassable,  have  been 
repeatedly  crossed  by  foreign  nations,  and  these  invasions  constantly  transformed 
the  history  of  the  country  so  richly  dowered  by  nature.  Tlie  case  of  Ceylon 
is  wholly  ditlerent ;  as  the  most  southerly  outpost  of  India,  it  is  so  far  removed 
from  the  rest  of  Asia  that  no  races  liave  penetrated  the  island  from  tlie  interior  of 
the  continent;  every  invasion  within  historical  times  started  from  the  peninsula, 
from  which  Ceylon  is  divided  by  a  narrow  strait  little  broader  than  a  river ; 
as  regards,  therefore,  its  general  cliaracteristics,  it  forms  an  immediate  continuation 
of  India  itself.  The  eastern  and  western  ghats  form  an  abrujit  boundary  to  the 
Deccan.  On  the  south  lie  the  plains  of  the  Carnatic,  broken  by  several  isolated 
plateaus  (the  Sivaroy,  Palni,  and  other  mountains),  and  by  numerous  small  islands 
of  granite  and  gneiss  rock.  This  ])lain  gradually  sinks  away  southward  to  fall 
below  the  sea  at  the  Coromandel  coast.  Beyond  the  narrow  Palk  Straits  the  island 
gradually  rises  above  the  sea  level,  the  north  of  Ceylon  being  almost  entirely  flat 
(coral  soil),  while  in  general  outline  the  island  is  formed  like  a  shield.  The  centre 
of  this  immense  shield,  the  highlands  of  Malaya,  are  crowned  by  the  central  moun- 
tain range  of  Ceylon,  the  most  southerly  and  the  greatest  of  those  isolated  mountain 
systems  in  Southern  India.  The  narrow  straits  are  interrupted  by  numerous 
islands  placed  like  the  pillars  of  a  bridge  (Adam's  Bridge)*  and  form  rather  a  link 
of  communication  between  the  island  and  the  mainland  than  an  obstacle  to  inter- 
course, the  characteristics  of  both  countries  being  almost  identical  in  consequence 
of  this  connection.  In  Ceylon,  as  in  India,  the  rocky  foundations  of  the  soil  con- 
sist of  the  same  primeval  stone,  and  on  either  side  of  the  Palk  Strait  the  charac- 
teristics of  rocks  and  mountains  are  identical.  The  same  winds  blow  upon  both 
countries;  in  the  summer  the  rainy  southwest  monsoon  bringing  a  bountiful 
supply  of  moisture  to  the  steep  and  mountainous  west,  while  in  winter  the  dry 
northeast  monsoon  refreshes  the  eastern  side  of  the  island. 

The  vegetable  world  of  Ceylon  is  therefore  a  repetition  of  that  of  India.  The 
west  of  either  country  is  marked  by  luxuriant  growth  and  inexhaustible  fertility, 
while  the  east  shows  a  poorer  vegetation  and  a  more  niggardly  soil ;  here,  as  in 
the  flat  north  of  the  island,  the  population  only  attains  to  any  density  when  the 
industry  of  man  has  succeeded  by  scientific  works  of  irrigation  in  collecting  the 
fertilising  moisture  against  the  times  of  long  drought.  The  fauna  of  Southern 
India  and  of  the  island  are  again,  generally  speaking,  identical.  In  both  cases 
the  forests  are  inhabited  by  the  elephant,  the  great  tiger  cats  (the  Bengal  tiger 
alone  has  not  crossed  the  straits),  apes,  snakes,  white  ants,  and  leeches.  The 
scanty  means  of  livelihood  produce  the  same  epidemics  in  the  dwellers  of  either 
country  ;  sickness  and  death  are  due  to  cholera  and  especially  to  malaria,  which  is 
prevalent  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  ranges  and  of  the  many  isolated  peaks,  with 
their  blocks  of  stone  thrown  in  wild  confusion  one  upon  another,  as  also  in  the 
jungles  of  the  river  beds. 


India-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  495 

(6)  77ie  Original  Population  of  Ceylon.  —  It  would  be  highly  astonishing 
If  this  identity  of  natural  characteristics  were  not  also  observable  in  the  popula- 
tion which  has  inhabited  the  island  from  the  remotest  antiquity.  At  the  present 
day  Ceylon  is  inhabited  by  two  main  types  anthropologically  and  ethnologically 
different,  a  dark  and  a  fair  race,  who  immigrated  at  a  comj^aratively  late  time  and 
were  not  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  island.  In  primeval  times  India,  like 
Ceylon,  was  the  home  of  one  race  only,  characterised  by  dark  colouring,  wavy  hair, 
and  small  or  even  diminutive  stature.  The  facts  of  geology,  and  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  plants  and  animals,  prove  that  the  continent  and  the  island  must  have 
formed  a  continuous  whole  at  no  very  remote  epoch.  Assuming,  however,  that 
the  Palk  Straits  have  always  been  situated  where  they  are  now,  it  would  have  been 
an  easy  task  for  people,  even  in  the  lowest  stage  of  civilization,  to  have  crossed  from 
the  plains  of  Southern  India  by  the  Adam's  Bridge  to  the  attractive  districts  of  the 
island.  It  can  be  historically  demonstrated  that  Tamil  invasions  took  place  at 
least  two  thousand  years  ago,  and  the  plantations  of  Ceylon  at  the  present  day 
annually  attract  from  the  continent  a  Dravidian  population  which  is  to  be 
numbered  by  thousands ;  it  is,  however,  certain  that  before  the  first  historical 
immigration,  the  island  was  inhabited  by  tribes  standing  in  the  closest  possible 
relation,  anthropologically  and  ethnologically,  to  the  Dravidian  peoples.  The 
legendary  woodland  tribes  of  the  wUd  Wakka  are  undoubtedly  to  be  identified 
as  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Veddas ;  it  is,  however,  probable  that  the  first 
Aryan  immigrants  into  Ceylon  found  other  Dravidian  races  in  possession  who 
had  risen  to  a  higher  state  of  civilization  in  more  favourably  situated  habitations. 
The  "Tamils  of  Ceylon,"  who  now  inhabit  the  north  and  the  east  coasts  of  the 
island,  are  undoubtedly  for  the  most  part  descendants  of  those  Dravidians  who 
overran  the  island  from  the  north  in  numerous  campaigns. 

B.   The  Pre-historic  Period  of  Ceylon 

Together  with  this  dark  race  of  Ceylon  of  primeval  Indian  origin,  the  island 
is  inhabited  chiefly  in  the  more  fertile  southwest  portion  by  the  Singhalese,  an 
entirely  different  race,  both  in  civilization  and  physique.  These  were  originally 
strangers  to  the  country,  with  totally  different  physical  characteristics,  language, 
religion,  manners,  and  customs.  Where  was  the  home  of  these  strangers  ?  Cer- 
tainly not  in  the  south  of  India  which  was  then  inhabited  by  pure  Dravidians. 

(a)  Tlie  Aryan  Immigration.  —  The  geographical  position  of  Ceylon  obviously 
points  to  North  India  as  the  most  probable  point  of  departure  for  a  migration 
of  this  nature.  The  southern  part  of  the  island  is  confronted  by  no  country 
whatever,  whUe  in  the  east  and  west  the  mainland  is  far  distant  and  divided  from 
Ceylon  by  broad  oceans  only  to  be  traversed  by  the  exponents  of  a  highly  developed 
civilization.  On  the  other  hand,  the  coasts  of  Nearer  India,  curving  inwards  from 
the  northwest  and  northeast,  plainly  point  the  mariner  towards  Ceylon.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  Malays  introduced  within  the  last  century,  the  island  exhibits 
no  trace  of  Indonesian  or  Malay  blood  which  might  in  any  way  remind  us  of  the 
African  races ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  nearest  relations  of  the  Singhalese  are  to  be 
found  by  following  the  line  of  those  coast  routes,  among  the  Aryans,  who  crossed 
the  mountain  frontier  and  entered  India  in  the  second  or  third  century  b.  c,  and  in 


4%  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD         [chapurir 

the  mixed  tribes  of  the  North  luiliaa  plains  descended  from  them  ;  pliyslcal  char- 
acteristics, language,  custom,  and  social  organisation  alike  point  to  this  origin. 
Evidence  of  tliis  nature  even  enables  us  to  define  with  some  precision  the  date  at 
which  these  immigrants  entered  the  island  and  the  road  by  which  they  came. 

The  highest  castes  of  the  Singhalese  have  always  been  the  Goiwansa  or 
Handuruwo,  that  is  to  say  those  of  noble  birth ;  Brahmans  have  never  found 
a  place  among  their  various  castes.  Where  they  are  mentioned  by  tradition, 
or  iu  historical  records,  we  have  to  deal  with  pure  invention  on  the  part  of  the 
chronicler,  or  with  foreign  15rahiiians,  references  to  whom  occur,  for  example,  in  the 
accounts  of  the  introduction  of  ISutldhism  into  Ceylon  ;  in  no  case,  however,  do 
the  lirahmans  appear  as  an  essential  element  in  Singhalese  society.  Thus  the 
Singhalese  branch  must  have  broken  away  from  the  Aryan-Indian  group  of  peoples 
at  a  time  when  the  Brahmans  had  nut  yet  secured  their  supremacy  over  social 
order,  justice  and  morality,  popular  feeling,  thought,  and  action ;  that  is  to  say, 
before  the  period  of  the  formation  of  the  great  states  of  the  central  Gauges 
(cf.  p.  372).  Hence  the  Singhalese  migration  cannot  have  started  from  the  east 
of  India,  from  tlie  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  or  from  Orissa ;  for  it  was  not  until  the 
Brahmans'  supremacy  had  been  assured  that  the  Aryans  advanced  into  those  dis- 
tricts and  within  the  last  thousand  years  the  Ganges  delta  has  been  a  dangerous 
district  of  swamps  avoided  by  settlers.  At  a  much  earlier  period  the  Aryans  on 
the  west  had  advanced  to  the  sea,  starting  from  the  Punjab  and  following  the 
Indus  to  the  mouths  of  that  river,  while  at  a  later  period  they  followed  the 
Arawalli  mountains  to  Gujerat  (p.  372).  The  Indus  was  at  that  time,  together 
with  its  moutlis,  of  very  little  importance  as  a  trade  route  for  transmarine 
commerce ;  its  current  was  too  strong,  its  delta  too  soft  and  shifting,  while 
the  sea  coast  otrered  no  protection  against  storms.  On  the  other  hand,  an  admi- 
rable base  for  transmarine  enterprise  was  afforded  by  the  sheltered  Gulf  of  Cambay 
(p.  346  above),  running  far  into  the  country  with  its  rich  hinterland  ;  this  from  the 
first  was  the  point  where  the  Aryans  took  the  sea  during  the  nourishing  period  of 
the  great  Aryan  States  on  the  Ganges,  and  during  the  whole  of  the  Mohammedan 
period  it  formed  the  chief  harbour  of  India. 

(6)  The  Sources  of  the  History  of  Ceylon.  —  These  conclusions,  which  point  to 
an  Aryan  migration  from  the  Gulf  of  Cambay  as  a  highly  probable  and  indeed 
as  an  irresistible  inference,  are  well  supported  by  tradition.  In  Ceylon  human 
memory  has  been  more  tenacious  than  in  the  Indian  continent,  and  has  preserved  a 
reUable  historical  record  for  more  than  two  thousand  years,  and  in  some  respects 
even  earlier.  It  is  true  that  the  epic  of  Kfunayana,  which  in  its  Singhalese  form 
is  a  shorter  imitation  of  the  great  work  of  Walniiki  (j).  ."570),  a  glorification  of  the 
mythical  conqueror  of  Ceylon,  is  pure  poetical  invention.  Uuhistorical  are  all  tlie 
legends  there  related  of  the  expedition  of  Rama,  of  the  seduction  of  his  faithful 
wife  Sita.of  his  alliance  with  tlie  npes  (tlie  black  races  of  the  Southern  Deccan),  of 
his  enemies  the  IMkshasa,  of  Ids  bridge  over  the  straits,  his  wonderful  exjiluits,  and 
his  ultimate  return  to  India.  R.lma  is  a  model  of  virtue  from  the  Brahman  point 
of  view,  and  the  many  exploits  related  of  him  are  only  the  scafiblding  used  by  the 
artists  in  constructing  the  ideal  of  a  liralinian  royal  son. 

We  have,  however,  more  valuable  historical  sources.  The  monarchy  lasted 
for   more   than   two  thousand  years,  as  did   the  Buddhism  which   it  protected,  a 


/«H  HISTORY    OF    THE   WORLD  497 

course  of  development  more  favourable  to  the  muse  of  history  than  the  political 
and  religious  revolutions  which  disturbed  the  history  of  Nearer  India.  In  the 
monastic  libraries  everything  was  recorded  which  concerned  the  order  itself  and 
its  patrons  the  kings,  and  the  annals  thus  collected  were  from  time  to  time  con- 
densed into  literary  works.  Thus  the  oldest  of  the  Ceylon  monasteries,  the  Maha- 
wira  ("  Great  Monastery  ")  in  Auuradhapura,  has  preserved  the  tradition  of  the 
introduction  of  Buddliism,  and  the  history  of  the  "  Great  Family  "  of  one  hundred 
and  seventy-four  kings,  in  its  chronicle,  "  Mahawansa."  Two  Pali  books,  the  Dipa- 
wansa  ("  History  of  the  Island  "),  and  the  Mahawansa,  which  is  later  by  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years,  are  works  diverging  but  little  from  the  original,  and  like  that 
original  both  are  continued  untU  the  death  of  King  Dhatusena  (479  A.  D.).  At  a 
later  period,  however,  continuations  were  constantly  added  to  the  Mahawansa, 
which  w^ere  carried  on  to  the  end  of  the  Singhalese  monarchy  and  the  English 
occupation,  1816.  For  a  long  period  these  and  similar  works  lay  forgotten  in  the 
libraries  of  the  monasteries,  until  in  1836  George  Turnour  made  the  first  part  of 
the  Mahawaiisa  known  by  a  faithful  translation,  throwing  a  flood  of  light  upon 
the  early  history  of  Buddhism.  Other  chronicles  (Rajawali,  Raja  Ratnatshari,  etc.) 
display  divergencies  from  the  original  source,  which  explain  the  difference  between 
the  views  of  the  several  monasteries  to  which  they  belong  ;  they  are  shorter,  less 
accurate,  and  moreover  inadequately  translated.  A  third  class  of  documents,  such 
as  the  Pujawali,  the  Nikayasamgraha,  etc.,  is  still  hidden  in  the  collections  of 
manuscripts  within  the  Buddhist  monasteries. 

(c)  The  Legend  of  the  Colonisation  of  Ceylon.  —  In  the  case  of  every  chronicle 
the  light  of  history  only  dawns  with  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  into  the  island, 
that  is,  with  the  time  of  Asoka.  The  accounts  given  of  earlier  events  in  Ceylon 
are  chiefly  pure  Buddhist  invention,  which  attempted  to  increase  the  sanctity  of 
the  sacred  places  in  the  island  by  asserting  the  presence  therein  of  Buddha  or  of 
his  twenty-three  predecessors.  These  improbabilities  apart,  the  prehistoric  por- 
tions of  the  chronicles  contain  secular  stories  of  far  greater  importance  for  us. 
Here  we  find  reduced  to  writing  that  tradition  which  for  centuries  had  been 
handed  down  by  the  people,  greatly  transformed  and  decorated,  the  work  of  whole 
epochs  being  assigned  to  individual  personalities,  but  on  the  whole  plain  and 
recognisable  in  its  main  features.  The  very  first  figure  of  Singhalese  history  can 
be  supported  from  the  evidence  of  historical  ethnology.  Wijaya  ("  Victory  ")  led 
the  foreign  tribes  across  the  straits,  and  his  characteristics  can  be  recognised  in 
the  Aryans  who  advanced  to  the  sea  before  the  epoch  of  Brahman  supremacy. 

(a)  Wijaya.  —  In  the  country  of  Lala  (Gujerat),  so  runs  the  legend  in  chapter 
seven  of  the  Mahawansa,  a  lion  surprised  a  caravan  which  was  escorting  the 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Waiiga  and  of  a  Kalinga  princess  ;  the  lion  carried  off  the 
king's  daughter  to  his  cave,  and  from  their  marriage  was  born  a  son,  Sihabahu,  and 
a  daughter,  Sihasiwali.  Mother  and  children  fled  from  the  captivity  of  the  lion; 
the  lion's  son  grew  up  and,  after  killing  his  father,  became  the  successor  of  his 
maternal  grandfather,  the  king  of  Wanga ;  at  a  later  period,  however,  he  returned 
to  his  native  country  of  Lala,  and  built  towns  and  villages  in  the  wilderness,  in 
spots  where  irrigation  was  possible.  His  eldest  son,  Wijaya,  was  made  viceroy 
when  he  came  of  age ;  however,  he  developed  into  an  enemy  of  law,  and  his  asso- 

VOL.  11  —  32 


498  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         lc>,„j.h-rir 

ciates  committeil  innumerable  acts  of  treachery  and  violence.  Ultimately  the 
people  grew  angry  and  complained  to  the  king.  He  threw  the  blame  on  the 
friends  of  the  prince,  but  censured  his  son  seveRdy.  Tlie  ofTcnces  were  rei>eatt'd, 
and  upon  the  third  occasion  the  j>eople  called  out,  "  Punish  thy  son  with  death." 
The  king  then  half  shaved  the  heads  of  Wijaya  and  his  seven  hundred  retainers, 
and  jHit  them  on  boanl  a  ship  which  was  driven  forth  into  the  open  sea.  Wijaya 
first  landed  in  the  liarbour  of  .Supparaka,  in  Jamliudipa  (India);  fearing,  however, 
that  the  reckless  immorality  of  his  followers  would  arouse  the  animosity  of  the 
natives,  he  continued  his  voyage.  "  This  prince,  by  name  Wijaya,  who  then  be- 
came wi.se  by  experience,  landed  in  the  district  of  Tambapauni,  of  the  country  of 
Lankit  (Ceylon).  As  the  king  Sihabahu  had  killed  the  lion  (Pali,  8iha ;  Sanscrit, 
Siriiha),  his  sons  and  descendants  were  called  Sihala  (Singhalese),  that  is,  lion 
slayers,  and  as  this  island  of  Lanka  was  conquered  and  colonised  by  a  Sihala,  it 
was  given  the  name  of  Sihala  [n4>a]  "  (that  is,  Lion  Island,  Sanscrit,  Simhala 
[Dwipa]  ;  in  English  pronunciation  Silan,  and  in  German,  Ceylon). 

The  historical  foundation  of  this  legend  carries  us  back  to  the  starting  point  of 
the  Singhalese  settlement,  to  the  country  of  L.lla  ;  the  name  survived  in  the  Greek 
Larike  (or  Surachtrene),  the  modern  Gujerat ;  the  solitary  lion,  who  at  the  very 
outset  inhabited  the  country,  attacked  and  plundered  the  neighbours,  is  to  be  ex- 
plained as  an  early  Aryan  settlement  on  the  Gulf  of  Cambay ;  indeed,  the  nick- 
name of  "  lion  "  was  a  favourite  designation  for  all  the  warrior  Aryans  and  their 
leaders,  and  in  Gujerat  itself  a  famous  dynasty,  known  as  "  the  Lions  "  (p.  485), 
continued  till  recent  date.  At  that  period  the  Aryan  conquerors  had  not  been 
subjected  to  the  stern  caste  regulations  of  the  Brahraans,  and  had  no  scruples 
of  conscience  in  contracting  alliances  with  native  wives  (the  Kalinga  princess). 
The  migration  to  Ceylon  belongs  to  a  somewhat  later  time.  The  lion  prince  made 
the  former  desert  a  populous  country,  with  towns  and  villages ;  then  further  dis- 
turbances broke  out.  According  to  the  Buddhists,  who  followed  the  Brahman 
version  of  Indian  history,  the  lawlessness  of  Wijaya  and  his  adherents  merely  con- 
sisted in  resistance  to  the  Brahman  claims.  The  rulers  attempted  to  use  compul- 
sion ;  however,  the  bold  spirit  of  the  warlike  part  of  the  Aryans  continually 
revolted  against  Brahman  predominance,  until  the  warriors  were  defeated  and 
sailed  away  to  seek  intellectual  freedom  in  a  new  country.  Driven  back  from  the 
Malabar  coast,  where  Brahman  influence  seems  to  have  penetrated  at  an  earlier 
period  (p.  388),  they  found  what  they  required  on  the  northeast  coast  of  Ceylon, 
an  arable  district  untroubled  by  Bralimans. 

Wijaya  landed  with  his  adherents,  apparently  in  543  B.  c.  (cf.  p.  500),  at  Tam- 
bapanni  (according  to  the  Sanscrit  rrame  of  the  river,  TSniraparni,  p.  386,  the 
Taprobane  of  the  Greeks).  His  future  history  is  adorned  by  tradition  with  fea- 
tures obviously  belonging  to  the  Odyssey  (due  to  the  intercourse  of  early  European 
civilizations  with  the  Spice  Islands) ;  the  strangers  first  fell  into  the  hands  of  an 
enchantress,  Kuweni,  who  kept  them  fast  in  an  underground  place ;  they  are  then 
freed,  as  in  Homer,  by  Wijaya,  who  is  helpeil  by  a  god  well  disposed  to  man  (in 
this  case  Vishnu).  He  marries  the  princess  enchantress,  and  with  her  help 
becomes  supreme  over  the  country ;  then,  however,  he  divorces  her  and  marries 
the  daughter  of  the  powerful  neigiibouring  king  Pandu  of  Madura,  while  his  com- 
rades take  wives  from  the  daughters  of  distinguished  families  in  the  Pflndu 
Kingdom. 


/"d-J  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  499 

(/3)  The  Successors  of  Wijaya.  —  The  death  of  Wijaya,  who  left  no  legitimate 
descendant,  was  followed  by  a  short  interregnum  ("  the  country  of  Lanka  was 
without  a  king  for  a  year  ") ;  however,  a  new  influx  of  the  Aryans  arrived  from 
Lala,  and  Wijaya's  nephew,  Panduwasudewa,  seized  the  throne  of  the  Singhalese 
king.  After  the  death  of  his  son  Abhaya,  the  succession  was  interrupted  for 
seventeen  years  by  disputes  about  the  kingship.  Then,  however,  after  the  defeat 
and  slaughter  of  his  uncle,  the  most  important  of  the  legendary  rulers  ascended  the 
throne,  by  name  Pandukabhaya.  Under  his  governorship  the  Singhalese  State 
rose  to  considerable  power ;  the  different  races  of  the  island  were  reconciled 
("  the  king  favoured  the  wishes  of  the  Yakkas  ")  and  lived  peacefully  together  in 
the  capital  of  Anuradhapura.  This  town  had  been  founded  by  the  first  settlers ; 
now,  however,  the  tank  which  had  been  previously  built  was  extended  to  form  a  great 
lake,  and  by  the  construction  of  a  palace  and  shrines  for  the  different  religions  and 
sects  the  settlement  became  highly  important,  and  is  spoken  of  by  the  chronicler 
as  "  delightful  and  well  built."  The  oldest  of  the  king's  uncles,  the  former  prince 
Abhaya,  was  installed  as  governor  of  the  town ;  two  Yakkas  were  appointed  as 
overseers  for  every  two  of  the  four  quarters  into  which  the  town  was  divided, 
another  Yakka  being  made  sentinel  of  the  southern  gate.  The  despised  races, 
such  as  the  Chandalas,  were  settled  in  the  suburbs,  where  they  were  employed  in 
street-cleaning,  police  work  at  night,  and  burials  ;  outside  the  town,  cemeteries  and 
places  for  torture  and  execution  were  constructed.  The  royal  hunters  (the  Veddas, 
who  now  dwell  apart  from  the  other  inhabitants)  had  a  street  of  their  own.  The 
king  appears  in  the  character  of  a  benevolent  monarch.  Hospitals  are  erected  for 
the  sick,  and  the  ruler  attempts  to  meet  the  views  of  the  various  religious  sects  by 
assigning  quarters  to  them,  building  them  houses,  and  erecting  temples. 

The  Singhalese  rulers  thus  mentioned  by  tradition  cannot  be  considered  in  any 
degree  historical  personages.  Wijaya  is  as  vague  a  personality  as  the  founder  of 
Rome,  and  Paiidukabhaya  was  no  more  a  legislator  than  Numa.  It  is  probable 
that  the  characteristics  of  famous  generals  were  interwoven  with  the  picture  of 
those  legendary  kings ;  the  most  we  can  say  is  that  they  represented  successive 
stages  of  civilization.  Wijaya  is  the  personification  of  the  first  Aryan  emigration, 
as  Panduwasudewa  is  of  a  second  ;  his  successor,  Abhaya,  represents  the  struggle 
of  the  princes  for  supremacy,  while  Pandukabhaya  personifies  the  final  victory  of 
the  individual  over  his  rivals,  and  the  introduction  of  social  order,  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  the  natives  to  the  immigrants,  the  rise  of  general  prosperity,  and  the  devel- 
opment of  the  kingdom.  Generally  speaking,  the  Aryan  development  in  Ceylon 
advanced  on  parallel  lines  with  the  development  of  the  kindred  tribes  in  the  Ganges 
territory.  The  victorious  conquest  of  the  original  inhabitants  and  the  occupation  of 
the  country,  the  struggles  of  princes  with  one  another,  and  the  final  formation  of 
certain  great  towns,  in  which  a  high  civilization  rapidly  developed,  supported  by 
the  many  natural  products  produced  by  cultivation  or  by  a  bountiful  nature,  and 
advanced  by  the  peaceful  incorporation  of  the  subject  tribes  into  the  body  politic, 
—  such  is  the  general  course  of  development.  In  one  respect  only  was  the  devel- 
opment of  the  island  Aryans  essentially  different  from  that  of  their  brothers  on 
the  mainland,  —  the  Brahmans  never  asserted  their  fatal  influence  upon  the  intel- 
lectual development  of  Ceylon. 


500  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chaphr iv 

(7)  The  Chronology  of  the  Legendary  Period.  — The  chronology  of  the  legend- 
ary period  suflers  from  the  fact  that  the  formation  of  the  Singhalese  kingdom  has 
been  compressed  into  the  lifetime  of  a  few  persons.  Chronological  data  in  the 
Singhalese  chronicles  are,  generally  speaking,  unreliable  before  the  introduction 
of  Buddhism.  A  calculation  of  their  statements  of  the  length  of  reign  attributed 
to  individual  monarchs  will  carry  the  landing  of  Wijaya  back  to  tlie  year  543  B.  c, 
the  arrival  of  Panduwasudewa  to  the  year  504,  the  rule  of  Pitndukabhaya  between 
the  years  437  and  367  B.  c.  Si.xty  years  after  the  death  of  the  latter  the  tlirone 
was  ascended  by  his  grandson  Dewauanipiya  Tissa,  who  welcomed  the  first 
Buddhist  missionaries  to  Ceylon.  Thus  the  development  of  the  kingdom  occupied 
only  two  hundred  and  thirty-six  years.  Such  a  process  naturally  demands  a  far 
greater  period  of  time.  The  first  Aryan  conquests  may  have  been  more  or  less 
contemporary  with  the  occupation  of  Gujerat  and  the  struggles  between  the  spirit- 
ual and  temporal  power  in  the  north  of  India,  in  which  case  Ceylon  history  will 
begin  about  the  middle  of  the  second  millennium  B.  c. 

C.  The  Early  History  of  Ceylon  (300  b.  c.  to  1500  a.  d.) 

The  early  history  of  Ceylon  assumes  a  more  reliable  character  about  the  year 
300  B.  c.  It  is  characteri.sed  by  three  maiu  movements  :  Buddhism,  internal  strug- 
gles for  the  succession,  and  foreign  wars  with  the  Dra vidians  on  the  continent. 

(rt)  Buddhism  in  Ceylon. — The  first  human  figure  in  Singhalese  history  is 
Dewanampiya  ("  the  delight  of  the  gods  ")  Tissa,  the  contemporary  of  Asoka.  In 
the  Singhalese  chronicles  his  date  is  not  yet  accurately  determined.  While  his  own 
history  is  written  in  full  detail,  the  scantiest  account  is  given  of  his  three  suc- 
cessors, of  whom  we  know  little  more  than  the  facts  that  they  were  all  younger 
brothers  of  Tissa,  that  each  of  them  reigned  ten  years,  and  that  they  endowed 
many  pious  foundations  to  support  the  monks ;  similarly  King  Asela,  who  is  distin- 
guished from  the  above-mentioned  rulers  by  the  first  entrance  of  the  Tamils  into 
the  succession,  is  said  to  have  reigned  ten  years  (lie  is  stated  to  be  the  son  of  King 
Mutasiwa,  who  had  died  a  century  earlier !).  These  accounts  of  the  different  reigns 
have  often  received  wholly  arbitrary  additions.  Consequently  the  great  event  in 
Ceylon,  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  under  Tissa,  is  to  be  placed  at  a  later  date 
than  tliat  assigned  by  the  chronicles.  The  chroniclers  supposed  Tissa  to  have  ac- 
cepted the  new  doctrine  shortly  after  his  accession,  which  is  stated  to  have  occurred 
in  307,  the  actual  date  being  251  B.  c,  and  placed  his  death  in  267  B.  c,  whereas 
the  despatch  of  Buddhist  monks  to  Ceylon  by  Asoka  did  not  take  place  before 
250  B.  c. 

The  monarch  wlio  gave  the  monk  so  hearty  a  reception  was  naturally  painted 
by  them  in  most  brilliant  colours.  Tissa  is  placed  at  an  equal  height  of  piety  to 
Asoka,  who  had  extended  his  kingdom  from  Afghanistan  to  the  modern  Mysore 
(p.  407),  and  legend  is  even  ready  to  retrace  the  friendship  of  the  two  monarchs  to 
their  association  in  a  previous  state  of  existence  in  which  the  kings  were  said  to 
have  been  brothers.  But  all  this  brilliant  description  cannot  entirely  hide  tlie 
truth  that  the  Ceylon  king  was  dependent  in  some  degree  upon  Asoka.  In  his 
thirteenth  rock  inscription  Asoka  prides  himself  on  the  fact  that  he  had  dissemi- 
nated the  Dhamma  (p.  396)  "as   far   as  Tambapamni ; "    moreover,  Tissa,  who 


Early  Buddhist  Temple  Buildings  and  the  Ruwanweli-Daooba 

IN  Anuradhapura 

(After  Henry  W.  Cave,  "The  Ruined  Cities  of  Ceylon.") 


KXlM.AXATIiiX    »»K    TllK    1UM)I)HA    TKMIM.KS    AT    AXritADil  AITR  A 
IN    CKVLOX    KKl'KKSKXTKD    OVKIM.KAF 

Almce :  The  temple  of  Isuruiiuuiiyii  is  jnesuiiieil  to  be  u  IV)iiii(l;itioii  of  Kiii^'  Tissa  (al)out 
3(10  B.  c.)i  ">'<!  is  l>iiilt  on  a  lake  roniaiitically  situateil  and  -surroundetl  by  lotus  jilaiits,  but 
infested  with  croeoililes.  Tiie  temple  is  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  which  is  covered  with  .sculpt uies  in 
hij;h  relief,  and  is  remarkable  for  t  he  grotes<pie  frescoes  and  sculptures  in  low  relief  on  its  terraces. 
Especially  striking  are  the  heads  of  four  elephants  at  the  corner  of  the  lake,  above  which  a  sitting 
figure  holding  a  horse  is  visible. 

ijc/oic  .-  The  lUiwanweli,  or  Gold-dust  Dagolia.  In  the  second  half  of  the  second  century  B.  c. 
Huddhist  architecture  underwent  a  revival  umler  the  Singhalese  king  Dutthagamani.  The  daj;oba 
represented  overleaf  is  almost  three  hundred  fi-et  in  height  ;  though  now  overgrown  with  trees  and 
climbei-s,  it  consists  of  a  strong  mass  of  masonry.  In  the  foreground  appear  the  ruins  of  the 
watch-house,  the  outlines  of  which  aie  still  marki'd  by  si.\  jjarallel  lines  of  columns.  The  arti.stic 
lion  carvings  to  the  left  of  the  entrance  deserve  notice.  Round  the  dagoba  runs  a  wall  almo.-t  one 
hundred  feet  broad,  wide  I'uough  for  the  progress  of  proci'ssions,  in  which  a  great  numlxT  of 
elephants  usually  took  part.  Aliove  this  rises  a  .second  platform  about  five  luuidied  feet  broad, 
supported  by  four  hundred  stone  elephants  I'ach  nine  feet  high,  of  wliii-h  only  the  heads,  fun;- 
quarters,  ami  fore  feet  are  visible.  Upon  this  fouiidatinu  was  liuilt  llie  teiiqile  proper,  which  rises 
to  a  height  of  two  liuiulre<l  feel. 

(.M'tir  Ibiov  \V.  Cue,  '-Tlie  liiiim-.l  Cities  ,)ICevlon."      l.oiiilon.  lS!t7.) 


India]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  501 

ascended  the  throne  amid  great  festivities  in  251  B.  c,  represents  himself  as  being 
again  crowned  by  special  deputies  of  Asoka  after  the  exchange  of  rich  presents 
destined  for  coronation  purposes.  The  surprising  liberality  with  which  the  expo- 
nents of  the  new  doctrine  were  received  was  probably  due  in  part  to  the  dependent 
position  of  Ceylon,  ilahinda,  the  son  of  Asoka  by  Dewi,  a  woman  of  inferior 
birth,  the  daughter  of  a  merchant  in  WedisS,  was  most  kindly  received  by  Tissa 
with  six  other  missionaries  a  month  after  liis  second  coronation.  Magnificent 
endowments  of  land  (the  splendid  park  of  Magamega  in  the  capital,  together  with 
the  mountain  of  Chetya)  were  the  first  gifts  to  the  missionaries  ;  the  transference 
was  made  with  the  greatest  pomp,  and  dwellings  for  the  monks  were  immediately 
erected  upon  the  lands.  On  the  very  first  day  the  king  and  six  thousand  of  his 
subjects  were  converted  to  the  new  teaching,  which  had  long  before  lost  its  original 
simplicity  and  in  which  the  worship  of  relics  was  an  important  element.  Hence 
almost  immediately  two  of  the  greatest  objects  of  veneration  were  brought  by  spe- 
cial ambassadors  from  the  country  of  the  founder  ;  these  were  the  collar-bone  of 
the  "enlightened  one,"  and  a  branch  of  the  sacred  Bo  tree  (p.  391).  At  the  pres- 
ent day  upon  the  island  the  shrines  built  for  such  relics  with  their  cupola-shaped 
thupas  (stupas)  or  dagobas  (dhatugarbhas),  in  some  cases  of  enormous  size,  are 
to  be  found  by  thousands,  and  are  a  characteristic  feature  in  the  landscape  (see  the 
plate,  "  Early  Buddhist  Temple  Buildings  at  Anuradhapura  ").  The  relics  were 
accompanied  by  the  order  of  nuns  of  Samghamitta  (p.  399),  who  also  found  many 
adherents. 

The  introduction  of  Buddhism  was  fraught  with  the  most  important  conse- 
quences to  the  whole  development  of  the  Singhalese  people.  Their  ancestors  had 
escaped  the  Brahman  power  by  emigration  to  the  island ;  their  descendants  volun- 
tarily subjected  themselves  to  Buddhism.  The  Indian  Brahmans  had  attained 
their  high  position  at  the  price  of  severe  struggles  ;  the  Buddhist  monks  received 
theirs  as  a  present  from  the  Singhalese  kings,  and  henceforward  the  people  are 
under  their  spell.  At  the  moment  the  order  merely  acquired  sites  for  the  erec- 
tion of  monasteries,  of  summer  resorts,  and  shrines  for  relics.  In  other  respects 
the  command  of  complete  poverty  which  Buddha  had  laid  upon  his  bikkhus 
("  beggars  ;  "  p.  398)  was  strictly  followed,  and  the  monks  obtained  the  necessaries 
of  Ufe  as  alms  and  in  no  other  way  ;  but  after  a  little  more  than  oue  hundred 
years  this  rule  was  broken,  first  by  the  king  Duttha  GamanT,  who  was  celebrated 
for  his  services  to  tlie  order,  and  afterward  by  his  grandson  Wattha.  Extensive 
districts  were  now  assigned  to  the  monks  for  their  support.  Successive  kings  in 
like  manner  assigned  the  best  land,  the  canals  and  tanks,  indeed  whole  villages 
with  their  inhabitants,  to  the  monks ;  by  degrees  if  not  the  whole,  at  any  rate  the 
best  part,  of  all  arable  and  cultivated  land  passed  into  their  possession. 

Meanwhile  the  inhabitants  became  impoverished  in  every  respect.  The  popu- 
lation increased  in  proportion  to  the  land  recovered  for  cultivation  by  means  of 
irrigation,  but  the  products  of  such  land  chiefly  went  to  support  the  idle  monks. 
Many  v.llages  were  in  a  state  of  serfdom  to  the  monasteries ;  the  remainder, 
oppressed  by  the  royal  taxes  and  the  alms  which  they  were  obliged  to  place  in 
the  pots  of  the  men  with  the  yellow  robes  (p.  398),  were  cut  off  from  all  hope  of  pro- 
sperity. A  considerable  proportion  of  the  growing  youth  disappeared  into  the  mon- 
asteries of  monks  and  nuns ;  those  who  remained  upon  the  land  were  oppressed  by 
the  teaching  that  activity  in  any  form  was  an  obstacle  to  true  happiness,  while 


502  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [Chapter  ir 

intellectual  growth  became  impossible,  and  freedom  or  self-respect  were  unknown. 
The  pious  king  who  liad  iiitroduct'd  HudJhism  to  the  island,  with  many  of  his  suc- 
cessors, might  well  kiok  with  satisfaction  upon  the  wealth  of  the  country,  the 
increase  of  agriculture,  tlie  growth  of  the  population,  and  the  boundless  piety  of 
his  subjects.  To  tlie  splendour  of  the  capital,  even  in  later  times,  testimony  is 
borne  not  only  by  tlie  admiring  accounts  of  the  Singhalese  historians  and  Chinese 
pilgrims,  but  still  more  by  the  miles  of  ruins  now  hidden  in  the  primeval  forest 
which  alone  mark  the  sites  of  former  temporal  and  ecclesiastical  palaces.  The 
e.^tent  of  the  arable  land  and  the  thickness  of  the  population  are  shown  by  the 
enormous  tanks  now  dry,  almost  as  large  as  lakes,  while  the  slavish  subjugation  of 
the  people  is  evidenced  by  the  gigantic  shrines  and  the  many  miles  of  irrigation 
works  which  were  constructed  by  the  forced  labour  of  the  villages  and  districts. 
But  the  apparent  greatness  of  the  royal  jwwer  was  at  the  same  time  its  weakness  ; 
the  people  over  whom  tlie  king  ruled  was  a  people  of  sub.servient  slaves.  In  the 
mountains  only  did  a  remnant  of  the  former  population  survive  ;  even  there  small 
ruins  of  monasteries  are  to  be  found ;  but  there  also  lived  strong  and  independent 
men.  When  a  Tamil  invasion  overran  "  the  royal  domains  "  on  the  great  northern 
plains  and  e.xpelled  the  king  from  his  capital,  the  wave  of  conquest  was  broken 
upon  the  mountains. 

Almost  all  the  kings  were  good  rulers  according  to  Buddhist  ideas  ;  but  their 
praise  entirely  depends  upon  the  extent  of  tlie  gifts  with  which  they  endowed  the 
order.  Mahuwah.sa  in  one  and  the  same  breath  relates  that  Asoka,  the  great 
friend  of  the  order,  was  the  wisest  and  best  of  princes,  and  that  he  killed  his  ninety- 
nine  brotliers  to  secure  his  sole  power  in  Jambudipa  (India)  ;  similarly  later  mur- 
derers of  brothers  and  kings  are  described  as  "  men  wlio  devoted  them.selves  to  works 
of  love  and  piety,"  or  as  men  "  who  after  their  death  enter  the  commimity  of  the 
king  of  the  gods,"  provided  only  that  they  were  benevolent  to  the  order  during 
their  reigns.  In  this  respect  extracts  from  the  Mahawafisa  vividly  recall  certain 
descriptions  of  Gregory  of  Tours.  F>addiiism  did  notliing  to  stop  the  murder  of 
kings  by  relations  or  ambitious  ministers.  A  large  proportion  of  the  rulers  disap- 
peared by  this  means  as  though  mown  down  by  the  plague,  and  the  land  was 
reduced  to  a  state  of  tlie  utmost  confusion.  But  few  kings  appear  who  governed 
with  any  show  of  strength  or  were  able  to  expel  the  Indian  l)ravidians  from  the 
country ;  the  majority  were  unimportant  weaklings  in  the  hands  of  the  monks. 
Many  of  them  furthered  the  prosperity  of  their  people  from  the  Buddhist  point  of 
view  (p.  .309).  They  did  their  best  to  increase  the  extent  of  land  available  for 
agriculture,  to  plant  fruit  trees,  to  found  hospitals  (several  kings  were  famous  as 
physicians),  to  promote  art  and  science,  the  theatre  and  dancing  (individual  kings 
are  distinguished  as  admirable  artists,  as  poets  and  sculptors).  But  the  kings  did 
as  little  as  the  monks  to  improve  the  material  prosperity  of  their  subjects  or  to 
educate  their  powers  of  independent  thought  and  will. 

The  numbers,  the  riches,  and  influence  of  the  order  increased  with  extraor- 
dinary rapidity.  However,  the  purity  of  life  and  doctrine  deteriorated  no  less 
speedily.  Buddha  himself  had  not  reduced  his  teaching  to  writing,  and  immedi- 
ately after  his  death  divergent  opinions  upon  the  meaning  of  the  "enlightened 
one's  "  doctrine  had  appeared.  Thus  from  the  very  outset  the  Buddhist  church 
showed  a  strong  and  fatal  tendency  to  sectarianism,  and  the  theory  tiiat  thought 
and  actioa  implied  suffering  was  rapidly  reduced  to  a  series  of  external  formalities. 


/«H  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  503 

Intolerance  toward  other  faiths  became  bitter  hatred  and  deadly  animosity,  as  the 
avarice  and  malevolence  of  the  order  were  increased  by  the  growth  of  its  interest  in 
its  rich  possessions.  Consequently  the  history  of  the  order  is  a  history  of  violent 
schism.  From  the  time  of  King  Wattha  Gamani,  the  brotherhoods  of  the  monas- 
teries of  Mahawihara  and  Abhayagiri  (cf.  below,  p.  504)  were  separated  by  bitter 
jealousy  and  hatred ;  the  tension  increased  with  the  value  of  the  possessions 
which  the  kings  assigned  to  one  or  other  of  the  parties,  and  bloody  struggles  broke 
out  the  moment  the  king  definitely  declared  for  either  of  the  two  rivals.  Ener- 
getic rulers  made  attempts  at  reunion,  which  apj^eared  successful  for  the  moment, 
but  the  old  hatred  invariably  broke  out  sooner  or  later  and  seriously  impaired  the 
prestige  of  the  church.  The  disconnected  nature  of  the  doctrine  itself  was 
reflected  in  the  looseness  of  monastic  morality.  Mahawaiisa  complains,  "  In  the 
villages  which  have  been  presented  to  the  order,  purity  of  life  for  the  monks 
consists  solely  in  taking  wives  and  begetting  cliQdren."  The  people  gradually 
grew  more  indifferent  to  the  order,  for  w^liich  their  respect  had  long  since  ceased ; 
and  the  order  itself  was  so  shattered  by  the  long  weary  Tamil  wars,  that  from 
1065  A.  D.  onward  scarce  four  monks  in  full  orders  could  be  found  throughout  the 
island,  the  number  necessary  by  the  laws  of  the  church  for  the  formation  of  a 
legal  chapter  and  the  creation  of  new  members ;  monks,  therefore,  had  to  be 
imported  from  India  or  Burmah. 

(h)  The  First  Historical  Invasions  of  the  Tamils.  —  The  list  of  successors  to 
Dewanampiya  Tissa  provides  a  more  intelligible  but  a  far  less  pleasing  picture  than 
the  obscurer  figures  of  that  monarch's  predecessors.  After  the  reigns  of  three 
kings,  who  appear  but  shadowy  personalities  in  the  chronicles,  the  Tamils  invaded 
the  country  in  the  year  237  b.  c,  according  to  tlie  Mahawan^a,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  two  young  princes,  who  possessed  numerous  ships  and  a  strong  force  of 
cavalry ;  after  killing  the  king  Sura  Tissa  they  ruled  over  the  kingdom  for  twenty 
years.  The  Buddhist  historians  describe  them  as  righteous,  and  we  may  therefore 
assume  them  to  have  been  tolerant.  They  were  defeated  and  killed  by  Asela 
(p.  500).  However,  in  205  B.  c,  after  the  lapse  of  the  usual  ten  years,  the  Tamil 
Elara  invaded  Ceylon  from  the  north,  "  a  man  of  the  famous  tribe  of  the  Uju ;  " 
he  slew  the  king,  and  held  the  supremacy  for  forty-four  years  impartially  against 
friend  and  foe.  The  only  province  that  did  not  bow  to  the  foreign  yoke  was  the 
mountainous  Rohana  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  island ;  from  that  point  a 
descendant  of  "  the  great  family,"  Duttha  Gamani,  again  expelled  the  Tamils.  One 
Tamil  fortress  after  the  other  fell  into  his  hands,  and  finally  in  161,  in  a  battle  at 
Auuradhapura,  he  killed  the  Tamil  king  Elara  himself  in  single  combat,  and 
immediately  afterward  his  nephew  Bhalluka,  who  had  brought  up  a  fresh  army 
too  late  from  ilalabar.  This  portion  of  the  Mahawaii.sa  reads  like  a  stirring 
epic.  The  monks  had  every  reason  to  praise  the  pious  and  liberal  conqueror  of 
the  Tamils.  He  refounded  numerous  monasteries  and  erected  permanent  memo- 
rials in  the  Palace  of  the  Thousand  Pillars  of  Lohapasada  in  the  Marikawatti  and 
the  Ruwanweli  dagobas  (see  the  lower  half  of  the  plate,  p.  501). 

Laji  Tissa,  a  grandson  of  Duttha  GSmani,  kdled  his  uncle,  Saddha  Tissa,  in  119 
B.  C.  to  secure  the  power  for  himself;  his  successor  and  younger  brother,  Khallata 
Naga,  was  murdered  by  his  minister,  Maharattaka,  in  109  B.  c.  Hardly  had  Wattha 
Gamani  Abhaya,  the  youngest  grandson  of  Duttha  GSmani,  revenged  this  treachery 


ooi  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD         [a,„j>trr  ir 

than  the  Tamils,  attracted  by  these  iiuarrels  iilxmt  the  .succession,  ajjain  invaded 
the  country  under  seven  leaders  (103  B.C.)  and  forced  the  younj^  king  to  seek 
refujre  in  the  mountains.  At  that  time  purity  of  blood  among  the  Aryan  Singha- 
lese kings  had  long  been  lost.  Scornfully  the  r>rahMian  (Jiri  called  after  the  flying 
king,  the  great  "Black"  Sihala  is  flying  !  Like  his  grandfather,  Wattha  GfimaHi 
also  raised  in  the  highlands  a  force  capable  of  liberating  the  throne  of  Wijaya 
from  the  hereditary  foe  (88  B.C.);  afterward  during  his  reign  of  twelve  years  he 
built  many  monasteries,  and  assigned  large  districts  (Patta)  for  the  support  of  the 
monks,  who  had  hitherto  lived  on  tlie  alms  gained  by  begging  (p.  501).  During 
tlie  Tamil  supremacy  the  population  had  been  so  impoverished  and  the  contribu- 
tions of  alms  had  grown  so  scanty  that  the  very  existence  of  the  order  would  have 
been  endangered  if  forced  to  depend  on  these.  At  the  point  where  he  had  been 
insulted  by  the  Urahman  triri  he  founded  a  monastery  which  he  called  Abhaya 
Giri,  after  his  own  name  and  that  of  the  Brahman.  The  elder  monastery  of  Ma- 
hawihara,  inspired  by  jealousy,  soon  found  an  e.KCuse  for  quarrelling  with  its 
younger  sister  foundation.  The  dispute  led  to  one  good  result, —  the  reduction  to 
writing  of  the  sacred  doctrine  which  had  hitherto  been  orally  transmitted  from 
generation  to  generation.  The  three  Pitakas  (p.  393)  and  the  commentaries  to 
tliese,  the  Atthakathas  (p.  415),  were  written  in  the  Singhalese  language,  and  a 
wound  was  consequently  inflicted  upon  the  Buddhist  church  which  has  never  since 
been  healed. 

(c)  The  Last  Kings  of  the  Houxe  of  Wijaya  and  their  Successors  (.S'.S^  B.  C.  to 
IKiJf  A.  D.}  —  Melancholy  is  the  picture  which  the  historians  of  the  monastery  of 
Mahawihara  have  drawn  of  the  immcLliate  successors  of  Wattha  Gamani.  His  son 
Cliola  Naga  is  described  as  a  robber  and  footpad  from  the  very  moment  of  his 
accession,  and  afterward  as  a  cruel  persecutor  of  the  monks ;  apparently  he  had 
declared  against  the  brotherhood.  However,  his  wife  Anula  (47  to  42  B.  c.)  seems 
to  have  been  a  disgrace  to  the  royal  throne,  and  to  have  rivalled  Messalina  by  her 
poisonings  and  voluptuousness.  Slie  poisoned  her  husband's  successor  to  secure 
the  throne  for  herself  and  to  gain  full  license  for  her  unbounded  avarice.  Hence- 
forward death  was  active  in  the  royal  palace :  Anula  herself  was  killed  in  42  b.  c, 
while  twelve  years  later  Amanda  (Jamani  was  assassinated  by  his  younger  brother, 
as  also  was  Chandamukha  Siva  in  the  year  44  B.  c. 

(a)  Disturbances  upon  the  TJironc  and  in  the  Church  ;  Buddhagliosha.  —  The 
last  of  "  the  great  family,"  Yasalalaka  Tissa,  who  had  murdered  his  predecessor, 
had  a  warder  by  name  Sul)ha  who  closely  resembled  himself.  The  king  would 
amuse  himself  by  clothing  his  servant  in  the  royal  robes  and  setting  him  on  the 
throne  while  he  himself  took  the  post  of  doorkeeper.  Once,  however,  when  he 
joked  with  the  false  king  arrayed  in  liis  royal  robes  tlu'  latter  called  out,  "  How 
can  this  slave  dare  to  laugh  in  my  presence  !  "  Yasalalaka  was  punished  with 
death  and  Subha  continued  to  play  the  part  of  legitimate  king ;  however,  after  a 
year  he  was  killed  by  Wasabha,  a  member  of  the  Lambakanna  caste,  who  seized 
the  throne.  The  Lambakanna  caste  had  dis]ilay('il  rebellious  tendencies  at  an  earlier 
period.  Their  caste  priile  had  been  woumled  by  King  Ilanaga  (38-44  a.  d.)  ;  they 
had  revolted  and  expelled  this  monarch  for  three  years.  On  the  present  occasion 
they  maintained  their  poissession  of  the  throne  for  three  generations.     Then  ensued 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  505 


a  period  of  rebellion  and  murder,  and  the  power  passed  into  different  hands,  until 
in  248  A.  D.  three  of  the  Lambakanna  murdered  the  king  Wijaya  II  and  seized 
the  power. 

In  the  country  at  large  times  were  hard,  and  the  prevalence  of  robber  bands 
made  life  and  property  alike  uncertain ;  the  royal  prestige  was  greatly  impaired, 
and  the  order  was  weakened  by  the  dissensions  of  the  two  chief  brotherhoods. 
The  last  of  the  three  above-mentioned  Lambakanna,  by  name  Gothabhaya,  vigor- 
ously attacked  the  Abhayagiri  sect,  and  expelled  from  the  church  and  banished 
from  the  island  some  sixty  monks  who  "  had  adopted  the  false  Wetula  doctrine, 
and  who  were  like  tliorns  to  the  conqueror's  religion."  At  a  later  period,  however, 
he  was  persuaded  to  change  his  mind  by  Samghamitta,  a  pupil  of  the  banished 
high  priest,  to  whom  he  entrusted  the  education  of  his  sons.  In  the  ca.se  of  the 
elder,  Jettha  Tissa  I,  this  education  proved  unsuccessful ;  upon  reaching  the  throne 
he  persecuted  the  Abhayagiri  monks,  and  his  tutor  in  particular,  who  was  forced  to 
flee  to  the  mainland.  Twelve  years  later  he  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  brother 
Mahasena  (277-304  A.  d.).  This  king  was  persuaded  by  his  tutor,  who  had  now 
returned,  to  begin  a  severe  persecution  of  the  Mahawihara  brotherhood.  He  pro- 
hibited these  monks  from  receiving  alms,  and  thereby  made  it  impossible  for  them 
to  remain  in  the  "  royal  domains ; "  they  were  forced  to  flee  to  the  mountains.  For 
nine  years  the  venerable  mother  monastery  remained  entirely  abandoned,  and  pro- 
posals were  brought  forward  to  dismantle  it  and  to  use  the  valuable  materials  for 
the  improvement  of  the  hostile  Abhayagiri  monastery,  when  at  length  tlie  king  re- 
voked his  decision  against  the  persecuted  monks.  His  adviser,  Samghamitta,  was 
killed  in  the  course  of  a  popular  rising,  the  expelled  monks  were  recalled,  and  their 
monastery  was  splendidly  restored.  Henceforward  the  king  attempted  to  make 
amends  to  the  brotherhood  for  the  wrong  wliich  he  had  done  to  them  by  a  special 
display  of  liberality. 

The  next  four  kings  were  good  Buddhists,  liberal  to  the  church  and  benevolent 
to  their  subjects.  Sirimeghawanna,  the  son  of  Mahasena  (304-332),  is  lauded  for 
the  complete  restoration  of  the  Mahawihara  aionastery,and  also  as  being  the  ruler 
under  whom  a  princess  of  Dantapura,  the  capital  of  Kalinga,  brought  to  Kandy  in 
Ceylon  the  most  sacred  relic  of  the  Buddhists,  the  tooth  of  Buddha  (Dathadhatu). 
Among  the  following  monarchs  Shettha  Tissa  II  (332-341)  is  distinguished  as  a 
sculptor  and  a  painter,  while  his  son  Buddhadasa  (341-370)  was  famous  as  a  phy- 
sician and  the  author  of  a  "  Compendium  of  the  Whole  Science  of  Medicine." 
Then  followed  Upatissa  II  (370—412),  who  was  murdered  by  his  brother  MahanSma. 
Under  the  latter  (412— 434)  an  event  took  place  of  high  importance  to  southern 
Buddliism,  —  the  translation  into  the  Pali  lansuajre  of  the  Atthakathas  emanating 
from  ]\Iahinda,  which  had  hitherto  existed  only  in  Singhalese  and  were  unknown 
in  India.  The  monk  Buddhaghosha  (p.  406)  was  sent  from  Magadha  to  Ceylon 
by  his  teacher  Rewata  to  translate  this  wirk  "  according  to  the  rules  of  Magadha, 
the  root  of  all  languages ; "  in  the  seclusion  of  the  Ganthakara  monastery  at 
Anuradhapura  he  completed  this  great  work.  On  the  occasion  of  the  twenty-fifth 
anniversary  of  his  coronation  King  Chulalongkorn  of  Siam  (p.  512)  issued  a  new 
edition  of  this  work  in  thirty-nine  volumes  (Bangkok,  1893-1894). 

(S)  TJie  Decline  of  the  Royal  Power  and  the  Advance  of  the  Tamils  {434^-116^ 
■A.  D.)  —  The  example  set  by  Mahanama  in  murdering  his  brother  was  rapidly  fol- 


50(3  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [choptcriF 

lowi'd.  Then  the  Tamils  reapjieared  under  their  kin;^  IVindii  and  his  suns,  occu- 
pying the  northern  part  of  the  ishmd  fruni41G  to  4Go ;  tliey  were  ultimately  driven 
out  of  the  country  by  Dhatuseua,  a  great  landed  proprietor  and  apparently  a  de- 
scendant of  the  family  of  Asoka  (the  Maurya  dynasty).  "  He  gave  the  country 
peace,  and  restored  to  religion  those  rights  which  the  strangers  had  abolished;" 
however,  he  was  imprisoned  by  his  own  son  Kassapa  and  buried  alive  (479  A..  D.). 

This  scandalous  deed  opened  another  period  of  misery  for  the  country.  In  the 
ne.vt  two  centuries  from  479  to  691  no  less  than  twelve  rulers  died  a  violent  death. 
Fratricide  and  the  revolts  of  generals  produced  a  rapid  series  of  changes  in  the 
succession  to  the  throne.  The  prt)vincial  viceroys  tended  to  independence,  and 
the  sectarian  warfare  within  the  lUiddhist  church  continued  undiminished.  The 
Tamils,  who  had  formerly  invaded  tlie  country  for  plunder  and  coiu^uest  upon  their 
own  initiative,  were  now  constantly  brought  in  by  Singhalese  princes  or  generals 
to  overthrow  the  legitimate  occupants  of  the  throne.  Temples  and  royal  treas- 
uries were  plundered,  religion  was  o])iiressed,  and  the  peojde  grew  more  and  more  im- 
poverished. However,  during  the  lifth  and  .sixtli  centuries,  the  period  of  the  king 
KumSra  Dasa  (515-524),  to  whom  is  ascribed  the  Sanscrit  tran.slation  of  the  liS.- 
mflyana  (p.  496),  which  remains  only  in  the  Singhalese  translation,  and  Agrabhi  I 
(564-598),  who  was  famous  as  a  poet,  Chinese  pilgrims  describe  the  capital  as 
a  brilliant  town ;  even  at  the  outset  of  the  seventh  century  a  Singhalese  historical 
work  speaks  of  the  beauty  of  Anuradhapura.  Nevertheless,  under  Aggabodhi  IV 
(673-689)  the  capital  could  no  longer  hold  out  against  the  hereditary  enemy ;  the 
royal  residence  was  removed  to  I'olounaruwa  (I'ulathi)  at  a  greater  distance  from 
the  point  of  Tamil  invasion,  the  harbour  of  Mautotte  on  the  Gulf  of  Manaar.  This 
change  became  permanent  about  846  a.  d.  The  island  gained  some  occasional 
relief  from  the  internal  wars  of  the  difTerent  Dravidian  races  on  the  mainland. 
Sena  I  (846-866)  was,  however,  obliged  to  take  refuge  iu  the  inaccessible  recesses 
of  the  highlands ;  the  northern  part  of  the  island  was  cruelly  devastated,  the 
capital  plundered,  and  its  treasures  carried  off  to  India.  Now,  however,  attracted 
by  tlie  rich  booty,  the  Chola  began  war  with  their  Tamil  neighbours.  Thus  under 
Sena  I  the  Singhalese  crossed  the  Palk  Straits ;  the  Pandya  king  was  killed,  the 
hostile  capital  of  Madura  plundered,  and  the  booty  taken  from  Ceylon  recovered. 
Under  Kassapa  IV  (912-929)  a  Singhalese  army  even  goes  to  the  help  of  the 
Pandya  king,  though  with  little  effect,  and  the  Tamil  ruler  is  forced  to  take  refuge 
in  Ceylon. 

This  rapid  rise  of  Singhalese  prosperity  was  of  no  long  duration.  I'nder 
Udaya  III  (964-972)  and  Mahinda  IV  (975-991)  Ceylon  was  invaded  by  the 
Cholas;  under  the  leadership  of  their  king,  Parakesariwarman  (1052-1061),  they 
overran  the  island  to  its  southernmost  extremity,  the  province  of  Rohana,  carried 
away  two  sons  of  the  king  Miiuabharana,  and  killed  the  king  Wira-Saliimega 
(about  1056).  The  plundering  extortions  and  the  religious  animosity  of  this 
Malabar  people  reduced  the  country  to  an  awful  state  of  desolation.  It  was  not 
until  1059  that  a  brave  noble,  Loka,  succeeded  in  driving  the  Chola  from  his 
native  province  of  Rohana,  the  last,  though  not  the  inviolate,  bulwark  of  the 
Singhalese  kingdom.  His  successor,  ^'ijaya  Palm  I,  also  known  as  Sirasangha- 
bodhi  (1065-1120),  though  at  first  defeated,  repeatedly  advanced  into  the  low- 
lands, where  he  overthrew  three  Chola  armies,  captured  their  fortresses,  recovered 
Anuradhapura,  and  shattered  the  last  resistance  of  the  enemy  in  a  bloody  conllict 


India-}  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  507 

under  the  walls  of  Polonnaruwa  ;  this  victory  permanently  freed  the  country  from 
the  Chola. 

The  power  of  Ceylon  was  not  yet,  however,  definitely  established.  When 
Vijaya  Bahu  endeavoured  to  enter  into  friendly  relations  with  the  enemy,  and 
sent  special  ambassadors  to  the  Chola  king  with  rich  presents,  the  noses  and  the 
ears  of  the  emissaries  were  cut  off.  Further,  when  he  ordered  his  troops  to  march 
against  the  Cholas,  a  mutiny  broke  out,  and  the  whole  of  the  south  rose  against  the 
king,  who  had  much  difficulty  in  crushing  the  rebelUon.  The  country  was  utterly 
exhausted,  and  the  Buddhist  order  was  in  so  feeble  a  state  that  not  a  single  monk 
in  full  orders  was  to  be  found  anywhere  in  the  island ;  monks,  accordingly,  had  to 
be  brought  over  from  Ramanya  (Martaban  in  lower  Burmah).  Under  Yikkama 
Bahu  I  the  southern  provinces  broke  away  entirely  and  were  divided  among 
different  rulers.  The  king  had  the  utmost  difficulty  in  driving  out  an  adventurer 
from  Arya  Land  (North  India),  who  had  blockaded  him  in  a  mountain  fortress, 
and  in  recovering  Polonnaruwa.  The  population  was  completely  exhausted,  and 
the  taxes  were  collected  by  measures  of  the  severest  oppression, "  as  the  sugar-mill 
presses  the  juice  from  the  cane."  To  meet  his  necessities,  Yikkama  Bahu  was 
forced  to  appropriate  church  property,  and  thus  made  tlie  monks  his  deadly 
enemies.  They  emigrated  to  Rohana,  taking  with  them  Buddha's  tooth  and  his 
alms-dish.  During  the  many  wars  the  irrigation  canals  had  been  destroyed,  and 
the  once  fruitful  land  had  become  a  malarial  desert.  Towns  and  villages  were 
abandoned,  and  had  grown  so  desolate  "that  their  sites  were  undiscoverable." 

(d)  Parrakkama  Bahu  I  the  Great.  —  Parrakkama  Bahu  I  (in  Sanscrit,  ParS- 
krama  (1164-1197)  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  monarchs  who  sat  upon  the 
Singhalese  throne.  Only  by  realising  the  misery  under  which  the  country  almost 
succumbed  during  his  youth  can  we  duly  estimate  the  results  achieved  by  the 
intellectual  force  and  patriotism  of  this  ruler,  whom  history  rightly  names  "  the 
Great." 

After  the  death  of  Vijaya  Bahu  I  the  Singhalese  monarchy  had  almost  entirely 
collapsed.  The  nominal  ruler  was  still  resident  in  Polonnaruwa,  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  country  was  broken  into  petty  principalities.  In  the  province  of  Rohana 
alone  four  such  princes  were  to  be  found,  including  Manabharana,  who  laid  claim 
to  the  little  district  "  of  the  twelve  thousand  villages,"  and  was  the  father  of 
Parrakkama  the  Great.  This  ruler  spent  his  youth  in  the  moimtains ;  "  he  re- 
ceived a  thorough  instruction  in  religion,  in  the  different  legal  systems,  in  rhetoric 
and  poetry,  dancing  and  music,  in  writing  and  in  the  use  of  sword  and  bow,  and 
in  these  exercises  he  attained  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  "  (Mahawansa). 
Upon  the  death  of  his  uncle  he  became  ruler  of  his  principality.  His  administra- 
tion was  in  every  respect  admirable ;  he  introduced  a  properly  organised  system 
of  taxation,  and  endeavoured  to  make  the  utmost  possible  use  of  streams  and  rain- 
fall for  the  irrigation  of  the  soil.  At  the  same  time  he  drilled  those  of  the  male 
inhabitants  capable  of  bearing  arms,  with  a  view  to  the  reunion  of  his  country  as 
a  whole.  His  first  expedition  was  directed  against  the  highland  of  Malaya,  which 
he  subdued  with  the  support  of  a  general  of  King  Gaja  Bahu  IV.  The  court  at 
Polonnaruwa  was  entirely  denationalised  ;  it  was  thronged  by  crowds  of  foreigners, 
including  princes  from  the  mainland,  who  disseminated  foreign  influence,  foreign 
customs,  foreign  religion,  and  "  filled  the  land  of  the  king  like  thorns  in  a  bed." 


uOS  HIS'lORV    OF    THE    WORLD  [c/.ajjwr iv 

VoT  this  reasiiu  lie  tloclareil  war  n\wn  Gaja  l>ahii,  and  advanced  by  a  rapiil  series  of 
victories  to  the  hxiul  of  j)earls,  "  the  coast  of  tlie  (!idf  of  Manaar."  I'ltimately  the 
king  and  the  princes  were  captured.  After  thus  attaining  his  object,  the  conqueror 
restored  their  country  to  his  defeated  foes.  A  chieftain  of  Eohana,  Manabharana 
the  younger,  had  attempted  to  turn  the  war  between  Parrakkama  and  Gaja  Bahu 
to  its  own  advantage;  he  was  conquered  in  hku  manner,  and  also  left  iu  possession 
of  his  land.  Both  of  these  conquered  princes  appointed  the  victor  as  their  suc- 
cessor. Thus  Parrakkama  became  master  of  the  whole  island,  although  at  first  he 
had  sternly  to  suppress  repeated  revolts,  especially  among  the  freedom-loving 
inhabitants  of  the  south  and  in  the  western  province  of  Mahatittha. 

The  king's  strong  hand  soon  made  itself  felt  beyond  the  boundaries  of  his 
kingdom.  For  a  long  period  he  had  been  in  friendly  relations  with  Ramanya 
(Lower  liurmah).  Vijaya  Bahu  I  had  invited  I'urniese  monks  to  Ceylon  (p.  505), 
and  both  countries  were  united  by  peaceful  commercial  relations.  However,  dur- 
ing the  gloomy  period  of  the  last  Singhalese  king,  Arimaddana,  the  ruler  of 
Ramanya  had  attempted  to  profit  by  the  unfavourable  condition  of  Ceylon.  A  tax 
was  laid  upon  the  exportation  of  elephants,  which  made  the  purchase  of  these  ani- 
mals almost  impossible  for  the  impoverished  Ceylon.  The  usual  presents  were 
withheld  from  the  Singhalese  ambassadors,  the  ships  of  Ceylon  were  forbidden 
to  land  in  Burmah,  and  the  emissaries  .sent  from  Polonuaruwa  were  finally  robbed 
and  imprisoned.  Parrakkama  then  sent  a  strong  expedition  to  Ramanya ;  his 
ships  were  greatly  damaged  by  a  storm,  but  the  army  succeeded  in  defeating  the 
Burmese  troops,  storming  the  capital,  and  killing  the  king.  Parrakkama's  supre- 
macy was  proclaimed,  and  peace  was  only  granted  upon  the  condition  of  an 
indemnity  to  compensate  for.  former  vexations,  to  which  was  added  the  obligation 
of  a  yearly  tribute. 

In  Soutliern  India  also  (cf.  p.  387)  Parrakkama  avenged  the  wrongs  that  had 
been  committed  against  Ceylon  in  former  years.  The  struggles  between  the 
Cholas  and  the  Pandyas  (Tamils)  had  continued  since  the  time  of  Vijaya  Bahu  I. 
Under  their  king  Kula^ekhara  the  Cholas  had  fiercely  besieged  King  Pandu 
in  his  capital  of  Madura.  It  was  not  to  the  interest  of  Ceylon  to  see  a  great 
Dravidian  kingdom  in  place  of  the  numerous  petty  States,  who  might  wear  one 
another  out  by  internal  struggles ;  Parrakkama  therefore  sent  to  the  help  of  the 
Tamil  king  a  strong  army  under  Lankapura  and  Jagad  Vijaya  Nayaka.  Before 
the  arrival  of  this  force,  Madura  had  fallen  and  King  Pandu  had  been  killed  ; 
however,  the  Singhalese  defeated  the  Cholas  and  devastated  their  country.  King 
Kulasekhara  was  besieged  in  his  fortress  of  Rajina  and  was  barely  able  to  save 
himself  by  flight.  He  was  forced  to  conclude  peace  upon  terms  highly  disadvan- 
tageous to  himself.  The  Pandya  kingdom  was  restored.  Prince  Vira  Pandu  was 
installed  in  Madura  as  king,  and  a  Tamil  coinage  with  the  head  of  Parrakkama 
was  struck  to  commemorate  the  campaign.  The  captured  Cholas  were  sent  to 
Ceylon,  where  they  were  forced  to  work  at  the  restoration  of  those  same  religious 
buildings  which  their  forefathers  had  destroyed  in  their  plundering  raids. 

True  to  the  proverb  of  his  choice,  "  What  is  there  in  the  world  that  a  persever- 
ing man  cannot  perform  ? "  Parrakkama  gave  his  devastated  island  a  fresh  lease 
of  prosperity.  As  chieftain  of  a  small  district,  he  had  once  obser\'ed,  "  In  a  country 
like  this  not  the  least  drop  of  water  that  falls  from  heaven  should  be  allowed  to 
run  into  the  sea  until  it  has  first  done  good  service  to  mankind."     This  principle 


/«'""]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  509 

was  now  vigorously  put  into  practice  throughout  his  great  kingdom.  He  had 
tanks  built  or  restored  by  thousands  ;  the  greatest  of  these  (for  example,  the  "  Sea 
of  Parrakkama  ")  was  equal  in  extent  to  the  lake  of  the  Four  Forest  Cantons. 
More  than  five  hundred  new  canals  were  made,  and  several  thousand  ruined 
waterways  were  reconstructed.  Malarious  swamps  and  impenetrable  jungles  were 
transformed  into  miles  of  flourisliing  rice  fields  and  orchards  ;  towns  and  villages 
arose  from  their  ruins,  with  a  dense  and  prosperous  population.  The  decaying 
capital  of  Polonnaruwa  rose  to  new  splendour  and  was  provided  with  everything 
that  could  conduce  to  comfort  and  luxury.  The  ruler  was  not  forgetful  of  the 
old  and  famous  capital  of  Anuradhapura,  the  palaces  which  the  founder  of  the 
empire  had  erected,  the  shrines  consecrated  by  Mahinda  and  his  successors; 
and  the  monasteries  and  relic  shrines  were  cleared  of  their  jungle  overgrowth  and 
restored.  The  administration  of  the  country  was  reorganised,  and  a  mild  and 
equable  system  of  taxation  introduced.  The  disorders  which  had  broken  out 
in  the  church  were  checked,  and  the  morality  of  the  priesthood  improved. 
Parrakkama  even  succeeded  in  reconciling  that  feud  between  the  chief  sects  which 
had  lasted  for  a  thousand  years,  and  in  unifying  the  doctrine ;  "  the  attempt  to 
bring  about  this  union  seemed  no  less  desperate  than  an  attempt  to  raise  the 
mountain  of  Meru  from  its  foundations." 

(e)  The  Decay  of  the  Kingdom  and  the  Church  {1200-1500'). — Parrakkama 
the  Great  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Vijaya  Bahu  II  (1197-1198),  a  weakling 
characterised  by  the  monks  as  a  great  scholar  and  poet ;  after  a  reign  of  one  year 
he  was  assassinated.  Then  began  a  period  of  the  greatest  confusion.  During  the 
eighteen  years  immediately  following  the  death  of  the  great  king  the  empire  saw 
no  less  than  fifteen  different  rulers,  with  reigns  of  one,  nine,  and  seventeen  days, 
three,  seven,  nine,  and  twelve  months.  At  least  five  were  murdered,  six  were 
deposed,  and  in  some  cases  blinded.  A  motley  row  of  figures  passes  before  us, 
Singhalese,  Kalingas  (Telugu),  t'holas,  and  Pandyas.  The  Kalinga  prince,  Magha 
(1215-1236),  who  seized  the  island  with  an  array  of  twenty  thousand  warriors,  was 
the  first  ruler  able  to  secure  his  position  upon  tlie  throne ;  at  the  same  time  his  rule 
proved  a  devastating  scourge  to  the  unfortunate  country  wliich  had  never  yet  been 
subjected  to  so  fearful  a  visitation.  In  the  south  alone  a  few  capable  leaders  were 
able  to  maintain  their  independence  in  the  mountain  fortresses  defended  alike  by 
nature  and  art.  Of  these  petty  principalities,  the  most  important  was  Dambadenya, 
where  Vijaya  Bahu  III  (1236-1240),  who  traced  his  descent  from  Vijaya  Bahu  I, 
had  established  himself;  from  this  base  of  operations  he  was  able  to  subdue  the 
province  of  Malaya.  His  son  Parrakkama  Balm  III  (1240-1275)  drove  out  the 
Dravidians  in  12.55,  almost  annihilating  them,  together  with  the  Chola  king, 
Someswara.  However,  he  was  forced  to  struggle  witli  other  enemies,  for  the 
weakness  of  Ceylon  had  attracted  the  Malays,  who  were  especially  active  at  that 
period  (p.  543).  Their  leader,  Chandrabhanu,  twice  invaded  the  country  and 
devastated  "  the  whole  of  Lanka  ;  "  the  Malays,  however,  never  succeeded  in  per- 
manently establishing  them.selves  on  the  island.  In  the  works  of  peace,  Parrak- 
kama II  rivalled  his  great  predecessor.  During  the  Dravidian  rule  proprietary 
titles  had  been  lost  or  confused,  and  a  redistribution  of  the  country  among  laity 
and  monks  was  now  undertaken.  Eoads  were  laid  down,  tanks  and  canals  re- 
stored, and  Polonnaruwa,  which  had  been  almost  entirely  ruined,  was  rebuilt ;  in 


r.Ki  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         lc/>nj>t,r  J r 

Auuradhapui-a  works  of  restoration  were  beyuu  upou  the  uuiiii  builiiings,  which 
had  been  severely  damajj;ed.  Meanwliile  tlie  so-called  luouks  iiad  plunged  into 
every  kind  of  vice,  and  the  old  (luarrel  between  the  brotlierhoods  broke  out  with 
renewed  fury.  Here,  too,  the  king's  action  improved  the  situation;  the  worst  of 
the  monks  were  removed,  the  hostile  sects  were  reconciled,  and  the  introduction 
of  ordained  monks  from  the  Chola  country  gave  the  order  an  infusion  of  fresh 
blood. 

Vijaya  Bahu  IV,  the  successor  of  Parrakkaina  II,  was  murdered  by  one  of  his 
"enerals  two  years  later,  though  the  murderer  also  received  short  shrift.  In  default 
of  a  powerful  ruler,  the  people  quickly  relapsed  into  their  former  state  of  misery, 
and  to  complete  the  tale  of  their  sutl'ering  a  terrible  famine  broke  out.  A  Piiiulu 
army  so  suddenly  invaded  the  country  that  even  the  greatest  relic  of  the  Buddhist 
world,  the  tooth  of  Buddha  (p.  505),  could  not  be  hidden,  but  was.  carried  off 
to  Madura  with  other  booty.  The  tootli  was  not  recovered  until  tlie  reign  of  Par- 
rakkania  Bahu  111  (1288-1293),  who  made  a  pilgrimage  in  person  to  the  Paiidya 
court  to  beg  for  it,  and  was  undoubtedly  forced  to  make  considerable  concessions 
as  the  condition  of  its  restoration. 

This  raid  of  tlie  Pandyas  seems  to  have  been  the  last  Dravidian  invasion  of 
Ceylon  ;  a  few  years  later  (1311),  the  Mohammedans  under  Kafur  advanced  from 
the  north  to  the  Palk  Straits  (p.  42.')),  and  from  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  Pandyas  became  tributary  to  the  kingdom  of  Bijayanagar  (p.  429).  The 
Singhalese  chronicles  make  no  reference  to  wars  with  the  Dravidians  later  tiian  the 
year  1290,  tliough  that  race  were  in  possession  of  the  extreme  north  of  the  island, 
where  at  a  later  period  an  independent  Tamil  kingdom  arose  with  the  capital  of 
Jafna.  The  interior  of  the  northern  half  of  the  island,  the  former  royal  domains 
(Pihittiratta),  had  become  a  desolate  wilderness.  In  consequence  of  the  incessant 
civil  wars,  the  ruling  kings  removed  their  capitals  further  within  the  mountains, 
and,  like  tliemselves,  Buddha's  tooth  was  in  an  almost  chronic  condition  of  migra- 
tion. Buddhism  hardly  existed  even  in  name.  Hence  even  up  to  the  time  of 
Parrakkama  IV  (about  1300),  only  the  very  scantiest  historical  record  was  kept  in 
the  monasteries,  and  from  that  date  until  tlie  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
historical  writing  ceased  entirely  ;  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  Kirti  Sri  raja  Siiuha 
(1747-1780)  that  the  gaps  were  filled  up  with  the  scanty  material  to  hand  and 
with  the  aid  of  tradition. 

D.   The  Later  History  of  Ceylon  (since  1500) 

Of  the  twenty-three  kings  who  reigned  between  the  two  above-mentioned 
monarchs,  we  have  but  very  little  information,  and  that  for  tlie  most  part  un- 
reliable. The  records  become  somewliat  more  definite  at  the  time  of  Uaja  Siiiiha  I 
(1586-1592) ;  he  secured  the  throne  by  murdering  his  father,  and  being  a  fanatical 
worshipper  of  Siva  so  persecuted  the  Buddhist  doctrine  and  its  adherents  that  many 
monks  threw  off  the  yellow  robe. 

(a)  The  Portuguese  in  Cci/lon.  —  "  In  those  days  certain  merchants  carried  on 
trade  in  the  harbour  of  Kolaniba,  which  they  continued  until  in  the  course  of  time 
they  had  grown  very  powerful.  Tlie  Parangi  [Portuguese]  were  collectively  base 
unbelievers,  cruel  and  hard  hearted  "  (Mahawansa).      In  the  year  1498  Vasco  da 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  511 


Gama  bad  cast  anchor  before  Calicut;  seventeen  years  later  came  the  destruction 
of  the  Arab  trade,  which  had  hitherto  monopolised  the  valuable  products  of  Asia, 
especially  the  spice  exports  ;  Ormuz,  Malacca,  and  Goa  became  the  fonndations  of 
the  Portuguese  power  in  the  Indian  seas  (p.  450).  Portuguese  ships  had  visited 
Ceylon  as  early  as  1505  ;  in  1515  a  fleet  sailed  to  the  island  from  Calicut  under 
Lopez  Soarez,  and  the  Singhalese  monarch  in  Kotta  gave  permission  to  the  admiral 
to  found  a  permanent  trading  station  in  the  harbour  of  Colombo,  near  his  resi- 
dence. If  the  king  hoped  to  gain  powerful  friends  by  this  means,  he  was  soon 
bitterly  undeceived.  He  was  forced  to  become  a  Portuguese  vassal,  and  to  agree  to 
the  payment  of  a  yearly  tribute  of  cinnamon,  precious  stones,  and  elephants.  Hos- 
tilities were  the  early  and  the  natural  result.  The  kings  removed  their  capitals  to 
the  mountains  of  the  interior,  first  to  Sitawaka,  then  to  Kandy,  but  in  vain ;  the 
war  continued  without  interruption,  and  every  Portuguese  campaign  penetrated 
further  into  the  country. 

By  degrees,  however,  the  difficulties  afforded  by  the  precipitous  highland  slopes, 
the  jungles  of  the  primeval  forest,  the  dangers  of  the  climate,  and  the  military 
strength  of  the  highlanders  increased.  The  latter  learnt  tlie  arts  of  strategy, 
tactics,  and  the  use  of  weapons  from  their  enemies  ;  they  had  of  old  been  famous 
for  their  skill  in  metal  working,  and  were  able  to  keep  their  gims  and  cannons 
in  better  repair.  Mayadhana  and  his  son  Raja  Siiuha  I  vigorously  repulsed  the 
attacks  of  the  Portuguese  ;  of  Raja  Siiiilia  II,  Mahawau^a  says,  "  As  a  lion  bursts 
into  a  herd  of  elephants,  or  as  flakes  of  wool  are  swept  away  by  the  wind,  so  was 
the  enemy  seized  by  fear  and  fled  before  the  dauntless  king."  The  Portuguese 
were  never  able  to  establish  themselves  in  the  interior ;  their  only  established  pos- 
sessions were  the  fortresses  of  Negambo,  Colombo,  Galle,  Battikaloa,  Trincomali, 
with  the  land  immediately  adjoining  these  settlements.  They  operated  with  some 
success  against  the  Tamil  kingdom,  which  occupied  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
island,  and  a  small  strip  of  land  upon  the  east  coast.  The  capital  of  Jafua  was 
stormed  in  1560,  and  the  sacred  tooth  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese.  In 
vain  did  the  king  of  Pegu  offer  four  hundred  thousand  gold  pieces  for  the  relic. 
The  Portuguese  valued  the  destruction  of  that  fragment  of  bone  at  a  higlier  price ; 
it  was  pounded  in  a  mortar  by  tlie  Archbishop  of  Goa,  Dom  Gaspar,  burnt  in  the 
fire,  and  the  ashes  thrown  into  the  river.  Tooth  worship  was,  however,  not  ex- 
tirpated by  this  means  ;  in  no  long  time  a  second  "tooth  "  appeared  in  Kandy,  which 
was  said  to  have  been  hidden  and  buried  during  a  Portuguese  invasion,  while  the 
conquerors  were  said  to  have  destroyed  only  an  imitation  of  the  real  tooth.  On 
the  first  conquest  of  Jafna  the  Portuguese  contented  themselves  with  depriving 
the  sultan  of  the  island  of  Manaar  and  of  all  his  treasures,  and  imposing  a  heavy 
tribute  upon  him.  In  1617  the  town  was  again  stormed  upon  the  reputed  out- 
break of  hostilities  against  the  Christians ;  the  sultan  was  beheaded  and  his  land 
declared  Portuguese  territory. 

The  story  of  the  destruction  of  Buddha's  tooth  is  typical  of  the  religious  fana- 
ticism of  the  Portuguese.  Every  ship  brought,  together  with  soldiers  greedy  for 
plunder,  bands  of  monks  who  were  anxious  to  spread  Christianity  by  any  means 
under  their  power.  Their  greatest  success  was  the  conversion  of  a  Singhalese 
king  to  the  bosom  of  the  one  true  church.  "  The  king  Dharma  Pauli  Raja  em- 
braced the  Christian  religion  and  was  baptised  under  the  name  of  Don  Juan 
Pandaura ;    many  nobles  of  Kotta  were  converted  with  him.     From  this  time 


512  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [(V,,,;,^,;/ 

onward  tlie  wives  of  the  uobles,  and  also  those  of  I  lie  lower  castes,  sucii  as  the 
barbers,  tishers,  luimawas,  and  chalyas,  became  Christians,  and  lived  with  the 
Christians  for  the  sake  of  the  Portuguese  money"  (HAjftwalT).  This  apostate  king 
appointed  Philip  II  of  Spain  and  Portugal  his  heir,  and  from  that  time  the  Por- 
tuguese kings  have  added  to  iheir  many  titles  that  of  "  Lord  of  Ceylon." 

The  soil  was  well  prepared  for  the  conversion  of  the  Singhalese  to  Christianity. 
The  old  religion  had  degenerated  to  the  lowest  possible  point ;  Paja  Siihha,  the 
worshipper  of  Siva  (p.  510),  had  persecuted  his  Buddhist  subjects.  Pepeated 
importations  of  foreign  monks  had  been  unable  to  check  the  decay  of  Singha- 
lese Buddhism ;  the  people  had  grown  utterly  indifferent  to  religious  questions. 
Within  the  Portuguese  districts  members  of  the  lower  castes  could  only  ejcist  by 
keeping  on  good  terms  with  tlieir  masters,  and  consequently  the  people  came  over 
to  the  Catholic  Clmrch  in  numbers.  High-sounding  Portuguese  names  are  still  to 
be  found  among  tlie  modern  Singhalese,  the  descendants  of  those  converts  who 
adopted  the  family  names  of  their  masters  upon  their  change  of  faith.  The  Por- 
tuguese exemplified  their  own  interpretation  of  Christianity  by  practising  inhuman 
e-vtortion  upon  every  subject  within  their  domains.  In  this  manner  they  hoped  to 
indemnify  themselves  for  the  comparatively  small  profits  accruing  from  their  trade. 
The  cultivation  of  the  most  valuable  product  of  tlie  island,  cinnamon,  was  retarded 
by  the  bitter  hatred  of  the  foreigners,  and  confined  to  narrow  districts  in  the  im- 
mediate neighbourliood  of  the  fortified  settlements  of  Colombo  and  Galle.  Spices 
"  were  collected  sword  in  hand  and  exported  under  the  guns  of  the  fortresses " 
(J.  E.  Tennent).  Trade  rapidly  decreased,  and  the  receipts  failed  to  balance 
the  expenditure  incurred  by  the  Portuguese  during  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
of  unbroken  war. 

(b)  The  Dutch  in  Ceylon.  —  The  decay  of  Portuguese  trade  in  Ceylon  was  but 
one  of  the  many  phenomena  apparent  upon  the  decline  of  Portugal.  The  spirit  of 
enterpri.se  which  had  inspired  the  country  during  the  fifteenth  century  and  at  the 
outset  of  the  sixteenth  had  faded,  the  power  of  tlie  little  country  was  wasted  liy 
constant  wars  in  deadly  climates,  tlie  people  were  impoverished,  and  the  oppression 
of  the  Inquisition  lay  upon  all  minds.  Portugal's  career  as  a  colonial  power  was 
at  an  end.  Her  place  in  Ceylon  was  taken  by  the  Dutch.  In  1602  Joris  van  Spil- 
bergen  landed  in  the  island  with  two  ships  to  conclude  an  alliance  with  the  angry 
Singhalese  king  against  the  Portuguese ;  the  king  sent  two  ambassadors  "  into 
their  beautiful  land"  (Mahawan.sa)  and  persuaded  the  people  to  come  to  Ceylon 
with  many  ships.  In  the  meanwliile  the-  two  ])owers  concluded  a  convention  in 
1609  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Portuguese  from  the  island  ;  however,  neither  the 
feeble  king  Vimila  Dhamma  Surya  I  (1592-1620)  nor  the  Dutch  felt  themselves 
strong  enough  for  immediate  action.  The  war  was  not  prosecuted  with  any  energy 
until  the  time  of  Paja  Siihha  II;  the  Dutch  then  captured  one  Portuguese  fortress 
after  another.  Ultimately  (1658),  after  an  armistice  of  ten  years  Colombo  and 
Jafna  fell,  and  the  Portuguese  were  definitely  ousted  liy  the  Dutch. 

The  new  nationality  conducted  their  policy  in  a  wholly  different  spirit;  they 
were  primarily  merchants,  and  their  chief  object  was  to  avoid  any  possible  dis- 
turbance to  their  trade.  They  had  originally  agreed  to  send  an  embas.sy  to  the 
king  at  Kandy  every  year.  The  king  treated  these  with  contempt  and  scorn ;  on 
different  occasions  the  ambassadors  were  beaten,  imprisoned,  or  even  put  to  death. 


7nd,.]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  513 

outrages  which  the  Dutch  patiently  bore.  On  one  occasion  only,  during  the  reign 
of  Kirti  Sri  Raja  Siiiiha,  did  they  attempt  a  punitive  expedition  with  Malay  sol- 
diers ;  Kandy  was  captured,  and  the  king  was  forced  to  flee,  taking  with  him  the 
tooth  of  Buddha.  However,  sickness  and  famine  broke  out  among  the  troops  and 
their  line  of  retreat  was  cut  off ;  many  soldiers  succumbed  to  the  attacks  of  the 
mountaineers,  while  others  were  scattered  and  lost  their  way  in  the  inhospitable 
forests. 

Raja  Simha  II  was  succeeded  by  a  number  of  weak  rulers  who  favoured  the 
monks,  though  they  were  unable  to  improve  the  position  of  the  order,  ^ri  Wira 
Parakkama  Narinda  (_1701-1734)  built  the  Dalada  Maligawa,  a  temple  yet  in 
•existence,  to  enshrine  the  sacred  tooth,  and  decorated  its  outer  walls  with  thirty- 
two  Jatakas  (histories  of  the  birth  of  Buddha)  ;  however,  under  his  successor, 
Vijaya  Raja  Siiiiha  (1734-1747),  the  monks  had  entirely  disappeared.  The  doc- 
trine itself  had  degenerated  into  a  mixture  of  Hinduism,  devil  worship,  and 
Buddhist  conventionalities.  The  connection  of  the  island  with  Southern  India 
(a  large  number  of  the  rulers  of  Kandy  married  princesses  from  Madura)  had 
enabled  the  Brahman  gods  to  gain  the  pre-eminence  in  Ceylon ;  their  images  were 
carried  in  procession  in  company  with  the  statues  of  Buddha,  and  when  a  king 
built  a  Buddhist  shrine  he  erected  with  it  a  temple  dedicated  to  Siva  or  Vishnu. 
It  was  not  until  the  time  of  Kirti  Sri  Raja  Simha  (1747-1780)  that  Buddhism 
was  purified  of  its  hollow  formalities  and  revived ;  two  embassies  brought  over 
•each  a  chapter  of  ten  monks  (the  first  under  the  high  priest  Upali)  from  Siam. 
The  religious  toleration  of  the  Dutch  and  the  English  has  since  enabled  Buddhism 
to  extend  its  area  and  regain  some  of  its  power  in  Ceylon,  though  at  the  same 
time  the  doctrine  has  been  largely  modified  by  the  worship  of  Brahman  gods  and 
Dravidian  demons. 

The  Dutch  at  first  derived  great  profit  from  their  trade  in  the  products  of 
■Ceylon.  The  cinnamon  plantations  captured  from  the  Portuguese  were  not  in- 
creased ;  but  the  careful  cultivation  of  the  plants  raised  the  value  of  the  bark  to 
an  unprecedented  heiglit,  and  high  prices  were  maintained  by  a  strict  monopoly. 
These  measures,  however,  eventually  led  to  the  decay  of  the  trade.  The  height  of 
prices  attracted  the  rivalry  of  other  plantations  upon  other  islands.  An  army  of 
subordinate  oihcials  swallowed  up  a  large  proportion  of  the  profit,  and  dishonesty 
was  increased  by  the  scanty  salaries  paid.  The  cinnamon  trade,  which  originally 
brought  such  high  profits,  at  length  scarcely  succeeded  in  paying  its  expenses. 

(c)  The  English  in  Ceylon.  —  The  trade  of  Ceylon  chiefly  suffered  from  the 
decline  of  Holland  as  a  sea  power.  The  capture  of  the  Portuguese  possessions 
marks  the  zenith  of  Dutch  influence,  and  Dutch  trade  was  at  that  time  five  times 
greater  than  that  of  England.  While,  however,  the  struggle  for  Colombo  and 
Jafna  was  in  progress,  England  dealt  a  deadly  stroke  at  her  rival;  in  1651-1660 
the  Xavigation  Acts  were  passed,  which  forbade  to  all  foreign  ships  the  carrying 
of  goods  between  England  and  her  colonies  (Vol.  VII,  p.  98).  In  the  year  1792 
the  proportion  of  trade  in  the  hands  of  these  rivals  was  as  two  to  five.  When  the 
French  troops  advanced  upon  Holland  in  1794  England  took  from  the  Dutch  not 
only  its  trading  fleet,  which  was  valued  at  ten  million  pounds,  but  also  all  its 
colonies  at  the  Cape,  in  Malacca,  in  Cochin,  in  the  Moluccas,  etc.  The  occupation 
•of  Ceylon  was  not  a  difficult  task  for  England.     Tlie  British  governor  of  Madras, 

VOL.  U  — 33 


5U  HISTORY    OF    THF    WORLD         Ichajjierir 

Lord  Hobart  (p.  2T2),  sent  a  fleet  to  the  island  under  151ankort  in  1795.  Several 
fortresses  fell  into  the  English  hands  forthwitli,  and  Colombo,  the  seat  of  Dutch 
government,  was  surrendered  without  a  blow  by  the  governor,  J.  von  Angelbeck, 
who  had  been  bribed  to  this  end,  with  all  other  fortresses  as  yet  imtouched  and 
with  all  supplies  and  the  chest  (containing'  two  and  a  half  million  pounds;  Febru- 
ary 15,  1796).  However,  the  administration  of  the  East  India  Company  was  at 
that  time  even  worse  than  the  last  period  of  Dutch  government.  At  the  end  of  a 
year  a  general  rising  against  the  British  broke  out,  whereupon  England  took  pos- 
session of  tlie  colony  and  placed  it  immediately  under  the  crown. 

The  first  governor  was  Frederick  North  (afterward  Earl  of  Guilford),  who  was 
sent  out  in  1798.  He  naturally  could  do  nothing  less  than  imitate  the  progress 
whieli  had  been  attained  on  the  mainland  at  that  date  (p.  472).  For  this  purpose 
he  entered  into  negotiations  with  Peleuieh  Talaweh,  the  first  minister  of  the  Sin- 
ghalese king,  Sri  Raja  Adhiraja  Siiiiha,  for  the  betrayal  of  the  country  (1780- 
1798).  A  strong  division  of  English  troops  was  to  be  sent  to  Kandy  under  the 
pretext  of  fonuing'a  peaceful  escort  to  an  ambassador,  and,  if  necessary,  the  king 
was  to  be  induced  by  force  to  grant  the  English  desires.  The  troops,  however, 
encountered  many  natural  obstacles  upon  tlie  march,  not  to  speak  of  opposition  on 
the  part  of  the  natives ;  a  very  small  proportion  reached  Kandy,  and  were  forced 
to  retire  without  accomplisliing  their  object.  As  this  carefully  engineered  plan 
had  been  a  failure,  force  was  openly  employed  in  1802  ;  at  a  more  favourable 
season  three  thousand  men  under  McDowell  advanced  upon  the  capital,  which 
they  occupied  after  the  king  had  fled.  The  troops  under  Major  Davie  suffered 
greatly  from  fever,  and  the  remnant  was  surprised  and  slaughtered  to  the  last  man 
by  the  Singhalese  in  1803.  The  continuance  of  war  in  Europe  prevented  imme- 
diate reprisals  by  the  English ;  but  the  Singhalese  king,  Sri  Wikkama  Eflja  Simha 
(1798-1815),  had  grown  suspicious  to  the  point  of  madness,  after  the  treachery  of 
his  minister,  and  treated  his  subjects  with  the  greatest  cruelty,  thus  playing  into 
the  English  hands.  The  animosity  of  his  people  rose  to  such  a  height  that  in 
1815  the  English  were  able  to  occupy  Kandy  with  little  trouble.  The  king  was 
captured  on  the  18th  of  February  in  tlie  village  of  Beaumury  and  confined  in 
Madras  until  his  death  in  1832.  A  gathering  of  the  chieftains  transferred  the  Sin- 
ghalese kingdom  to  the  British  crown  in  March,  1816.  Since  1895  Sir  Joseph 
West  Kidgeway  has  been  governor  of  the  island. 

4.   INDO-CHINA 
A.  Configuration 

Further  India  forms  the  most  easterly  of  the  three  great  projections  which 
advance  southward  from  Asia.  Equal  in  area  to  the  south  of  Nearer  India 
(830,580  square  miles)  it  is  bounded  by  China  on  the  north,  by  India  on  the 
northwest ;  the  western  frontier  in  all  its  length  is  formed  by  the  east  coast  of 
the  Sea  of  Bengal,  its  southern  frontier  is  the  sea  between  the  mainland  and  the 
islands  of  Java  and  Borneo,  while  the  China  Sea  washes  its  eastern  frontier  (see 
the  map,  p.  539).  The  course  of  its  civilization  has  been  inspired  by  impulses 
derived  not  from  over  seas,  but  from  the  two  civilized  countries  of  India  and 
China ;  hence  the  justification  for  the  name  Indo-China. 


/-f-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  515 

(a)  Tlie  Country.  —  The  configuration  of  Further  India  regarded  as  a  super- 
ficies is  due  to  the  existence  of  parallel  mountain  ranges  running  for  the  most  part 
from  north  to  south  ;  these  beginning  in  the  mountain  country  between  Eastern 
Tibet  and  Yunnan,  Kwangsi  and  Kwangtung,  the  southern  provinces  of  China  to  the 
north  of  the  twenty-hfth  degree  of  latitude,  diverge  southward.  At  the  roots  of  these 
mountains,  in  gorges  often  three  thousand  feet  deep,  run  those  four  mighty  rivers 
which  rise  in  Til»et,  afterward  diverging  fan-wise  to  hurry  on  to  the  different  seas. 
From  its  passage  tlu-ough  the  mountains  eastward  the  Yang-tse-kiang  naturally 
forms  the  most  important  line  of  communication  in  the  Celestial  Empire.  The 
Brahmaputra  turns  westward  through  the  broad  valley  of  Assam  to  the  Ganges 
delta,  and  only  the  Salwen  and  IMekong,  running  southward,  can  be  said  properly 
to  belong  to  the  peninsula  of  Indo-China.  Eastward  and  westward  and  also 
between  these  rivers  parallel  streams  are  interspersed,  the  sources  of  which  begin 
at  a  point  somewhat  to  the  south  of  the  spot  where  the  main  streams  pass  the 
gorges ;  of  these  the  most  westward  is  the  Irawaddi,  which  rises  in  the  mountain 
land  eastward  of  Assam;  the  greater  part  of  its  course  is  navigable  and  with 
its  tributaries  it  facilitates  communication  with  Yunnan,  passing  through  the  fruit- 
ful plains  of  Chittagong  and  Arakan  and  forming  one  of  the  greatest  deltas  in  the 
world  at  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  Pegu.  This  river  is  di^^ded  from  the  Salwen  by 
no  greater  obstacle  than  a  low-lying  range  of  hills  running  north  and  south,  which 
eventually  turn  it  away  from  the  narrow  coast  district  of  Tennasserim  and  direct 
its  course  to  central  Further  India.  Further  to  the  east  is  the  Menam,  the  main 
river  of  Siam,  which  also  is  the  sole  possession  of  Indo-China ;  its  sources  do  not 
extend  beyond  the  twentieth  degree  of  latitude  north ;  to  these  must  be  added  the 
Mekong,  rising  in  Tibet,  the  delta  of  which  extends  eastward  into  the  China  Sea. 
All  these  streams  have  fruitful  deltas  and  plains  upon  their  banks,  but  are  impas- 
sable to  communication,  navigation  on  any  large  scale  being  excluded  by  the 
rapids  and  shallows  immediately  above  their  mouths.  The  moimtain  chain  run- 
ning from  north  to  south  forms  a  sharp  line  of  demarcation  to  the  east  of  the 
Mekong  between  Central  and  Eastern  Further  India,  Cochin-China,  Annam,  and 
Tongking;  the  Songka  or  Eed  River  is  the  only  stream  flowing  northward  in 
Tongking,  a  district  generally  naiTow  which  forms  the  eastern  third  of  Indo-China ; 
it  is,  however,  more  navigable  than  the  central  rivers  and  forms  the  most  convenient 
route  of  access  to  Yunnan  and  its  mineral  wealth. 

The  climate  is  that  of  a  tropical  Asiatic  district  under  the  monsoons.  In  the 
alluvial  plains  of  the  valleys  and  deltas  all  natural  growths  flourish  with  inexhaus- 
tible fertility,  and  these  from  an  early  age  have  been  the  points  of  departure  for 
Indo-Chinese  civilization.  The  highlands  further  to  the  north  are  less  richly 
dowered  by  nature  and  have  retained  for  thousands  of  years  their  influence  upon 
tribal  formation ;  here  from  a  remote  antiquity  was  the  home  of  powerful  half-bar- 
baric tribes  who  were  driven  out  by  upheavals  among  the  restless  nomadic  hordes 
of  Central  Asia  or  attracted  by  the  riches  of  the  southern  lowlands,  which  they 
repeatedly  invaded,  bringing  infusions  of  new  blood  and  valuable  material  for  the 
work  of  civilization. 

(J)  Tlie  Peoples  of  Lido-  China.  —  Hence  even  at  the  present  day  racial  stocks 
displaying  anthropological  and  ethnological  differences  can  be  plainly  recognised. 
As  direct  descendants  of  the  earliest  inhabitants  we  have  three  races  belonging  to 


510  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [c/.ajjh'rir 

different  anllu-t)pologieal  groups  :  the  Nigiitic,  the  Mahiy,  and  Indonesian  types. 
The  Nigritic  people,  who  are  related  to  the  inliabilants  of  llie  Andaman  Islands,  to 
the  Aetas  of  the  Philippines,  etc.,  are  now  known  as  Sakai  and  Seniangs  and  inhabit 
small  districts  within  the  peninsula  of  Malacca.  The  ^lalays  are  identical  with 
the  inhabitants  of  tlie  islands,  to  whicli  they  were  expelled  at  a  comparatively  late 
period  (of.  below,  p.  543) ;  tribes  which  have  maintained  their  jjurity  of  blood 
also  occupy  certain  districts  in  the  Malay  peninsula,  while  others  mixed  with  later 
invaders  (Cham)  occupy  extensive  tracts  in  the  lowlands  of  8iam  and  Anuam  ; 
their  original  settlements  .seem  to  have  been  the  lowlands  of  Indo-China.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  highlands  were  inhabited  by  Indonesians,  whose  nearest  relations 
are  now  to  be  found  in  the  Indonesian  Archipelago,  in  the  Philippines,  Borneo 
(Dvaks),  Sumatra  (Ratta),  etc.  The  modern  representatives  of  tiie  Indonesian  race 
within  Indo-l'hina  are  the  Nagas  on  the  frontier  between  As.sam  and  Burniah,  the 
Selongs  (in  the  Mergui  archipelago),  the  Moi  (half-wild  tribes  between  the  Mekong 
and  the  coast  of  Assam  and  between  Yunnan  and  Coehin-China),  the  Kui  (in 
Southeastern  Siam  and  Northwestern  Cambodia),  the  Mous  or  Talaings  (in  the 
deltas  of  the  Burmese  rivers,  formerly  distributed  throughout   Lower  Burmah). 

The  highlands,  wliich  extend  further  northward  from  Eastern  Tibet  to  the 
southern  provinces  of  China,  were  in  antitpiity  inhabited  by  a  powerful  race  clo.sely 
allied  to  the  Indonesians,  who  may  be  generally  compreliended  in  the  tribal  fami- 
lies of  the  Thai  ( "  Free  ").  From  this  point  repeated  invasions  took  place  intt)  the 
lowlands  at  a  later  period  ;  about  1250  this  people  were  settled  m  the  principality 
of  Xieng-Mai ;  under  Kama  Khomheng  (12S3)  the  more  southerly  kingdom  of 
Sukhodaya  is  mentioned  in  inscriptions ;  driven  westward  by  the  resistance  of  the 
Brahman  kings  of  Cambodia,  the  Thai  are  found  in  possession  of  the  lower  Menam 
(capital  town,  Ayuthia)  about  1350.  The  descendants  of  these  immigrants  after 
fusion  with  the  former  inhabitants  of  the  district  form  the  chief  element  in  the 
population  of  those  States  of  Further  India  which  reached  any  high  degree  of  cul- 
ture. It  is  impossible  to  decide  whether  the  Cham  are  an  early  branch  of  the  Thai  or 
whether  they  originated  from  the  Indonesians ;  they  found  the  Malays  settled  in 
the  lowlands  and  borrowed  their  language  (which  is  in  close  relation  io  the  dif- 
ferent Malay  dialects  of  the  present  day) ;  at  the  same  time  their  physical  charac- 
teristics display  marked  divergences  from  the  Malay  type  and  approach  more 
nearly  to  the  Indonesian.  The  first  glinuncr  of  historical  information  shows  tliem 
as  the  settled  people  of  a  kingdom  wiiich  embraced  South  Tongking,  Annam,  and 
a  great  part  of  Central  Tndo-China.  A  second  wave  of  migration  advancing  within 
our  era  brought  the  Khmers  into  the  fruit  fid  land;  here  they  too  mixed  with  the 
population  in  possession,  the  Malays  (brachyceplialous),  and  with  the  Indonesians 
(hence  the  wavy  hair  of  the  Kui),  and  raised  their  State  of  Cambodia  to  high  pro- 
sperity at  the  expense  of  the  Champa  kingdom.  By  later  invasions  of  the  Thai 
their  district  was  reduced  to  its  present  condition,  the  smaller  State  of  Cambodia 
and  Southern  Cochin-China. 

From  this  cradle  of  nations  new  races  advanced  east  and  south  and  expelled 
the  Moi,  the  Malays,  and  Klimers  from  tlieir  settlements  ;  these  were  the  Anna- 
mese.  At  the  present  day  they  are  settled  from  tlic  delta  of  Tongking  to  Southern 
Cochin-China,  and  have  been  strongly  moditied  by  infusions  of  Chinese  blood,  while 
their  civilization  is  almost  entirely  Chinese.  Probably  the  same  wave  brought  a 
second  stream  of  the  Thai  forward  about  the  same  date,  the  Lao  race  in  tlie  moun- 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  517 


tains  of  what  is  now  North  Siam,  and  a  third  tribe,  the  Burmese,  who  are  linguisti- 
cally related  to  the  Tibetans  ;  these  tribes  advanced  from  the  mountain  land  at  the 
east  of  Tibet  to  the  lower  courses  of  the  Irawaddi,  where  they  settled,  driving  to 
the  coast  the  Mons,  who  show  linguistic  affinities  with  the  Annamese.  About  1000 
A.  D.  they  were  followed  by  the  Shan  (now  settled  in  the  mountain  districts  of 
Upper  Burmah)  who  still  call  themselves  Thai  ("  Free  "),  and  further  to  the  east 
by  the  Siamese,  who  overthrew  the  supremacy  of  the  former  Khmer  immigrants  in 
Cambodia  and  formed  a  highly  prosperous  kingdom  of  their  own.  The  physical 
characteristics  of  all  these  tribes  show  that  they  are  not  free  from  fusion  with 
other  races. 

B.   The  Prehistoric  Period  and  Early  History  of  Indo-China 

The  prehistoric  period  of  Further  India  is  shrouded  in  gloom,  though  a  few 
vague  and  general  indications  may  be  derived  from  the  sciences  of  comparative 
philology  and  anthropology.  These  indications  alike  point  to  early  racial  commix- 
ture and  fusion.  From  a  philological  point  of  view,  several  primordial  groups 
stand  out  in  isolation.  The  dialects  of  the  dark  inliabitants  of  the  peninsula  at 
the  present  day  are  as  yet  but  little  known.  However,  the  special  characteristics 
of  the  Malay  group  of  languages  show  that  this  branch  diverged  from  the  original 
stem  in  a  remote  antiquity.  The  remaining  dialects  of  the  peojtle  of  Further  India 
belong  to  the  isolating  family  of  languages,  and  point  to  the  existence  at  an  ex- 
tremely early  age  of  two  distinct  tribes  which  may  be  designated  as  Tibeto-Burmese 
and  as  Thai-Chinese,  according  to  their  modern  distribution.  We  have  no  means 
of  deciding  where  the  first  ancestors  of  these  groups  may  have  dwelt.  We  can 
only  venture  to  assert  that  the  separation  of  these  primitive  peoples,  with  whom 
we  are  concerned  in  the  history  of  Further  India,  took  place  in  the  north.  During 
the  later  history  of  Indo-China,  the  Thai  preserved  their  racial  purity,  as  they  do  at 
the  present  day  in  the  mountainous  frontier  between  Further  India  and  China. 
Philological  e\'idence  points  to  the  fact  that  an  early  bifmcation  of  the  Thai  formed 
the  tribes  of  Mon-Annam,  which  were  driven  into  their  present  remote  habitations 
by  the  invasions  in  later  centuries  of  the  Thai.  They  were  then  known  as  Mons 
(Pegu)  and  Annamites  (the  east  coast  of  Indo-ChLna;  there  they  are  known  as 
Yuons).  The  Cham  also  broke  away  from  the  Thai  at  an  early  period,  and  were 
strongly  influenced  by  the  ilalay  population,  with  whom  they  came  in  contact, 
both  in  respect  of  language  and  physical  structure.  Within  recent  and  historical 
times  they  were  followed  by  the  Khmers,  the  Laos,  Shans,  and  Siamese. 

Upon  the  dates  and  the  history  of  these  ancient  racial  movements  we  have  no 
information  whatever.  Chinese  histories  refer,  indeed,  to  an  embassy  sent  from 
Indo-China,  probably  from  Tongking,  in  theyear  1110  B.  C.  to  the  imperial  Chinese 
court  of  the  Cham  (p.  70).  In  214  b.  c.  and  109  a.  d.  Chinese  generals  founded 
dynasties  of  their  own  in  Tongking.  However,  we  have  no  other  information  upon 
the  general  history  of  those  ages.  The  wild  imagination  of  the  natives  has  so 
transformed  the  native  legends  that  though  these  go  back  to  the  creation  of  the 
world,  they  give  us  no  historical  material  of  any  value  whatever. 

It  is  not  until  the  first  centuries  of  our  era  that  the  general  darkness  is  some- 
what relieved.  On  the  north  fi-ontier  and  in  the  east  we  find  a  restless  movement 
and  a  process  of  struggle  with  varying  success  between  the  Chinese  and  the  native 


olS  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Ichaptev iv 

races,  while  iii  the  south  and  west  Hindu  civilization  is  everywhere  victorious. 
The  most  important  source  of  our  knowledge  upon  the  alVairs  of  Further  India  in 
those  ages  is  Ptolemy's  description  of  the  world,  dating  from  the  Hrst  half  of  the 
second  century  a.  d.  The  explanation  of  many  of  his  statements  is  due  to  the 
energy  of  G.  E.  Gerini  (Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1897).  The  larger 
part  of  the  south  was  occupied  hy  the  Champa  kingdom  of  the  Ciuims,  with  its 
capital  at  Champapura.  To  tiie  east  and  northeast  were  settled  the  Khmers, 
who,  according  to  an  ancient  tradition  of  Cambodia,  had  advanced  southwards  from 
their  northern  settlements  and  come  into  connection  with  the  Chams.  However, 
Ptolemy  also  informs  us  that  at  his  time  the  coast-line  of  Further  India  was 
inhabited  throughout  its  length  by  the  Siudoi  (Hindus).  As  their  importance  in 
Indo-China  was  at  that  time  great  enough  for  the  Alexandrine  geographer  to 
describe  them  as  a  race  of  wide  distribution,  the  advance  of  Hindu  civilization 
must  have  taken  place  at  least  some  centuries  previously. 

The  introduction  of  Brahman  civilization  was  merely  a  victory  for  a  few  repre- 
sentatives of  a  higher  culture.  The  physical  characteristics  of  the  population  of 
Further  India  were  but  little  influenced  by  this  new  infusion.  The  movement  can 
hardly  have  begun  before  the  period  at  which  tlie  lirahmans  colonised  Orissa  (p.  372). 
From  this  point  Brahmanism  apparently  made  its  way  to  Indo-China  by  sea.  On 
the  one  liand,  the  Brahmans  did  not  advance  along  the  land  route,  long  hidden  and 
leading  through  the  tiaiiges  delta  and  Assam,  until  tlie  second  half  of  the  present 
millennium,  at  which  time  Brahmanism  had  long  since  fallen  into  decay  in  Indo- 
China.  On  the  other  hand,  a  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  colonisation  was  of  trans- 
marine origin  is  the  predominance  of  Hinduism  upon  the  coast  (cf.  the  statement 
of  Ptolemy  above).  The  movement  to  Indo-China  cannot  have  started  from 
Southern  India  for  the  reason  that  at  that  period  Brahmanism  had  taken  but 
little  hold  on  the  south,  and  the  transmission  of  civilization  from  those  shores  is 
therefore  extremely  imjirobable.  It  was  not  until  a  much  later  period  that  com- 
munication between  the  two  countries  began,  the  results  of  which  are  apparent  in 
the  Dravidian  influences  visible  in  the  later  temple  buildings  of  Indo-China. 
Further  evidence  for  the  northern  origin  of  Indo-Chinese  Brahmanism  are  the 
names  of  the  more  important  towns  of  early  Indonesia,  which  are  almost  entirely 
borrowed  from  the  Sanscrit  names  of  the  towns  in  the  Ganges  district,  and  also  the 
desire  of  the  Indonesian  rulers  to  retrace  their  origin  to  tiie  mjlhical  sim  and  moon 
dynasties  of  Madhya-desa  (p.  371). 

Tlie  maritime  route  led  straight  to  Burmah,  but  Indian  civilization  at  the  moment 
.  found  that  district  less  favourable  to  its  development  than  that  of  the  great  and 
more  hospitable  Cham])a  kingdom  in  the  central  south.  The  Gulf  of  Ligor  and 
the  coast  and  the  banks  of  the  great  rivers  of  Cambodia  seem  to  have  been  the 
central  points  of  Brahman  influence.  This  influence  was  less  important  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Further  India,  which  was  both  further  from 
the  Brahman  starting  point,  and  more  sulijcct  to  Chinese  civilization.  From 
Upper  Burmah  to  Cochin-China  countless  temi)le  ruins  are  t(j  be  found  at  the 
present  day,  with  rich  ornamental  sculptures  and  Sanscrit  inscriptions,  bearing 
evidence  of  the  force  of  Brahman  influence  in  earlier  ages.  Every  year  important 
discoveries  are  made,  especially  in  those  districts  which  the  French  have  opened 
up.  According  to  E.  Aymonier,  most  of  the  traditional  names  of  the  kings  of 
Cambodia  are  to  be  read  in  inscriptions   in  their  Sanscrit  form  from  the  third 


x 


3    < 


EXPLAXATldX    OF   THE    I'lCTUKE    nVKlM.KAF 

(111  passing  through  the  gale  oppusite  to  the  pagmUi  of  Val  Saket  in  Jiaiigkok,  the  Ciipilal  of 
Siaiii,  the  street  leads  the  visitor  directly  to  the  pagoda  of  Vat  Suthilt.  Witliin  lliis  Biiddiia  tem- 
ple (B&t  Phra)  we  see  the  reverend  ancient  master  of  the  three  worlils  (tri  loka  Ihera  ;  Sanscr., 
tithavira)  and  the  BndiUia-pupils  (siivaka  sai'igha)  assembled  round  the  Siamese  Buddha,  who  is 
discoui-siiig  to  them  (somana  Khodom  ;  Sanscr.,  (jramana  Gautama  =  Asket  Gautama,  or  the  last 
Buildlia,  the  fourth  Buddlia  of  the  i>resent  dispensation,  in  short,  the  historical  BuiMlia).  The 
figures  are  life-size,  dresseil  in  the  garment  worn  by  the  inferior  Budilliist  prii-sis  (talapuin),  and 
UK  arranged  in  four  rows.  In  the  background  is  seated  the  ligure,  larger  than  life-size,  of  llie 
Sakya-Muni.  Eacli  of  the  Savoks  (.Sanscr.,  yravaka;  Pali,  savaka)  bears  his  name  inscribed  on  a 
marble  talilet,  which  is  cemented  to  the  lower  part  of  his  statue.  The  ilialect  of  these  Tai 
inscriptions  is  that  of  Sukhodaya. 

(After  l.ucien  Fournereau.    "  Le  Siam  ancicn,"  in  Vol.  .X.XVII  of  the  "  .\nii;ilcs  (hi  Muscc  Guimcl." 

Paris,   IS'i,'-,,) 


India 


.«]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  519 


century  a.  d.  to  1108.  At  a  later  period  within  this  district  Sanscrit  writing  gave 
way  to  the  native  Klimer  script.  Inscribed  memorials,  carvings,  and  budding 
generally,  make  it  clear  that  Siva  and  his  son,  Gane.sa  (p.  411),  the  god  with  the 
elephant  head,  were  the  most  widely  distributed  of  the  Braliman  gods.  The  images 
and  the  symbols  (Liiigam)  of  these  gods  are  far  more  numerous  than  those  of  the 
otlier  figures  of  Hindu  mj'thologj'.  However,  at  the  same  time  Vishnu  was  highly 
venerated.  The  most  important  and  beautiful  Brahman  temples  of  further  India 
are  dedicated  to  this  god,  instances  being  the  temples  of  Angkor  Thorn  and  of 
Angkor  Wat,  built,  as  we  learn  from  the  evidence  of  the  inscriptions,  in  825. 

At  the  time  when  the  early  exponents  of  Brahmanism  advanced  to  China,  Bud- 
dhism had  also  taken  root  in  their  native  land,  being  then  considered  merely  a 
special  variant  of  the  belief  in  the  old  gods.  Hence,  with  the  transmission  of 
Brahmanism,  the  seeds  of  Buddliism  were  undoubtedly  sown  in  Indo-China.  As 
Buddha  himself  was  received  into  the  cult  of  Vishnu  as  being  the  incarnation  of 
this  god,  so,  during  the  flourishing  period  of  Brahmanism  in  Champa  and  Cambodia, 
his  images  were  erected  and  worshipped  within  the  temples  dedicated  to  Siva  or 
Vishnu. 

Buddhism  advanced  to  Indo-China  by  two  routes.  The  first  of  these  led  straight 
from  India  and  Ceylon  to  the  opposite  coast.  According  to  the  tradition,  Buddha- 
ghosha  (pp.  415,  505)  in  the  fifth  century  A.  D.  after  making  his  translation  of 
the  sacred  scriptures  into  Pali,  introduced  the  doctrine  of  Buddha  into  the  country, 
starting  from  the  island  of  Ceylon.  Resemblances  between  the  script  of  Cambodia 
and  the  Pali  of  Ceylon  testify  to  the  contact  of  the  civilization  and  religion  of  these 
two  countries.  Subsequently,  however  (previously,  according  to  Taw  Sein  Tho), 
the  northern  or  Sanscrit  developments  of  Buddhism  (p.  409)  had  advanced  to 
Further  India  by  way  of  Central  and  Eastern  Asia.  The  doctrine  in  this  form  was 
first  transmitted  to  the  vigorous  and  half-barbaric  tribes  of  the  mountainous  high- 
lands, who  seem  to  have  accepted  it  readily.  At  any  rate,  the  Thai  races  (Laos, 
Shans,  and  Siamese),  who  migrated  southward  at  a  later  period,  were  undoubtedly 
zealous  Buddhists.  Then*  advance  about  the  end  of  the  first  and  second  centm-ies 
A.  D.  implies  a  definite  retrogression  on  the  part  of  Brahmanism  in  Indo-China. 
The  Brahman  gods  decay,  and  the  temples  sink  into  ruins.  Upon  their  sites  arise 
buildings  which,  in  then  poveity  of  decoration  and  artistic  conception,  correspond 
to  the  humility  of  Buddhist  theology  and  metaphysics  (see  the  plate,  "  Buddha  and 
his  Pupils,  sculptured  figures  in  the  interior  of  a  Siamese  pagoda,  Wat  Sut  hat "). 
In  Cambodia  alone  did  Brahmanism  maintain  its  position  for  a  time,  as  is  evi- 
denced by  buildings  and  inscriptions  from  the  sixth  to  the  thii-teenth  centuries. 
About  the  year  700  the  northern  type  of  Buddhism  made  an  unobtrusive  entrance, 
and  King  Jayawarman  V  (968-1002)  undertook  reforms  on  behalf  of  Buddhism. 
However,  it  was  not  until  1295  that  the  schools  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Bud- 
dhists, and  Buddhism  did  not  become  the  State  religion  in  Cambodia  before  1320. 
At  that  date,  the  Southern,  or  Pali,  Buddhism  had  also  found  adherents  in  the 
country. 

Brahmanism,  however,  had  been  very  deeply  rooted,  as  is  proved  by  the  nume- 
rous Sanscrit  words  borrowed  by  the  modem  languages  of  Further  India,  and  also  by 
many  special  practices  which  have  persisted  to  the  present  day.  Vishnu,  Siva,  and 
OaneSa,  though  no  longer  worshipped  as  gods,  were  honoured  as  heroes,  and  their 
images  in  bronze  and  stone  decorated  the  temples  side  by  side  with  the  images  of 


520  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Ichaptcrir 

BuiUUia,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  temple  of  Wat-Bot-l'hrani  at  Bangkok.  Vishnu 
remains  one  of  the  heraldic  devices  on  the  royal  banner  of  Siam,  and  the  kings  of 
this  empire  show  si)ecial  favour  to  the  Brahmans  in  their  districts  who  cling  to 
the  old  beliefs.  They  alone  ai'e  allowed  to  prepare  the  holy  water,  and  play  a 
predominant  part  in  many  palace  ceremonies.  The  aristocracy  of  Cambodia  still 
lays  claim  to  certain  pri\'ileges  which  remind  us  of  the  Brahman  caste  system 
(Kshatriyas). 

C.   The  History  of  Indo-China 

From  the  times  when,  thanks  to  Ptolemy,  a  more  definite  light  is  thrown 
upon  the  afifairs  of  Further  India,  the  general  history  of  Indo-China  appears  char- 
acterised by  a  tripartite  division  corresponding  to  the  three  main  geographical 
districts  of  the  peninsula ;  we  have  to-day  the  western  district  facing  the  Indian 
Ocean,  the  central  district  watered  by  the  rivers  of  the  Salwen,  ilenam,  and 
Mekong,  and  the  eastern  district  most  easily  accessible  from  China,  and  facing 
the  Chinese  Sea. 

(a)  Western  Indo-China  (Burmuh).  —  The  earliest  sources  of  Burmese  history 
are  of  Chinese  origin.  From  the  Chinese  annals  we  hear  of  struggles  with  the 
inhabitants  of  the  northwest  of  Further  ludia  during  the  first  century  B.  C.  In 
these  struggles  the  old  capital  of  Tagong  ceased  to  exist,  and  further  Chinese 
incursions  took  place  between  166  and  241  a.  d.  The  earlier  history  of  the  country 
rests  solely  upon  vagvie  tradition.  These  traditions  enable  us  dimly  to  observe  the 
persistence  of  an  incessant  struggle  between  petty  kiugdoms  which  rise  to  power 
and  again  disappear.  From  this  constant  change  a  number  of  larger  and  more 
tenacious  bodies  politic  originate.  Such  is  the  State  of  Arakan  on  the  northern 
coast,  which  was  colonised  froiu  Burraah,  but  strongly  influenced  by  India  by  reason 
of  its  neighbourhood  to  that  country.  Under  its  king,  tiaw-Laya,  it  held  the  pre- 
dominance over  Bengal,  Pagan,  Pegu,  and  Siam  about  1138,  and  about  1450  it 
advanced  from  Sandoweh,  beyond  its  central  point  of  Akyab,  to  Chittagong.  On 
the  south  we  have  the  State  of  Malaya  Desa,  so  called  after  the  principal  tril>e, 
and,  more  important  thau  either  of  the  foregoing,  the  two  States  of  Burmah  and 
Pegu.  The  history  of  these  latter  is  the  history  of  an  incessant  struggle  between 
two  races, —  the  Burmese,  who  advanced  from  the  north,  and  the  native  Mons 
(Talaing;  Pegu). 

The  earliest  mythology  of  the  Burmese  speaks  of  J'rome  in  the  fifth  century 
A.  D.  as  the  capital  of  a  primordial  kingdom.  At  a  later  period  certain  rebels  emi- 
grated from  Prome  and  founded  Pagan,  which  became  the  central  point  of  a  new 
kingdom,  and  flourished  from  the  seveuth  to  the  ninth  centuries.  About  1060  it 
was  suihcieutly  powerful  to  conquer,  under  the  leadership  of  Auuruddha,  or  Anorat 
'Szo,  the  Talaing  kingdom  of  i^adon,  but  was  destroyed  about  1300  by  the  dynasty 
of  Panja.  The  period  during  which  Tagong  (Taung-gu)  was  the  capital  of  the  old 
Burmese  kingdom  coincides  with  the  distributiou  of  Indian  civilization  by  the 
Brahmans.  According  to  Brahman  legends,  Tagong  on  the  Irawaddi  was  founded 
by  King  AbhirSja  about  five  hundred  years  before  our  era.  At  any  rate,  the  rulers 
of  Tagong  were  entirely  subject  to  the  influence  of  foreign  civilization.  Tradition 
has  preserved  long  lists  of  names  belonging  to  different  dynasties,  in  which  there 
is  an  attempt  to  establish  an  original  connection  with  the  royal  families  of  early 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  521 


India.  Individual  members  of  these  lists  are  still  celebrated  as  mighty  heroes  in 
Burmese  popular  songs. 

The  scanty  substratum  of  historical  truth  that  can  first  be  derived  from  the  native 
legends  displays  the  first  thousand  years  of  our  era  as  an  age  of  restless  move- 
ment, and  of  struggles  fought  out  between  the  individual  States,  and  also  against 
the  Singhalese  (p.  508),  and  in  particular  the  Chinese,  who  attempted  to  reduce 
Burmah  to  their  supremacy  when  they  were  not  themselves  occupied  by  internal 
disturbances.  At  a  later  period  Cliiuese  incursions  were  repeated,  and  as  late  as 
1284  fierce  battles  against  these  powerful  neighbours  took  place.  It  was  not  until 
1305  that  the  Burmese  ruler  Minti  succeeded  in  shaking  off  the  supremacy  of 
China,  rmtil  the  time  of  Shan  supremacy  in  that  country.  The  darkness  in  which 
the  details  of  Burmese  history  are  veUed  begins  to  disperse  in  the  second  half  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  However,  the  cliaracter  of  the  development  remains 
unchanged:  bloody  wars  between  the  two  chief  races,  the  Burmese  and  the 
Mons,  brave  and  cruel  rulers  alternating  with  weaklings,  and  a  general  state  of 
upheaval  wluch  affected  the  little  States  of  tlie  west,  and  even  the  kingdom  of 
Central  Indo-China. 

In  the  year  1364,  King  Satomeuchiu  (Thadominbia),  lord  of  the  land  of  Sagoin 
(Sagany)  and  Panja,  founded  the  Burmese  capital  of  Ava  (the  classical  Ratnapura), 
which  for  a  long  time  was  to  be  the  central  point  of  the  history  of  the  country. 
His  successor,  Mengyitsauke  (Min-saw-mun),  increased  his  kingdom  by  the  con- 
quest of  Prome.  He  and  the  following  kings  defeated  both  the  Arakanese  (1413 
and  later)  and  the  Chinese  in  1424,  1449,  and  1477.  The  centre  of  power  then 
shifted  from  Ava  to  Pegu,  the  ruler  of  which,  Mentara,  after  subduing  Burmah 
and  Arakan  (1540),  then  stormed  Ayuthia,  tlie  capital  of  Siam,  in  spite  of  a  most 
vigorous  defence,  and  thus  became  paramount  over  the  great  kingdom  in  Central 
Indo-China  (1544).  The  Siamese  repeatedly  revolted,  although  their  efforts  were 
forcibly  suppressed,  and  soon  succeeded  in  freeing  themselves  from  the  supremacy 
of  the  Pegu  king,  Burankri  Naunchan  (1551-1581,  also  Bayin  Naung;  in  Portu- 
guese, Brangino§o).  Burmah,  however,  remained  dependent  upon  Pegu  for  a  longer 
period.  Attempts  to  shake  off  the  foreign  yoke  failed  (1585);  Ava  became  a 
provincial  town,  and  was  reduced  to  ruin  by  neglect.  At  the  outset  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  forces  of  Pegu  were  expelled  by  Nyaung  Mendarah ;  Ava  was 
restored  as  the  capital  of  Burmah  in  1601  ;  while  Pegu  and  the  northern  Shan 
States  in  the  neighbourhood  were  subjugated.  However,  in  1636  Pegu  freed  itself 
from  Ava,  which  its  rulers  then  subdued,  and  Ava  became  the  capital  of  the  two 
united  States.  The  balance  of  fortune  and  power  continued  to  oscillate  between 
these  States.  In  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  Pegu  was  predomi- 
nant ;  the  turn  of  Burmah  came  at  the  outset  of  the  eighteenth  century.  However, 
between  1740  and  1752  Burmah  suffered  several  severe  defeats  and  again  became 
subject  to  Pegu.  'Wlien  Burmah  finally  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Pegu  in  1753,  the 
last  section  of  her  histoiy  as  an  independent  State  begins  (until  1885). 

Europeans  had  set  foot  upon  the  soil  of  Indo-China  several  centuries  previously; 
Malacca  had  been  conquered  by  Albuquerque  in  1511,  and  had  become  a  stronghold 
of  Portuguese  influence  in  the  Malay  archipelago ;  trading  stations  had  also  been 
founded  on  the  north  and  west  coasts  of  Further  India,  but  the  development  of 
these  was  hindered  by  the  continual  struggles  between  Pegu  and  Burmah.  Upon 
occasion  Portuguese  knights  and  soldiers  fought  on  one  or  the  other  side.     Adven- 


:.22  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         \_rkapter  iv 

turers,  boili  Portuguese  (Fil  ile  Biito  y  Nicole,  1600-1613)  ami  Spanish  (Rebaste 
Gouzakv.  lie  Tibao,  about  IGoO),  gained  a  temporary  reputation  at  the  cdsi  of  a 
miserable  end  However,  European  relations  with  Further  India  went  no  further 
than  this.  At  a  later  period  the  English  and  the  Dutch  also  founded  settlements 
on  the  Burmese  coast,  but  were  collectively  expelled  in  consequence  of  their 
tactless  behaviour  to  the  Burmese  officials.  It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  that  the  English,  in  return  for  the  help  which  they  gave  to 
Alompra,  the  Burmese  liberator,  and  also  by  their  undigaitied  subservience, 
obtained  permission  to  found  a  factory  on  the  island  of  Negrais,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Bassein  liiver,  which  carried  on  a  considerable  trade  for  some  time  (until 
October,  1759). 

In  1740  Burmah  was  overrun  by  Beinga-Della  of  Pegu,  and  the  royal  family  was 
utterly  exterminated.  However,  in  1753  Alompra  collected  a  number  of  adherents 
in  the  village  of  Mozzobo  (Manchabu).  This  personage  is  also  known  as  Alauugp 
'aya,  Alunk  P'Hura,  "  the  huntsman."  In  a  parable  apparently  emanating  from 
Buddhaghosha  we  read  the  following  contemptuous  statement :  "  Of  the  twenty -one 
castes  nineteen  can  be  released  from  their  sins  by  good  works;  but  the  huntsiuen 
and  fishers,  though  they  visit  the  pagoda,  hear  the  law,  and  keep  the  five  command- 
ments until  the  end  of  their  lives,  can  never  be  released  from  their  sins."  Alompra 
drove  out  the  governor  of  Pegu  and  the  brother  of  its  king,  AporazS,  who  a{)peared 
in  1754  before  Ava  with  a  fleet.  In  1755  he  advanced  upon  Pegu  and  gained 
possession  of  the  hostile  capital  in  1757.  In  jnemory  of  the  victory  of  Synyangong 
(April  21,  1755)  Pangoon  was  founded,  a  town  which  rapidly  rose  to  great  com- 
mercial importance  by  reason  of  its  favourable  situation. 

Pegu,  whicli  had  struggled  for  so  many  ceutm-ies  with  Burmah  for  predominance, 
ceased  to  exist  in  1757.  From  that  date  Burmah,  which  by  the  occupation  of  Mer- 
gui  and  Tenasserim,  even  encroached  upoa  Siam,  was  indisputably  the  first  power 
in  the  west  of  the  peninsula  of  Further  India.  After  the  death  of  Alompra,  May 
15,  1760,  his  successor  (Xamdoji  Prau  or  Phra,  etc.)  was  confronted  with  the  task 
of  quelling  revolts,  repelling  the  attacks  of  the  Chinese  who  declined  to  tolerate 
the  growth  of  this  new  power  on  their  southern  frontier,  and  incorporating  those 
petty  States  of  Western  Indo-China  which  had  retained  their  independence.  Shem- 
baun  (S'inbyftyin,  Shang-Phra-Shang ;  1763-1766),  the  second  successor  of  Alom- 
pra, successfully  defended  his  empire  against  the  Chinese,  almost  destroying  their 
army  under  General  Chien  lang  before  Ava;  he  temporarily  (1771)  conquered 
Siam  and  subdued  Assam  (Asftm),  which  had  hitherto  maintained  its  independence 
both  against  India  and  Indo-China.  Alompra's  third  son,  the  sixth  king  of  the 
dynasty  of  1757,  Bhodau  Phra  (Bodaw  p'aya,  that  is,  royal  grandfather;  more 
properly  Baden-thaken,  also  Mentaragj'i  or  Meuderaji  Prau),  a  brave  ruler,  though 
cruel  and  capriciou.s,  founded  Amarapura  (Ummarapura)  as  a  new  capital  in  1783, 
and  obliged  all  the  inhabitants  of  Ava  to  emigrate  thither.  He  suppressed  revolts 
in  Pegu  with  bloodthirsty  severity,  most  cruelly  ])ersecuted  the  P.uddhist  doctrine 
of  tho.se  priests,  and  in  1874  incorporated  Arakan,  which  he  had  captured  by 
treachery,  with  his  kingdom.  Thus  upon  his  death  (1819),  Burmah  had  reached 
the  zenith  of  its  greatness  and  power. 

Phagyi-dau  (Ing-Sche-Men),  the  grandson  and  successor  of  Bhodau  Phra,  re- 
turned to  residence  in  the  capital  of  Ava.  He  inherited  the  capricious  and  irre- 
sponsible character  of  his  father  without  any  of  his  high  talent.     His  exaggerated 


India-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  523 

estimate  of  his  owu  powers  led  to  the  first  war  with  England  (1824-1826 ;  cf. 
p.  478).  By  the  peace  of  Yaudabo  (February  24,  1826)  Burmah  was  deprived  of 
most  of  its  power,  compelled  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  £1,000,000,  to  conclude  a 
commercial  treaty,  to  receive  a  British  resident,  and  was  confined  to  the  basin  of 
the  Irawaddi ;  its  possessions  now  hardly  extend  beyond  the  delta  of  that  river 
(including  Eangoon).  However,  the  rulers  of  the  country  had  been  taught  nothing 
by  the  severe  punishment  which  they  had  received.  In  1837  Phagyi-dau,  having 
become  totally  insane,  was  deposed  and  placed  in  confinement.  His  successor 
Tharawadi,  who  was  no  less  autocratic  and  short-sighted,  declined  to  recognise  the 
convention  of  Yandabo.  The  English  missionaries  were  so  badly  treated  that  they 
were  forced  to  evacuate  the  country,  and  the  British  resident  was  withdrawn  in 
1840  in  consequence  of  the  insolent  treatment  which  he  had  experienced. 

In  1845  Tharawadi  also  went  mad,  and  was  deposed  by  his  son  Pagan  Meng; 
hostilities,  however,  still  continued.  British  captains  were  insulted  and  payment 
was  refused  of  the  indemnities  demanded.  Burmah  was  voluntarily  rushing  into 
a  new  war  with  England.  In  rapid  succession,  though  at  the  price  of  considerable 
loss,  the  British  troops  captured  Martaban  (Ramanya — -April  5,  1852),  Eangoon, 
Bassein,  Prome,  and  Pegu  (21st  November).  On  the  20th  of  December  Lord  Dal- 
housie  in  person  laid  down  the  new  frontier  line,  declaring  Lower  Burmah  (Pegu) 
British  territory  (p.  488).  This  was  a  fatal  blow  to  Burmese  independence,  as  the 
country  was  cut  off  from  the  coast  and  from  communications  by  sea,  and  deprived 
of  its  most  fruitful  rice  territory.  This  peace,  so  favourable  to  England,  placed  her 
in  complete  possession  of  what  had  been  the  east  coast  of  Burmah  on  the  Sea  of 
Bengal.  The  rest  of  the  native  kingdom  was  placed  in  a  position  of  entire  depen- 
dency upon  British  India,  the  maintenance  of  good  relations  with  England  being 
thus  indispensable.  This,  however,  was  a  condition  impossible  of  fulfilment  by  the 
Burmese  rulers. 

Pagan  Meng  was  deposed  in  1853  and  succeeded  by  Meng  dan  (dun)  Meng 
(Menlung  ilen,  Mindon-min),  a  well-meaning  ruler,  benevolent  to  his  subjects ;  he 
was,  however,  wholly  unable  to  grasp  the  situation,  as  is  obvious  from  the  fact  that 
eighteen  months  after  the  incorporation  of  Pegu  he  sent  an  embassy  to  Calcutta 
requesting  the  restoration  of  the  territory  taken  from  the  kingdom.  For  a  long 
time  he  declined  to  sign  the  convention  confirming  the  loss  of  Pegu.  At  the  same 
time  under  this  king,  who  removed  his  capital  from  Amarapura  to  Maudalay  in 
1857,  highly  profitable  relations  were  begun  between  Burmah  and  British  India. 
In  1862  Arakan,  Martaban  (Irawaddi),  Pegu,  and  Tenasserim  were  united  into 
"British  Burmah"  (under  Arthur  Phayre  as  chief  commissioner),  and  in  1874 
Queda  in  Malacca  was  voluntarily  ceded  by  its  prince,  and  united  to  Tenasserim. 
In  1871  Italy,  and  in  1873  France,  concluded  commercial  treaties  with  Burmah, 
which  manifested  its  interest  in  a  definite  connection  with  Europe  by  the  despatch 
of  ambassadors  (1872,  1874,  and  1877). 

Meng  dan  Meng  died  on  the  1st  of  October,  1878,  and  was  succeeded  by  Thibau 
(Theebaw),  a  king  of  the  type  of  Phagyi  dau  and  Tharawadi.  He  was  a  bitter 
enemy  to  England,  and  drove  out  the  resident  from  Burmah  in  September,  1879, 
by  continual  persecution.  He  then  entered  into  negotiations  with  France,  which 
had  advanced  the  frontier  of  its  colonies  in  Further  India  to  the  Burmese  tributary 
States  of  the  Shan,  with  the  object  of  entering  into  closer  relations  with  that  coun- 
try.   Proposals  were  made  for  the  construction  upon  French  ground  of  a  railway 


524  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         Ichaj^eriv 

to  Mandalay,  where  a  French  bank  was  to  be  founded,  etc  Enghxnd  thereupon 
sent  an  ulliiuatum  to  Tbibau  on  the  17lh  of  October,  1885,  demanding  the  recep- 
tion of  a  British  ambassador  and  the  renunciation  of  all  attempts  at  an  independent 
policy  on  tlie  part  of  Burmah.  The  king  was  granted  four  (hiys  for  consideration, 
and  rejected  the  ultimatum.  The  English,  however,  had  availed  themselves  of  this 
short  interval  to  concentrate  eleven  thousand  troops  on  the  Burmese  frontier  under 
Colonel  Harrj'  Nortli  Dalrymple.  Thibau,  in  surprise,  requested  an  armistice  for 
negotiation.  This  was  granteil  under  the  condition  that  tlie  whole  Burmese  armv 
should  be  surrendered,  together  with  Mandalay.  These  conditions  were  faitlifully 
observed  and  executed  on  the  2Sth  of  November,  whereupon  the  defenceless  king 
was  immediately  carried  off  as  a  state-prisoner  to  ^ladras  by  way  of  Itangoon  on 
the  1st  of  December.  The  English  name  of  these  proceedings  is  "  The  Third  Bur- 
mese War."  In  reality  the  storming  of  Miiihla  on  the  17th  of  October  was  the 
only  operation  which  cost  any  lives.  By  surprise  they  became  masters  of  the  west 
of  Burmah  which  had  remained  free  and  which  officially  ceased  its  independent 
existence  on  the  31st  of  December,  1885.  In  April,  1886,  an  attempt  was  made 
at  revolt  and  suppressed  in  November  by  General  Roberts  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  516).  After 
the  incorporation  of  the  Shan  States,  which  took  place  during  the  years  1887-1888 
(cf.  p.  529),  the  British  became  masters  of  the  whole  of  Western  Indo-China. 

(J)  Central  Indo-China.  —  lu  Central  Further  India  three  kingdoms  have 
successively  secured  predominance  :  Champa,  Cambodia,  and  Siam.  Our  knowledge, 
however,  of  the  early  history  of  Central  Indo-Chiua  is  confined  to  the  most  general 
outlines. 

(a)  Champa  and  Cambodia.  —  The  previous  statement  is  especially  true  of 
Champa,  the  oldest  of  the  three  States  above  named ;  tlie  earliest  intelligible 
accounts  display  the  Cham  as  a  powerful  people.  At  the  time  of  its  greatest 
prosperity,  near  the  middle  of  the  first  century  a.  d.,  Champa  was  about  the  size 
of  the  modern  Cambodia,  though  at  di  If  event  periods  it  also  extended  over  Cochiu- 
China,  Aunam,  and  even  to  Southern  Tongking.  At  the  time  of  Ptolemy  the  civil- 
ization was  Brahman,  early  Sanscrit  inscriptions  covering  the  period  from  the  third 
to  the  eleventh  centurj'  A.  D. ;  from  that  date  inscriptions  are  written  in  Champa, 
a  special  dialect  strongly  influenced  by  Sanscrit  elements.  The  religion  of  the 
country  was,  as  everywhere  in  Further  India,  chiefly  Siva  worship  (Lihgam); 
scarce  a  trace  of  Buddhism  is  to  be  discovered  during  that  period,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  downfall  of  the  Champa  kingdom  that  Buddhism  became  more  deeply 
rooted  in  the  district  (cf.  p.  519  above). 

Wars  with  the  Chinese,  who  were  extending  their  supremacy  over  Tongking, 
Annam,  and  Cochin-Chiiia,  and  drove  out  the  Cham  from  those  districts,  occupy  the 
period  from  the  fourth  to  the  tenth  centuries  of  our  era.  The  Chamjia  were  also 
forced  to  struggle  with  the  Khmers,  who  had  entered  the  country  from  the  north 
according  to  the  early  traditions  of  Cambodia,  and  were  settled  in  the  northeast 
of  the  Champa  kingdom  in  the  days  of  Ptolemy.  As  early  as  the  seventh  century 
they  pushed  their  way  like  a  wedge  between  the  Chamj)a  kingdom  and  the  States 
of  Annam  and  Cochin-China,  which  were  subject  to  China.  We  find  them  in  fuU 
ppssession  of  Brahman  civilization;  the  earliest  written  records  of  the  Khmer 
State  of   Cambodia   are  in  Sanscrit   and    belong   to  the  third   century ;    in    626 


/nrf. 


"J  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  525 


(according  to  the  Saka  chronology  549)  this  inscription  mentions  a  King  Isina- 
warniau,  whose  three  predecessors,  Eudrawarman,  Bhawawarman,  and  Mahendra- 
wariuan  can  be  inferred  from  the  oldest  Buddhist  inscription  but  one  of  the  year 
667  (according  to  the  Saka  chronology  589) ;  from  the  first  of  these  kings  the  list 
of  rulers  is  continued  with  but  scanty  mterruptiou  until  the  year  1108.  A  reliable 
eye-witness,  the  Chinese  pilgiim  Hiuen  Tsaug  (p.  409)  visited  the  two  States  of 
Cambodia  and  Champa  in  the  years  631-633  and  mentions  their  towns  Dewara- 
wati,  Chamapura,  and  Champapura.  At  this  period  Cambodia  was  a  State  of  equal 
power  to  tlie  earlier  Champa  kingdom.  However,  even  then  a  dangerous  move- 
ment became  perceptible  upon  the  northern  frontier.  From  the  Chinese  frontier 
mountains  tribes  of  the  Thai  advanced  southward  to  the  borders  of  Cambodia.  A 
brancli  of  these  immigrants,  the  Lao,  settled  upon  the  eighteenth  degree  of  latitude 
in  547  and  foimded  a  State  with  the  capital  of  Labong ;  at  a  later  period  other 
smaller  kingdoms  of  the  Thai  were  formed.  At  the  outset  of  the  seventh  century 
the  Lao  (in  Chinese  annals  Ai-Lao)  made  a  vigorous  advance  upon  Cambodia. 
There,  however,  their  power  was  broken.  Legend  conjoins  the  defeat  of  the  Thai 
with  the  name  of  the  King  Phra  Ruang ;  the  chronology  dates  from  his  govern- 
ment, the  first  year  of  which,  638  a.  d.,  still  forms  ^,  chronological  starting-point 
throughout  the  whole  of  central  Further  India.  The  defeated  enemy  were  absorbed 
into  the  local  civilization  and  adopted  the  writing  and  the  laws  of  Cambodia. 
However,  their  youthful  strength  could  not  thus  be  permanently  constrained ;  in 
the  year  959  a.  d.  the  Thai  freed  themselves,  as  is  unanimously  related  by  the 
early  records  of  Cambodia  and  Siam.  Driven  on,  perhaps,  by  the  movement  of 
the  Tatar  Khitau,  who  had  invaded  China  in  937  (p.  93)  they  pressed  on  under 
their  king,  also  known  as  Phra  Ruang,  to  the  south  and  founded  an  independent 
kingdom  at  the  expense  of  the  Khmer  State ;  this  was  the  nucleus  from  whicli 
was  formed  the  principality  of  Xieng-Mai  (p.  516)  about  1250,  and  the  more 
modern  Siam  at  a  somewhat  later  date. 

(0)  Siam.  —  Like  a  flash  in  the  darkness  of  the  night  Kublai  Khan  (p.  177), 
the  Chinese  governor  of  Mangu,  biust  upon  the  Thai  in  1253-1254;  the  kingdom 
of  Namchao,  founded  by  a  Thai  tribe,  was  shattered,  and  the  Shan  were  driven  to 
their  present  habitations.  The  Thai  kingdom  of  Sukhodaya  on  the  Menam,  which 
extended  from  Ligor  to  Wingchau  and  to  the  great  Lake  of  Cambodia  imder  the 
rule  of  Rama  Khomheug  suffered  but  little.  The  Thai  of  Siam  continued  their 
advance,  hemming  in  the  Cham  and  pressing  hard  upon  the  Khmer ;  at  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century  they  had  already  readied  the  mouth  of  the  Menam.  Siam 
(Muoug  Thai,  or  "  The  laud  of  the  Thai  ")  liad  then  practically  attained  its  present 
extension.  The  Champa  kingdom  had  dwindled  to  a  small  district  in  the  south, 
and  Cambodia  had  been  driven  southeastward. 

(1)  The  First  Period  of  Modern  Siamese  Histori/  {134.}-15o6).  —  The  first  period 
of  modern  Siamese  history  begins  with  King  Ramathibodi  (Phra-Utong),  who 
ascended  the  throne  in  1344  and  rapidly  extended  his  kingdom  by  conquest  over 
a  large  part  of  Cambodia,  aud  as  far  as  the  Malacca  peninsula  on  the  southwest. 
As  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  kingdom  had  thus  changed,  the  capital  of  Chaliang 
was  removed  further  south  in  1350  to  Ayuthia,  which  was  erected  upon  the  ruins 
of  the  old  Daona.     Cambodia  was  again  attacked  and  conquered  in  the  years  1353 


526  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter  rv 

ami  13o7  ;  the  new  founded  capital  was  peopled  with  the  prisoners,  and  the 
weakened  neighbour  kingdom  was  forced  to  cede  the  province  of  Chantahum  to 
Siani.  The  successors  to  the  great  Phra-l'toug  were  busied  with  tlie  task  of 
checking  their  nortliern  neighbours  (Lao  1382),  of  restraining  tlie  aggression  of 
Champa,  which  had  sunk  to  the  position  of  a  piratical  State,  of  bringing  the 
revolted  Malacca  under  the  supremacy  of  Siain,  and  punishing  a  revolt  in  Cambo- 
dia by  the  complete  destruction  of  the  capital  town;  the  Khmer  were,  consequently, 
removed  to  the  swampy  lowlands  on  the  coast. 

A  number  of  less  iiuportant  rulera  then  came  to  the  throne,  who  had  much  diffi- 
culty in  maintaining  the  power  of  the  empire.  In  their  jieriod  occurred  the  first 
occasion  of  that  contact  with  the  European  world  which  has  so  deeply  influenced 
the  modern  history  of  Indo-China.  In  1511,  King  Horommarfija,  while  reconquer- 
ing the  revolted  province  of  Malacca,  came  in  contact  with  tiie  Portuguese,  who 
had  occupied  tlie  town  and  fortress  of  Malacca  in  the  same  year ;  relations  profit- 
able to  both  parties  were  begun  between  the  powers,  and  a  commercial  treaty  was 
concluded.  With  this  exception  Siam  remained  for  the  moment  untouched  by 
Euro]>ean  inthience.  The  domestic  history  of  the  country  is  cliaracterised  by  dis- 
turbances, quarrels  for  the  succession,  and  the  rule  of  favourites  and  women.  So 
long  as  peace  continued  abroad,  the  weakness  of  the  kingdom  passed  unnoticed. 
It  collapsed,  however,  incontinently  when  the  powerful  Pegu  turned  against  it  after 
securing  the  predominance  in  Burmah  ;  King  Mentara  invaded  the  country  with  a 
large  force,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Cambodia  seized  the  opportunity  of  joining  in 
the  military  operations.  Notwithstanding  a  desperate  resistance,  the  capital  of 
Ayuthia  surrendered  in  1544  and  Siam  became  a  tributary  vassal  Slate  of  Pegu. 
Hardly  had  the  country  begun  to  recov'er  from  these  disasters  and  to  think  of  its 
lost  independence  when  a  new  invasion  by  Mentara  in  1547  checked  its  aspira- 
tions. The  capital,  defended  by  Portuguese  kniglits,  resisted  all  efforts  at  capture, 
and  ^lentara  returned  home  without  accomplishing  his  purpose  ;  however,  in  1556 
Ayuthia  was  stormed  by  Cliumigreu,  the  successor  of  Mentara,  and  almost  the 
whole  population  was  carried  into  captivity ;  Siam  then  became  a  province  of  Pegu. 

(2)  The  Second  Period  of  Modern  Siamese  History  {15o6-J707).  —  Chumigren 
was  so  short-sighted  as  to  set  up  the  brother-in-law  of  the  last  King  of  Siam  as 
governor  of  the  country  ;  he  was  a  capable  man,  who  transmitted  his  strong  patri- 
otism and  love  of  independence  to  his  higlily  gifted  son,  Phra  Xaret  (Abhiraja 
Pramerit;  1558-159.'-!),  who  was  born  in  1542.  With  him  begins  the  gradual  rise 
of  the  second  great  popular  movement  in  modern  Siamese  history,  and  even  at  the 
present  day  he  is  honoured  as  the  gi-eat  national  hero  of  Siam.  In  1564  he  utterly 
defeated  the  forces  of  Pegu  and  peojiled  the  somewhat  deserted  capital  with  the 
prisoners  (1566).  In  the  north  he  reduced  the  Lao  iinder  his  power  in  the  two 
following  years,  and  in  the  year  1569  he  secured  his  recognition  by  China  as  the 
legitimate  King  of  Siam.  The  high  ambitions  of  Phi-a  Naret  were  directed  to  ex- 
tending the  Siamese  power  over  the  whole  of  Indo-Chiua.  His  fii-st  task  was  to 
shatter  Pegu,  the  previous  oppressor  of  his  fatherland.  For  this  campaign  the 
King  of  Cambodia  offered  his  help.  However,  when  the  Siamese  troops  had 
marched  to  Pegu,  the  ruler  of  Cambodia  treacherously  invaded  the  undefendeil  land 
of  his  ally.  He  was  beaten  back,  but  the  war  of  Phra  Naret  with  Pegu  proved 
long  and  arduous  in  consequence,  and  it  was  not  until  1 579  that  the  struggle  ended 


India 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  527 


with  the  complete  subjugation  of  Pegu  to  the  power  of  Siam.  Vengeance  was  now 
taken  upon  the  ruler  of  Cambodia  for  his  treachery;  in  1583  he  was  defeated  and 
captured,  and  his  capital  of  Lawek  was  utterly  destroyed.  In  1587  the  outbreak 
of  disturbances  in  Pegu  and  Cambodia  necessitated  the  presence  of  Phra  Naret ; 
when,  however,  after  punisliing  the  instigators  of  the  movement,  he  proposed  in 
1593  to  conquer  the  kingdom  of  Ava  (Burmah)  his  victorious  career  was  suddenly 
cut  short  by  death. 

The  reign  of  this  great  king  was  followed  by  more  than  a  century  and  a  half 
of  weak  rulers,  grievous  confusion,  bloody  conflicts  about  the  succession  (the  exter- 
mination in  1627  of  the  house  of  Phra  Naret,  where  the  minister,  Kalahom, 
founded  a  new  dynasty  under  the  title  of  Phra  Chau  Phra-satthong),  revolts 
among  the  people  in  the  provinces  (especially  in  1615)  and  embarrassments 
abroad.  Only  upon  one  occasion  did  it  appear  as  if  Siam  had  any  chance  of 
advancing  to  higher  prosperity.  In  the  year  1656  a  Venetian  adventurer  of 
Kephallenia,  by  name  Constantino  Phaulkon  (in  Siamese,  Phra  Klang ;  in  French, 
M.  Constance),  entered  the  country.  By  his  cleverness  and  capacity  he  gained 
the  favour  of  the  reigning  king,  Narai  (Chau  Noraga,  or  Naraya),  who  heaped 
honours  upon  him  and  appointed  him  to  responsible  positions,  ultimately  gi^'ing 
him  almost  unlimited  power  in  every  department  of  governmental  business. 
Permission  was  given  to  the  Dutch,  the  English,  the  Portuguese,  and  the  French 
to  found  trading  settlements.  Communication  was  improved  by  the  scientific 
construction  of  roads  and  canals,  etc.,  and  the  pi'osperity  of  the  country  rapidly 
increased.  The  French  received  special  favour  from  Phaulkon ;  in  1663  they 
were  allowed  to  build  a  Catholic  church  in  Ayuthia  and  to  erect  a  mission  under 
Lamotte  Lambert.  King  Louis  XIV  and  Pope  Clement  X  sent  an  embassy  to 
Siam  in  1673  to  further  the  prosperity  of  Christianity,  a  friendly  movement 
answered  in  like  manner  by  Phaulkon  in  1684,  which  was  received  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  by  Ant.  Thomas,  S.  J.,  in  1682,  May  2.  In  1685,  Chevalier  de 
Chaumont  as  ambassador,  a  fleet  left  France,  to  which  Bangkok  and  Mergui  were 
handed  over  under  a  convention  in  1687 ;  these  places  the  French  fortified,  but 
the  encroachments  of  the  garrison  under  the  coinandment  of  Volantz  du  Bruant 
and  des  Farges  soon  aroused  popular  animosity.  So  far-reaching  an  organisation 
had  been  too  rapidly  initiated ;  Phaulkon  fell  a  victim  to  a  popular  revolt,  formed 
by  the  mandarins  Phra  Phet  Ratscha  (Pitsacha),  Wisuta  Songtong,  and  others,  and 
finished  May  18  (capital  punishment,  June  5),  in  1689;  the  reforms  he  had  intro- 
duced were,  as  far  as  possible,  abolished,  the  French  were  expelled  in  1690,  and 
the  missions  and  native  Christians  subjected  to  severe  oppression. 

Under  the  weak  rulers  who  succeeded  (Phra  Phet  Racha,  1689-1700,  suc- 
ceeded by  liis  sons  and  grandsons),  the  power  of  Siam  rapidly  decayed.  Once 
again  the  deepest  humiliation  was  to  come  from  the  west.  In  the  neighbouring 
kingdom  of  Burmah,  Alompra  (p.  522)  had  led  his  people  from  victory  to  vic- 
tory, and  had  overthrown  his  hereditary  enemy  of  Pegu.  He  now  proposed  to 
conquer  Siam,  but  after  advancing  almost  to  Ayuthia  without  meeting  resistance, 
he  suddenly  died  in  1760.  However,  his  successor,  Shembuan,  again  invaded  the 
country  in  1766;  in  1767  the  capital  of  Siam  was  captured  and  burnt,  and  the 
king,  who  was  wounded,  perished  in  the  flames. 


028  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter iv 

(3)  Tlic  Tliird  Perioil  of  Modern,  Siamese  Hit/or;,  (^since  17G7).—The  fall 
of  the  capital  and  the  ileatli  of  the  kiiig  left  the  cDuntiy  at  the  mercy  of  tlie  con- 
queror. He,  however,  placed  V>ut  a  scanty  garrison  in  occupation.  Upon  the 
north,  where  the  strength  of  the  Thai  was,  as  ever,  chietiy  concentrated  in  its 
native  soil,  a  Siamese  governor  was  appointed,  by  name  I'haya  Tak  (Phiatak,  Pia- 
tak),  a  Chinese  by  birth.  He  gathered  as  many  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  as 
he  could,  drove  back  the  Burmese,  and  secured  the  recognition  of  China  after  the 
extinction  of  the  dynasty  of  1627.  As  Ayuthia  had  been  utterly  destroyed,  the 
capital  was  transferred  to  Bangkok  (Bancasey),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Menam,  in 
167S,  which  rapidly  rose  to  a  great  commercial  town.  This  success  brought 
power ;  in  the  same  year  Phaya  Tak  subdued  both  Cambodia  and  the  smaller 
southern  States  and  the  Laos  in  the  North  (1777) ;  he  defeated  the  Burmese,  who 
could  not  forget  or  forgive  the  loss  of  Siam.  Eventually  lie  became  insane,  and 
took  sanctuary  from  a  popular  revolt  in  a  monastery,  where  he  was  killed. 

The  position  of  Phaya  Tak  was  taken  in  1782  by  his  prime  minister,  Chakri, 
the  ancestor  of  the  present  dynasty.  At  that  period  a  French  bishop,  Bt5hauie 
(p.  531),  had  gained  complete  influence  over  the  successor  to  the  throne  of  the 
neighbouring  kingdom  of  Anuam,  and  France  began  to  interfere  more  decisively  in 
the  domestic  attau-s  of  Eastern  Indo-China.  The  growth  of  European  influence  and 
the  action  of  ecclesiastical  ambassadore  excited  the  apprehension  of  the  natives  ; 
in  Siam  the  new  king  and  his  successors  (Pierusing  until  1809  ;  Phendingkang, 
1809-1824;  Crom  Chiat,  or  Kroma  Mom  Chit,  1824-April,  1851)  manifested  their 
ill-feeling  to  the  foreigners.  Embarrassments  were  constantly  placed  in  the  way 
of  the  missions  and  decrees  hostile  to  the  Christian  religion  were  repeatedly  pro- 
mulgated. It  was  not  until  the  years  1840-1850  that  the  French  bishop,  D.  J.  B. 
Pallegoix,  to  whom  the  education  of  the  crown  prince  of  Siam  had  been  entrusted, 
succeeded  in  securing  full  religious  toleration  from  the  prince  upon  his  accession 
in  April,  1851.  Ever  since  the  brilliant  career  of  Phaulkon  a  certain  alarmed 
astonishment  had  been  the  prevailing  spirit  with  which  Siam  regarded  France. 
The  young  ruler,  Chou  Fa-Mongkut  (a  member  of  that  branch  of  the  ruling  house 
which  had  been  expelled  in  1824),  attempted  in  1851  to  enter  into  closer  relations 
with  the  Emperor  Napoleon  through  his  ambassadors  and  under  his  brother  and 
successor,  Somdet  Phra  Paramindr  Maha  Mongkut(1852-September  30, 1868),  and 
a  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  witli  France  in  1856  (with  England  in  1855 ; 
with  Germany  on  tlie  7th  of  February,  1802;  with  Austria  in  1858).  Peace- 
ful relations  with  France  continued  during  the  reign  of  King  Paramindr  Maha 
Chulalongkorn(-lankara),  who  ascended  the  throne  of  Siam  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
on  the  1st  of  October,  1868,  and  took  the  power  from  the  hands  of  his  trusted  min- 
ister, Chau  Phraya  Sri  Suriyawongse,  on  the  16th  of  November,  1873.  In  1884 
France  obtained  a  protectorate  over  Anuam,  and  England  secured  the  possession  of 
the  whole  of  Burmah  in  1886,  Siam  being  the  only  important  State  of  Further 
India,  wliich  retained  its  independence.  On  the  8tli  of  May,  1874,  the  constitu- 
tion was  reorganised,  the  legislative  power  being  exercised  by  the  king  in  concert 
with  the  great  State  council  and  the  cabinet  of  ministers. 

The  small  Shan  States  in  the  north  became,  liowever,  a  source  of  mischief  to 
the  two  western  powers  struggling  for  predominance  in  Siam.  The  Shan  States 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Mekong,  in  particular  Kianghung,  had  been. at  different 
periods  in  the  possession,  or  under  the  supremacy,  of  their  more  powerful  neighbours. 


muia]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  529 

Aunam,  like  Siam  and  Burmali,  had  claimed  these  States  in  her  prosperous  period, 
and  had  never  surrendered  her  putative  rights.  The  confusion  was  completed  by- 
China,  which  from  an  early  age  had  claimed  predominance  over  these  States,  as 
over  the  whole  of  Further  India.  When  England  captured  Burmah  in  1886,  and 
the  Shan  States  in  1887  and  1888  (508),  and  was  thereby  able  to  lay  claim  to 
Kiaughuug  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mekong,  France  proceeded  to  interfere ;  the 
movements  of  the  English  had  cut  oft'  her  access  to  Yunnan  by  the  Mekong,  and 
she  now  claimed,  as  the  protectorate  power  of  Annam,  the  middle  course  of  the 
Mekong  as  the  old  western  frontier  of  Annam.  England  now  forced  Siam  to  be- 
come her  advocate  and  concluded  a  convention  in  189l^,  which  assigned  to  Siam, 
as  former  mistress  of  those  States,  the  town  of  Kianghung,  which  lay  upon  either 
bank  of  the  Mekong.  As  England  had  expected,  the  tension  between  Siam  and 
France  broke  into  open  war  in  1893  ;  however,  this  struggle  ended  on  October  2d, 
when  Siam  surrendered  to  France  all  her  claims  to  the  territory  east  of  the  Mekong. 
England  again  declined  openly  to  confront  her  powerful  rival ;  she  sheltered  her- 
self behind  China,  and  agreed  upon  a  frontier  delimitation  with  that  country  by 
which  China  obtained  the  States  of  Mongleng  (Muang  lem)  and  Kianghung  in 
return  for  an  undertaking  not  to  cede  those  prox-inces  to  any  other  power  (France), 
either  entirely  or  in  part,  without  the  assent  of  England.  France  was  thereupon 
forced  to  conclude  a  frontier  delimitation  of  her  own  with  China ;  on  July  20th, 
1895,  she  granted  China  a  considerable  southward  extension  of  her  temtory  on 
the  Mekong,  in  return  for  which  important  preferential  advantages  were  secured 
for  her  commerce  with  Southern  China. 

It  was  not  until  the  convention  of  January  15,  1896,  that  the  war  of  intrigue 
between  England  and  France  was,  temporarily  at  least,  concluded.  By  this  con- 
vention it  was  arranged  that  the  central  portion  of  Siam,^  about  two-thirds  of  the 
previous  area  of  the  State,  should  be  secured  by  a  joint  protectorate  of  the  two 
powers.  By  this  guarantee,  on  the  other  hand,  two  sections  of  the  country,  the 
east,  bordering  upon  French  Annam,  and  to  the  west,  near  British  Burmah,  forming 
the  remaining  third  of  the  Siamese  territory,  was  left  untouched.  The  contracting 
powers  came  to  a  tacit  imderstanduig  not  to  stand  in  one  another's  way  in  \iew  of 
later  undertakings  against  unprotected  districts.  At  the  moment  Siam  still  rules 
over  her  previous  possessions. 

(c)  JEastern  Further  India  (Tongking,  Annam,  and  Cochin-China).  —  (a)  The  Chi- 
nese Period.  —  From  an  early  period  the  history  of  eastern  Further  India,  which  is 
naturally  conjoined  to  China  by  the  configuration  of  the  continent,  has  been 
inseparably  bound  up  with  that  powerful  kingdom,  which  developed  a  civilization 
at  an  unusually  early  period.  Early  reports  speak  of  an  embassy  from  Tongking 
to  the  imperial  court  in  the  second  millennium  before  our  era,  and  of  the  founda- 
tion of  Chinese  dynasties  in  that  district  in  214  b.  c.  and  109  A.  D.,  etc.  Chinese 
civilization,  however,  which  was  bound  to  expand,  did  not  stop  at  Tongking.  She 
had  already  established  herself  in  Annam  and  Cochin-China,  and  had  made  con- 


1  The  Siamese  teiTitory  under  the  "  protectorate  "  includes  the  river  districts  of  the  Pechaburi, 
Mekong,  Menain,  and  Bang  Pakam,  with  their  tributaries  ;  the  coast  line  from  Muang  Bang  Tapan  to 
Muang  Pase  and  the  river  valleys  on  which  these  towns  are  situated  ;  and,  finally,  the  district  north  of 
the  valley  of  the  Menam,  between  the  Anglo-Siamese  frontier,  the  Mekong,  and  the  eastern  frontier  of 
the  Me-ing  valley. 
VOL.  II  — M 


530  HISTCmV    OF    THE    WORLD         [Chapter ir 

sideraWe  progress  when  the  JJrahinaii  muveineiit  bcgau  to  advance  northward 
from  Camlxxiia  (p.  519).  There  the  earlier  civilization  was  predominant,  and  in  a 
large  degree  determined  the  nature  of  the  development  of  Annam.  The  forerimners 
of  Bralunanism  made  no  great  progress,  except  in  Coehin-China,  and  left  but  few 
traces  in  ^Vnnam,  and  practically  none  in  Tongkiug. 

From  that  remote  epoch  when  the  first  dynasties  were  founded  in  Tongking, 
China  for  more  than  a  thousand  years  (until  96S)  firmly  established  herself  in 
eastern  Indo-China,  though  her  inlluencc  varied  with  the  fortunes  of  Chinese  his- 
tory at  large  (p.  77  fl".).  When  China  proper  was  iu  ditficulties  from  internal  dis- 
turbances, changes  of  dynasties,  or  the  attack  of  powerful  foes,  she  exercised  little 
more  than  a  shadowy  predominance.  Thus  during  the  years  2l'2-G18  a.  d.  her 
powers  m  Annam  were  greatly  limited,  and  the  local  governors  availed  themselves 
of  the  embarrassments  of  the  empire  to  make  themselves  almost  independent.  At 
other  periods  China  governed  Eastern  Further  India  with  a  firmer  hand ;  thus  in 
the  first  half-century  a.  d.  revolts  were  suppressed  iu  Cochin-China  (which  also 
made  itself  independent  for  a  short  period  iu  263),  and  after  the  powerfid  Tang 
dynasty  had  gained  tlie  Chinese  throne  (p.  90)  Chma  once  again  brought  the  larger 
part  of  Annam  and  Cochin-China  into  close  dependence  upon  herself. 

(^)  The  Rise  of  National  Feeling  for  Independence.  —  In  the  tenth  century, 
when  China  was  again  shattered  by  internal  convulsions  (p.  93  below),  the  movements 
for  independence  iu  xinnam  were  again  victorious,  and  their  success  was  permanent 
from  the  year  968  to  981.  During  that  period  one  of  the  Chinese  governors,  by 
name  Li,  founded  in  Annam  the  dynasty  knowTi  by  his  name  (1010-1225) ;  Tong- 
kiug threw  off  the  Chinese  yoke  iu  1164,  as  did  Cochin-China  in  1166.  China 
again  reduced  the  rebellious  provinces,  but  only  for  a  time ;  the  emperor,  Kublai 
Khan  (pp.  96,  177,  and  525)  subdued  Tongking  and  also  Annam  and  Cambodia. 
However,  tlie  two  last-named  States  speedily  recovered  their  independence,  and 
Tongking  drove  the  Chinese  out  of  the  country  in  1288.  In  the  fourteenth,  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  China  again  secured  a  footing  in  east- 
ern Further  India ;  under  the  iling  dynasty  Annam  became  tributary  to  China  in 
1368  (p.  101)  and  Tongking  with  Cochin-China  became  a  Chinese  province;  then 
during  the  years  14:18-14:27  the  nationalist  movement  in  these  States  became  sc 
strong  that  the  Chinese  lost  all  semblance  of  power.  The  leader  of  this  move- 
ment, Le  Lo,  was  the  founder  of  the  Le  dynasty  which  ruled  for  a  long  period 
in  Annam  and  Tongking  (capital  town  Hanoi,  founded  in  1427) ;  by  embassies 
and  presents  of  homage,  he  made  a  formal  recognition  of  Chinese  supremacy,  but 
henceforward  China  could  no  longer  interfere  in  the  domestic  affairs  of  Annam. 

Tiie  European  advance  to  the  east  of  Further  India  produced  for  the  moment 
more  important  consequences  in  this  district  tlian  in  the  south  and  west  of  Indo- 
China.  Since  1511  Portuguese,  and  afterwards  Dutch,  factories  had  been  founded, 
and  from  1610  missions  and  small  native  Christian  congregations  existed  (1610  in 
Cambodia,  1615  in  Champa  and  Tongking,  1631  in  Hainan,  1632  in  Laos);  the 
countrj-  and  its  rulers  were  at  first  indifferent,  and  afterwards  generally  hostile  to 
all  foreigners ;  trade  came  almost  to  an  entire  cessation  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
while  the  missions  and  Christian  congregations  were  regarded  with  suspicion,  often 
bitterly  persecuted,  and  ultimately  forced  to  continue  a  doubtful  existence  in 
secret. 


Imli 


']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  531 


The  powerful  rulers  of  the  house  of  Le  were  succeeded  by  a  succession  of 
weaker  princes  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Under  them  some  parts  of  Annam  be- 
came independent  (1558)  and  the  Le  dynasty  would  have  collapsed  entirely  with- 
out the  assistance  of  skilled  officials,  who  became  so  important  that  they  secured  in 
1545  the  hereditary  position  of  major  domo  (the  dynasty  of  Trigne  or  Tringh ;  cf. 
thePeshwas  in  the  Mahratta  States;  p.  446).  Nguyrn  Hoang  (Tien  Wuong;  until 
1614)  in  Cochin-China  broke  away  from  these  officials,  and  from  the  nominal  ruler 
in  1570,  and  became  the  ancestor  of  the  present  ruler  of  Annam.  His  successors 
increased  their  kingdom  by  incorporating  the  remnants  of  Champa  and  of  Southern 
Cambodia  (the  six  provinces  of  the  modem  lower  Cochin-China),  and  were  resident 
in  Huti.  These  changes  caused  a  considerable  degree  of  complication  in  the  political 
affairs  of  Eastern  Indo-China  during  the  seventeenth  and  most  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  China  claimed  a  formal  supremacy,  though  she  exercised  no  actual  interfer- 
ence. The  Le  dynasty  continued  to  be  the  nominal  rulei-s  of  Annam  ;  in  reality,  how- 
ever, Annam  with  Cochin-China  and  Tongking  had  become  two  separate  States 
which  were  often  involved  in  furious  struggles  with  one  another.  The  actual 
rulers  of  Annam  were  the  descendants  of  Nguyen  Hoang,  and  in  Tongking  the 
major  domos  of  the  ln)use  of  Trigne. 

(7)  The  Age  of  French  Influence  in  Eastern  Further  India. — European  rela- 
tions with  the  country  had  entirel}-  ceased  in  the  eighteentli  century ;  an  English 
attempt  under  Catchpoole,  in  1702  to  settle  in  the  island  of  Pulo  Condore,  came  to 
an  end  in  1704  with  the  murder  of  the  settlers  by  the  natives,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  factory.  It  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  Annam 
came  closely  into  connection  with  France. 

A  general  rising,  incited  by  three  brothers  of  low  birth,  the  Tay  Son,  en- 
tirely transformed  the  political  situation  of  Annam  in  1755  ;  the  old  dynasties 
of  tlie  Le,  and  tlie  major  domo  prmces  of  the  Trigne  entirely  disappeared,  while 
the  Nguyen  family  became  almost  extinct.  Only  the  grandson  of  the  last  king  of 
this  family,  by  name  NguySn  Angne,  escaped  to  Siam,  where  he  was  educated  by 
the  Freucli  bisliop,  Pigneux  de  Bt^haine ;  he  then  recovered  the  most  soutlieru  por- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  his  ancestors  (Phucu(3g).  He  sent  his  son  to  France  with 
the  bishop  in  1787,  and  on  November  18  secured  the  conclusion  of  an  offensive 
and  defensive  alliance  from  Louis  XVI ;  by  this  arrangement  France  was  to  receive 
the  Gulf  and  the  Peninsula  of  Turon,  while  Nguyen  Angne  was  to  be  helped  by 
France  to  conquer  the  rest  of  Annam.  The  execution  of  this  compact  on  the  part 
of  France  was  largely  hindered  by  the  French  Revolution ;  however,  Nguyen 
Angne,  who  was  supported  by  the  Bishop  Adrian,  secured  the  assistance  of  many- 
French  officers,  who  drilled  his  troops  in  European  fashion,  and  conducted  the  mili- 
tary operations.  He  was  then  able  between  the  years  1792  and  1799  to  subdue, 
not  only  Annam  and  the  Tay  Son,  but  also  Tongking  in  1802,  which  had  meanwhile 
thrown  off  the  rule  of  the  Tay  Son  and  secured  the  predominance  in  Cambodia. 

The  kingdom  had  long  become  a  mere  shadow  of  that  larger  empire  whicli  had 
existed  at  the  time  of  the  emigration  of  the  Siam  Thais.  Since  1583,  when  Phra 
Naret  had  dipped  his  feet  in  the  blood  of  its  king  who  was  beheaded  before  him 
(p.  526),  the  kingdom  had  been  forced  to  submit  to  Siam.  The  misery  of  the 
country  was  increased  by  continuous  disturbances  at  home  and  eirtanglements 
abroad  with  Siam,  the  Laos,  and  Annam ;  the  kings  continually  retreated  before 


532  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chaj^urir 

their  powerful  neighbour,  and  finally  transferred  their  capital  to  Saigon  on  the 
ci>ast,  which  occupied  the  site  of  tlie  town  known  to  Arriuii  as  Thinai.  An  at- 
tempt on  the  part  of  Cambodia  to  avail  itself  of  the  Siamese  disasters  in  the  war 
with  the  Burmese,  Alompra,  came  to  nothing  ;  in  1794  the  vassal  ruler,  Somrath 
Phra  Marai,  who  was  set  up  by  Siam,  ceded  Battambong  and  Siemrat  to  his  patron 
in  return.  From  1S06  onwards  the  impoverished  country  paid  tribute  both  to  Siam 
and  Annam ;  it  held  two  seals,  one  from  each  of  the  two  neighbouring  States,  and 
the  kings  of  Cambodia  did  homage  to  each  of  these  powers. 

Thanks  to  his  French  auxiliaries,  Nguyrn  Angne  jjroved  brilliantly  successful, 
and  henceforward  to  his  title  of  "  Emperor  (or  King)  of  Annam  "  lie  added  tlie  royal 
title  of  "Gia  long"  (that  is,  the  man  favoured  by  fortune).  Once  in  power,  he  be- 
came suspicious  of  the  foreigners,  whose  importance  he  understood  better  than  any 
other  ruler  in  Further  India.  Wliile  removing  liis  favour,  he  made  no  exhibition 
of  open  hostility.  His  minister  of  ecclesiastical  atl'airs,  Nguyt"n  l)u  Hun  tani  tri 
is  said  to  have  had  translated  into  Annamese  for  the  king's  benefit  about  1788  a 
somewhat  immoral  novel,  which  is  of  interest  for  the  history  of  civilization,  the 
"  Kim  Wan  Kieu  Tan  Truyen,"  a  fact  which  throws  much  light  upon  the  morality 
and  the  education  prevalent  in  the  court  of  Annam  at  that  iteriod. 

His  successor,  Migne  megne  (Minhmang,  1720-1841),  was  at  first  tolerant 
toward  foreigners.  However  the  political  intrigues  of  the  French  and  Spanish 
missionaries  roused  him  to  animosity  against  the  JLuropeans ;  in  1833  the  mis- 
sionaries were  cruelly  persecuted ;  in  1838  he  forbade  Euroj^)eans  to  enter  his 
country,  and  the  profession  of  Christianity  was  publicly  declared  a  crime  as 
heinous  as  high  treason.  In  the  same  year  thirty-three  French  priests  fell  vic- 
tims to  this  decree.  Thie  utri  (1841-1847),  the  son  and  successor  of  Migne  megne, 
relaxed  the  persecution  by  merely  imprisoning  the  missionaries,  four  of  whom 
were  liberated  in  1843  upon  the  threats  of  the  French.  Generally  speaking,  how- 
ever, the  oppression  continued,  and  in  1847  France  demanded  full  religious  tolera- 
tion through  Commodore  Lapierre,  which  was  giauted  after  the  fleet  of  Annam  had 
been  destroyed.  In  the  same  year  the  emperor  died.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Tiuluk  (Tuduc  or  Dukduk,  originally  Hoong  Nham),  who  was  at  first  well 
disposed  toward  the  Christians,  and  reigned  until  July  17,  1883.  Once  again  the 
missionaries  interfered  in  a  question  as  to  the  succession  to  the  throne,  and  made 
the  young  emperor  the  furious  enemy  of  foreigners  and  Christians  alike.  Severe 
persecutions  broke  out  in  1848  and  1851.  France,  who  considered  herself  the  power 
responsible  for  the  Christians  in  Asia,  liltimately  sent  out  ships  and  troops  under 
Captain  Lelieur  de  Ville-sur-arc  in  September,  1856.  Turon  was  stormed  in  1856, 
but  the  morning  the  .ships  had  sailed  aWay  Annam  rejilied  with  a  fresh  persecution 
of  the  Christians  and  the  murder  of  the  Spauisli  bishop,  Diaz  (1857). 

France  now  made  a  vigorous  effort  in  co-operation  with  Spain.  On  September 
1,  1858,  Commodore  Charles  Rigault  de  Genouilly  again  captured  Turon  and  took 
the  town  of  Saigon  in  February,  1859.  The  plan  of  campaign  was  then  changed; 
in  1860  Napoleon  III  issued  orders  to  evacuate  Annam  and  to  occupy  only  Cochin- 
China,  the  vassal  State  of  Annam.  Meanwhile  war  had  broken  out  with  China, 
and  operations  were  thereby  hindered,  and  were  not  resumed  until  after  the  i>eace 
of  Peking  (p.  109).  In  the  beginning  of  1861  the  vice-admiral,  Tlidogfene  rran(,-ois 
Page,  destroyed  the  fortifications  on  the  banks  of  the  Mekong.  Admiral  Louis 
Adolphe  Bonard,  who  had  taken  over  the  command  in  December,  1861,  won  a  vie- 


/m2uz 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  533 


tory  on  January  19,  1862,  at  Monglap,  conquered  the  whole  province  of  Saigon, 
and  captured  several  important  towns  in  Cambodia.  Tuduk  was  forced  to  conclude 
peace  on  June  15  at  the  price  of  the  cession  of  the  three  provinces  of  Saigon, 
Bienhoa,  and  M}'tho.  Disturbances  broke  out  in  December,  leading  to  fresh  nego- 
tiations, and  a  definite  peace  was  not  concluded  until  July  15,  1864.  France  then 
returned  the  above-named  provinces,  retaining  Saigon,  and  undertook  a  protectorate 
over  Cambodia,  in  spite  of  the  protestations  of  Siam,  a  tie  which  was  drawn  closer 
by  the  convention  of  June  17,  1884.  The  actual  ruler  is  not  King  Norodom  I 
(since  1860),  but  the  French  resident  in  Pnom  Penh.  Fresh  outbreaks  in  Annam 
necessitated  further  military  operations  on  the  part  of  France  in  1867.  The  result 
was  the  definite  loss  of  those  three  provinces  which  now  form  French  Cocliin-China. 

Meanwhile,  a  descendant  of  the  Le  dynasty,  Le  Phung,  had  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  Eastern  Tongking,  and  of  the  province  of  Vac  Nigne  (Bacninh).  However, 
when  Tuduk  found  himself  free  to  act  in  1864,  he  was  cruelly  put  to  death.  Even 
then  Tongking  was  not  pacified.  From  1850  the  great  neighbouring  empire  in  the 
north  had  been  shattered  by  the  Taipings,  and  it  was  not  until  1865  that  the  rebels 
in  the  southern  provinces  of  Kwangsi  and  Kwangtung  were  overpowered  (p.  110). 
Many  of  the  rebels  fled  into  the  province  of  Annam  imder  Ua  Tsong,  where  under 
the  "  black  flag  "  they  disturbed  the  peace  of  this  much  tried  country  as  banditti 
and  river  pirates. 

When  France  established  herself  in  Annam  she  had  other  views  than  the  mere 
extension  of  her  empire.  Eeports  had  long  previously  been  in  circulation  concern- 
ing the  fabulous  natural  wealth  of  the  southern  provinces  of  China  and  of  Yimnan 
in  particular.  The  English  and  the  French  were  striving  to  intercept  one  another 
in  the  race  for  these  treasures.  Upon  the  incorporation  of  Burmah  (507),  England 
gained  a  water-waj-,  enabling  her  to  advance  into  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
Yunnan.  The  French  were  now  in  possession  of  the  mouth  of  a  great  river  coming 
from  the  north  to  the  Mekong,,  and  proceeded  to  investigate  the  possibility  of  its 
navigation.  For  this  purpose  it  proved  impracticable.  Captain  Dontard  de  Lagr^e 
(1866-186S)  established  the  fact  that  the  rapids  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  the  river  mouth  formed  an  impassable  obstacle.  The  Songka  (red  river)  in 
Tongking  offered  better  prospects.  Dupuis,  an  enterprising  Frenchman,  fitted  out 
an  expedition  to  this  stream  at  his  own  expense.  In  1870  he  advanced  up  the 
river  in  ships  as  far  as  Yunnan,  and  entered  into  relations  with  the  Chinese  man- 
darins. Hostilities  on  the  part  of  the  Annamites  made  it  necessary  to  despatch 
the  naval  lieutenant,  Marie  Jos.  Franqois  (Francis)  Garnier,  in  1873,  who  with  less 
than  two  himdred  French  troops  subdued  in  a  few  months  in  Tongking  a  country 
populated  by  a  million  of  inhabitants  and  twice  the  size  of  Belgium. 

The  French  parliament  declined,  however,  to  sanction  the  results  of  those 
successes  in  Tongking.  The  troops  were  withdrawn  (Garnier  had  been  killed  on 
December  31,  1873,  by  a  treacherous  attack  of  the  pirates),  and  France  contented 
herself  with  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  on  March  15,  1874,  obliging  Annam  to 
throw  open  to  European  trade  three  additional  harbours  (Xinh  hai  at  Hai  phong, 
Hanoi,  and  Thinai  or  Qui  nhon),  to  grant  fuU  religious  tolerance,  and  to  apply  to 
France  alone  for  help  in  suppressing  revolts.  A  commercial  treaty  was  also  con- 
cluded on  August  31,  which,  however,  was  not  kept  by  Annam  iu  spite  of  its 
confirmation  by  that  country  (August  26,  1875).  Annam  displayed  an  unvarying 
spirit  of  hostilitj-  to  France,  untO.  that  power  lost  patience.     Hanoi  was  bombarded 


534  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [Chapter  iv 

in  1882,  and  the  French  again  advanced  into  Tongking,  where  the  pirates  caused  a 
great  deal  of  trouble  (Major  Ileuri  Laurent  IJivifere  beiiijj  killeil  by  an  ambuscade 
on  May  19,  1883).  By  degrees  one  fortress  after  another  was  captured  by  liear- 
Admiral  A.  A.  P.  Courbet,  including  Sontay,  which  had  been  occupieil  lis'  the  Chinese 
(December  16  and  17,  li^S.'i).  Vao  Nigiie  was  also  taken  by  (Icncral  Charles  Theo- 
dore Millot  (March  10-12,  188-1).  Tuduk,  the  ruler  of  Aunam,  had  died  in  July, 
1883,  and  had  been  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Hiephoa.'  On  August  21,  1883,  by  a 
treaty  which  was  ratified  and  extended  on  June  0, 1884,  he  was  forced  to  cede  further 
provinces,  to  recognise  the  protectorate  of  France,  and  to  renounce  all  political  con- 
nection with  other  powers,  China  included,  which  had  declared  in  Paris,  tlnougli 
tlie  Marquis  Tseng,  in  1882,  its  refusal  to  acknowledge  the  convention  of  1874. 
However,  in  the  convention  of  Tientsin,  dated  May,  1884,  China,  which  had 
seriously  entertained  the  project  of  armed  interference  in  Tongking,  fully  recognised 
the  French  demands,  including  the  protectorate  of  Annam  and  Tongking.  China, 
however,  did  not  withiiraw  its  troops  from  Laugson  in  Tongking,  and  the  struggle 
continued  with  varying  success  for  some  time,  the  French  sulVering  considerable 
losses  at  the  hands  of  the  pirates  (General  Franmis  Oscar  de  Niigrier  wounded  at 
That-ke  on  March  24,  1885).  Ultimately,  British  mediation  brought  about  the 
Peace  of  London  on  April  4,  1885  (confirmed  at  Tientsin  on  June  9),  whereby 
Cliina  withdrew  all  her  troops  from  Tongking  and  lecognised  the  French  Protec- 
torate over  these  States,  which  she  had  ruled  or  at  any  rate  claimed  for  thousands 
of  years.  In  May,  1886,  the  power  of  the  pirates,  who  were  no  longer  supported  by 
China,  was  finally  shattered.  Thus  the  Fiench  were  left  in  undisputed  }>ossession 
of  the  water-way  leading  to  Yunnan.  Since  April  12,  1888,  Cochin-Chiua,  Cam- 
bodia, Annam,  and  Tongking,  to  which  Laos  was  added  in  1893,  have  been  under  one 
uniform  administration  as  "  French  Indo-China." 


'  The  "emperor,"  Hiephoa,  who  was  friendly  to  the  French,  poisoned  himself  on  November  28,  1883. 
He  was  succeeded  by  three  brothers,  nephews  of  Tuiluk  :  Kicnphuk,  to  August,  1884,  Ham  Nghi,  who 
fled  in  July,  1885,  and  was  transported  as  a  pri.soner  to  Alfjiers  in  1887,  and  Done  Kanh  (Dongkhanh  ; 
originally  Tshanh  mong)  September  19,  1885-January  .31,  1889.  The  final  ruler  was  Thanh  Thdi  (origi- 
nally Bun  Lan),  February  1,  1889,  to  September  27,  1897,  under  tutelage  ;  since  then  self-dependent. 


jndone^a]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  535 


V 

INDONESIA 

By   LATE   DR.    HEINRICH   SCHURTZ 


1.     ETHNOGRAPHICAL   SUEVEY 

INDONESIA  is  the  name  by  which  we  designate  the  largest  group  of  islands 
in  the  world,  which  stretches  out  in  front  of  Asia  to  the  southeast,  and 
forms  the  stepping-stone  to  the  mainland  of  Australia  on  the  one  side,  and 
to  the  Melanesian  archipelagoes  and  the  island-realm  of  Oceania  on  the 
other.  The  innumerable  members  of  the  group  include  the  most  gigantic  islands 
■of  the  globe,  with  mountain  ranges  and  navigable  rivers  as  well  as  diminutive 
islets,  which  hardly  supply  the  sparsest  population  witli  the  necessaries  of  life ; 
we  find,  as  we  go  toward  the  east,  the  first  traces  of  Australian  dryness  and  desola- 
tion as  well  as  regions  of  tropical  luxuriance  and  splendid  fertility.  For  a  long 
period  there  was  no  idea  of  any  general  name  for  all  these  islands  and  island 
groups,  least  of  all  among  the  natives  themselves,  who  often  have  hardly  recog- 
nised the  larger  islands  to  be  connected  territories  or  called  them  such.  Their 
narrow  horizon,  on  the  other  hand,  has  completely  prevented  them  from  realising 
the  sharp  contrast  which  exists  between  their  own  island  homes,  with  extensive 
and  deeply  indented  coast  lines,  and  the  neighbouring  continents,  of  which  only  a 
small  part  is  in  contact  with  the  sea.  At  least  they  have  never  thought  of  empha- 
sising such  a  distinction  by  collective  names.  The  geographers  of  Europe,  having 
the  whole  picture  of  the  world  before  their  eyes,  were  the  first  to  mark  out  the 
two  large  groups  of  the  Sunda  Islands  and  the  Philippines ;  and  lastly,  though 
only  in  quite  modern  times,  and  not  without  opposition,  they  named  these  two 
'"  Indonesia,"  ^  in  contrast  to  the  Japanese  and  Melanesian  archipelagoes.  It  must 
be  noticed  that  this  division  has  given  prominence  to  the  ethnological  point  of  view. 
Indonesia  is  the  region  inhabited  by  that  peculiar  brown,  straight-haired  race,  to 
which  we  give  the  name  Malayan,  and  which  has  been  recognised  from  very  early 
times  as  a  distinct  type  of  mankind. 

As  we  are  now  concerned  with  the  history  of  mankind,  we  may  lay  still  greater 
stress  on  the  ethnographical  standpoint,  and  from  this  aspect  attach  to  Indonesia 
a  country  which  geographically  considered  belongs  to  a  totally  distinct  quarter  of 
the  globe,  namely,  Madagascar.  This  large  island  seems  to  lie  by  chance  to  the 
east  of  the  massive  and  limbless  trunk  of  Africa,  and  in  its  peculiarities  shows 
little  affinity  to  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  African  continent.  The  contrast 
is  not  merely  one  of  geological  conditions  or  of  fauna  and  flora.  In  respect  of  its 
population  also  Madagascar  is  an  appanage  of  Indonesia  rather  than  of  Africa. 
The  Indian  island  world  belongs  as  a  whole  to  the  tropics,  and  in  its  chief 

^  More    rarely    "Insulinde,"   particularly  since  the  publication  of  EA    Douwes  Dekker's   "Max 
Havelaar,"  in  1860. 


536  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  [c/.apter  r 

parts  to  tlie  moist  and  warm  tropical  plains.  Highlands,  wliidi  are  <if  incalculable 
importance  for  the  culture  of  tropical  countries,  as  tlic  ancient  liislory  of  America 
in  particular  shows,  are  only  found  to  any  appreciable  extent  in  .Sumatra,  althougli 
there  is  no  lack  of  mountain  ranges  and  lofty  volcanic  cones  on  the  otiier  islands. 
If  we  recall  the  doctrine  of  Oskar  Peschel  that  tiie  oldest  civilized  countries  lay 
nearer  the  tropics  tiiau  those  of  modern  times,  and  tliat  therefore  the  chief  zones 
of  civilization  have  withdrawn  toward  the  poles,  it  can  at  least  be  conjectured  that 
a  region,  so  favourably  situated  as  Indonesia,  was  not  always  of  such  trifling  im- 
portance for  the  history  of  mankind  as  it  is  at  present.  We  need  not  picture  to 
ourselves  a  primitive  highly  developed  culture,  but  one  which,  after  reaching  a  cer- 
tain level  at  an  early  period,  remained  stationary  and  was  outstripped  by  the  civili- 
zation of  other  regions.  Tlie  Dyak  in  Central  15i>rneo  has  readied,  it  is  certain,  no 
high  grade  of  civilization,  but  a  comparison  willi  tlie  reindeer-liunters  of  the  Euro- 
pean Ice-Age  would  certainly  be  to  his  advantage.  The  entire  ethnical  develop- 
ment of  the  country  and  the  influence  which  it  once  asserted  over  wide  regions  of 
the  world  prove  that  at  a  remote  period  a  comparatively  noteworthy  civilization 
was  actually  attained  in  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

Indonesia,  notwithstamUng  its  place  as  a  connecting  link  between  Asia  and 
Australia,  occupies  from  the  view  of  ethnology  an  outlying  position.  It  is  true 
that  culture  could  radiate  outwards  from  Indonesia  in  almost  every  direction ; 
on  the  other  hand,  this  region  has  almost  exclusively  been  affected  by  movements 
from  the  north  and  west,  from  Asia,  that  is,  and  later  from  Europe,  but  hardly  at 
all  from  Australia  and  Polynesia.  These  conditions  find  their  true  expression  in 
the  old  racial  displacements  of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  The  drawbacks  of  this 
geographical  situation  are  almost  balanced  by  the  extraordinarily  favourable  posi- 
tion for  purposes  of  intercourse  which  the  Malay  islands  enjoy,  —  a  position  in  its 
kind  unrivalled  throughout  the  world.  The  two  greatest  civilized  regions  of  the 
world  —  the  Indo-European  on  the  one  side,  the  East- Asiatic  on  the  other  —  could 
only  come  into  close  communication  by  the  route  round  the  southeast  extremity 
of  Asia,  since  the  Mongolian  deserts  constituted  an  almost  insuperable  barrier ; 
but  there  in  the  southeast  the  island  world  of  Indonesia  offered  its  harbours  and 
the  riches  of  its  soil  to  the  seafarers  wearied  by  the  long  voyage,  and  invited 
them  to  exchange  wares  and  lay  the  foundation  for  prosperous  trading-towns. 
This  commercial  intercourse  has  never  died  away  since  the  lime  when  it  was  first 
started ;  the  nations  alone  who  maintained  it  have  changed.  The  present  culture 
of  the  Archipelago  has  grown  up  under  the  influence  of  this  constant  intercourse ; 
but  the  oldest  conditions,  which  are  so  important  for  the  history  of  mankind,  have 
nowhere  been  left  unimpaired.  We  need  not  commit  the  blunder  of  taking  the 
rude  forest  tribes  of  Borneo  or  Mindanao  for  surviving  types  of  the  ancient  civili- 
zation of  Indonesia.  The  bold  seamen,  who  steereil  their  vessels  to  Easter  Island 
and  Madagascar,  were  assuredly  of  anotlier  stock  than  these  degenerate  denizens 
of  the  steamy  primeval  forests. 

2.   INDONESIAN   HISTORY 

It  is  difficult  to  give  a  short  sketch  of  Indonesian  history,  because  justifiable 
doubts  may  arise  as  to  the  correct  method  of  statement.  First,  we  have  to  deal 
with  an  insular  and  much  divided  region  ;  and,  secondly,  a  large,  indeed  the  greater. 


Indonesia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  537 


part  of  the  historical  events  were  produced  and  defined  by  external  influences. 
The  history  of  Indonesia  is  what  we  might  expect  from  the  insular  nature  of  the 
region  ;  it  splits  up  into  a  narrative  of  numerous  local  developments,  of  which  the 
most  important  at  all  events  require  to  be  treated  and  estimated  separately.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  waves  of  migration  and  civilizing  influences  once  more  flood  all 
the  island-world  and  bring  unity  into  the  whole  region  by  ending  the  natural 
isolation  of  the  groups.  And  yet  this  unity  is  only  apparent ;  for  even  if  new 
immigrants  gain  a  footing  on  the  coasts  of  the  larger  islands  and  foreign  civiliza- 
tions strike  root  in  the  maritime  towns,  the  tribes  in  the  interior  resist  the  swell- 
ing tide  and  preserve  in  hostile  defiance  their  individuality,  protected  now  by  the 
mountainous  nature  of  their  homes,  now  by  the  fever-haunted  forests  of  the  valleys 
in  which  they  seek  an  asylum. 

A.   The  Primitive  Historical  Conditions 

Since  there  no  longer  exists  any  doubt  that  man  inhabited  the  earth  even  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Drift  epoch,  and  since  the  opinion  might  be  ventured  that 
his  first  appearance  falls  into  the  Tertiary  age  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  deduce 
in  a  childlike  fashion  the  primitive  conditions  of  mankind  from  the  present  state 
of  the  world,  and  to  look  for  its  oldest  home  in  one  of  the  countries  still  exist- 
ing. Least  of  all  must  we  hazard  hasty  conclusions  when  we  are  dealing  with 
a  part  of  the  earth  so  manifestly  the  scene  of  the  most  tremendous  shocks  and 
transformations,  and  so  rent  and  shattered  by  volcanic  agencies  as  Indonesia. 
In  quite  recent  times,  also,  the  discovery  of  some  bones  at  Trinil  in  Java  by 
E.  Dubois  (1891-92),  which  Othniel  Charles  Marsh  ascribes  to  a  link  between 
man  and  the  anthropoid  apes,  has  caused  a  profound  sensation  in  the  scientific 
world  and  stimulated  the  searcli,  in  Indonesia  itself,  for  the  region  where  man 
first  raised  himself  to  his  present  position  from  a  lower  stage  of  existence.  How- 
ever this  question  may  be  answered,  it  is  meanwhile  calculated  to  discourage 
any  discussion  of  origins ;  it  especially  helps  us  to  reject  those  views  which  un- 
hesitatingly look  for  the  home  of  all  Indonesian  nationalities  on  the  continent 
of  Asia,  and  from  this  standpoint  build  up  a  fanciful  foundation  for  Indonesian 
history.  The  linguistic  conditions  warn  us  against  this  misconception  ;  on  the 
mainland  of  southern  Asia  we  find  monosyllabic  languages  ;  but  in  the  island 
region  they  are  polysyllabic.  There  is  thus  a  fundamental  distinction  between 
the  two  groups. 

B.  The  Present  Distribution  of  the  Nations  of  Indonesia 

Two  main  races  are  represented  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  which  in  the  num- 
ber of  their  branches  and  in  their  distribution  are  extraordinarily  divergent. 
They  show  in  their  reciprocal  relations  the  unmistakable  result  of  ancient  his- 
torical occurrences.  These  are  the  brown,  straight-haired  Malays  (in  the  wider 
sense)  and  the  dark-skinned  Negritos,  who  owe  their  name  to  their  resemblance  to 
the  Negro.  Since  the  whole  manner  in  wliich  the  Negritos  are  at  present  scat- 
tered over  the  islands  points  to  a  retrogression,  there  will  always  be  an  inclination 
to  regard  them,  when  compared  with  the  Malays,  as  the  more  ancient  inhabitants 
of  at  least  certain  parts  of  the  Archipelago. 


538  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [c/,aj,fer  v 

The  Negritos  of  Indonesia  form  a  link  in  the  chain  of  those  equatorial  dark- 
skinned  peoples  who  oi'euj)y  most  part  of  Afrit'a,  SouIIutii  India,  Melanesia, 
and  Australia,  and  almost  everywhere,  as  compared  with  lighter-skinned  races, 
exhibit  a  retrogression  which  certainly  did  not  begin  in  modern  times,  and  sug- 
"ests  the  conclusion  that  the  homes  of  these  dark  racial  elements  were  once  more 
extensive  than  they  are  to-day.  It  is  doubtful,  indeed,  whetluT  we  are  justifii'd  in 
assuming  these  negroid  races  to  be  closely  connected,  or  whether  on  the  contrary 
several  really  independent  branches  of  the  dark-skinned  type  of  mankind  are 
represented  among  them.  One  point  is,  however,  established;  the  Negritos  of  the 
Malay  archipelago,  by  their  geograjihical  distribution,  and  still  more  by  their 
physical  characteristics,  are  most  closely  allied  to  the  Papuans  who  inhabit  New 
Guinea  and  the  Melanesian  groups  of  islands.  It  follows  that  the  Papuan  race 
once  extended  further  to  the  west,  and  was  worsted  in  the  strugj,'le  with  the 
Malay  element.  According  to  Alfred  Grandidier's  view,  even  the  dark-skinned 
inhabitants  of  Madagascar  would  be  closely  akin  to  the  Melanesians.  The 
Negritos  are  in  no  respect  pure  Papuans ;  not  only  are  they  often  so  mixed 
wjtli  Malay  tribes  that  their  individuality  has  disappeared  except  for  a  few  rem- 
nants, but  many  indications  point  to  the  fact  that  there  have  been  frequent  cross- 
ings with  tribes  of  short  stature,  whose  relation  to  the  Papuans  may  perhaps  be 
compared  with  that  of  the  African  pigmies  to  the  genuine  Negroes.  These  dwarf 
races  cannot  in  any  way  be  brought  into  line  with  tlie  otiier  dark  peoples.  Kins- 
folk of  the  low-statured  race,  which  has  mixed  with  the  Negritos,  or  perhaps  formed 
their  foundation,  exist  on  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  especially  in  its  northern  part, 
on  the  Andamans,  and  iu  Ceylon  ;  tliere  were  also,  in  all  jjrobability,  representa- 
tives of  this  dwarf  race  to  be  found  on  the  larger  Sunda  Islands,  and  in  East  Asia 
(cf.  p.  130). 

At  any  rate  it  is  a  fact  that  some  of  the  eastern  islands  of  the  Malay  archi- 
pelago, particularly  the  l'liili[ipines,  still  contain  dark  tribes,  although  in  conse- 
quence of  numerous  adnnxtures  and  the  small  numbers  of  these  petty  nations 
their  existence  has  often  been  doubted.  Karl  Semper  describes  the  Negritos  or 
Antes  of  the  Philippines  as  low-statured  men,  of  a  tiark,  copper-brown  complexion, 
with  flat  noses  and  woolly  black -brown  hair.  Where  they  have  preserved  to  some 
degree  their  purity  of  race  they  are  a  characteristic  type,  easily  distinguishable 
from  the  members  of  the  Malay  race.  There  appear  to  be  hardly  any  Negritos 
on  the  Sunda  Islands  proper.  But  in  the  South,  on  Timor,  Floris,  the  Moluccas 
and  Celebes,  more  or  less  distinct  traces  point  to  an  admixture  of  a  dark-skinned 
race  with  the  Malay  population.  Tlie  same  fact  seems  to  be  shown  on  Java. 
Where  the  Negritos  are  more  differentiated  from  the  others,  on  the  Philippines 
especially,  they  usually  live  in  the  inaccessible  interior  of  tlie  islands,  far  from  the 
more  densely  peopled  coasts,  and  avoid  the  civilization  that  prevails  there.  It  is 
sufficiently  clear  that  these  conditions  point  to  a  retrogression  and  displacement  of 
the  Negritos  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  aiTive  at  any  certainty  on  these  points. 

The  Papuan  strain,  which  is  so  often  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  dwarf 
race,  may  be  traced  to  an  immigration  from  Melanesia,  which  has  had  its  parallels 
even  in  quite  modern  times.  The  Papuans  of  Western  New  Guinea,  who  were 
bold  navigators  and  robbers,  penetrated  to  the  coasts  of  the  eastern  Sunda 
Lslands,  and  planted  settlements  there,  or  possibly  they  immigrated  to  those  parts 
as  involuntary  colonists,  having  been  defeated  and  carried  away  by  the   Malays 


Lonjiiujt  BS  E 
Jjimdoit   ly^iJnn ana/tit 


Letpng 


y^eYaik  Dadd.Jltad&f 


r^ 


luaonesia-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  539 

in  their  punitive  expeditions.  On  the  whole  tlie  relation  of  the  Papuan  to  the 
Malayan  civilization  is  very  remarkable.  An  explanation  of  it  is  much  needed, 
and  would  prove  of  extreme  value  for  the  history  of  both  races.  The  Papuan  has 
not  merely  been  receptive  of  Malay  influences,  but  has  also,  to  some  extent,  created 
and  diffused  an  independent  civilization. 

G.  The  Wanderings  of  the  Malays 

Although  a  certain  migratory  impulse  which  is  innate  in  the  Papuan  has 
caused  considerable  migrations  of  the  race,  yet  these  are  completely  overshadowed 
by  the  wanderings  of  the  Malay  peoples,  which  are  distinctly  the  most  extensive 
known  to  the  earlier  history  of  mankind,  and  doubly  so,  because  the  Malays,  not 
content  with  spreading  over  a  continent,  took  to  the  sea  as  well,  and  thus  became 
a  connecting  link  between  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe. 

The  expression  "  Malays,"  since  it  is  used  sometimes  in  a  narrower,  sometimes 
in  a  wider  sense,  has  given  rise  to  many  misunderstandings  and  unprofitable  dis- 
putes. The  soui'ce  of  the  confusion  lies  in  the  circumstance  that  the  name  of  the 
people,  which  at  the  period  of  the  European  voyages  of  discovery  seemed  most 
vigorously  engaged  in  war  and  trade,  has  been  given  to  the  whole  ethnic  group,  of 
which  it  formed  only  a  single,  though  characteristic,  part.  This  group,  for  whose 
accepted  name  it  is  ditiicult  to  find  a  substitute,  is  a  branch  of  the  human  race 
easUy  distinguishable  from  its  neighbours  and  admirably  adapted  to  the  nature  of 
its  home,  and  its  homogeneity  is  further  attested  by  the  affinity  of  the  languages 
which  are  spoken  by  its  various  branches.  We  may  assume  that  it  was  originally 
an  amalgamation  of  various  primitive  races.  In  Indonesia  as  in  Northern  Asia 
(cf.  p.  130),  dolichocephalic  peoples  appear  to  have  spread  first,  but  soon  to  have 
received  an  admixture  of  brachycephalic  immigrants.  A  proposal  lias  been  made 
to  designate  the  first  as  Indonesians  (Protomalays),  the  latter,  as  Malays  proper, 
since  traces  of  the  differences  between  them  are  demonstrable  even  at  the  present 
day.  The  small  nation  of  the  Tenggereses  on  Java,  for  example,  is,  according  to  the 
view  of  J.  H.  F.  Kohlbrugge,  a  still  comparatively  pure  representative  of  the 
"Indonesian"  stock. 

It  is  an  idle  question  to  ask  for  the  original  home  of  the  two  component  parts 
of  the  Malay  race,  in  face  of  the  incontestable  fact  that  the  kernel  of  the  Malay 
nationality  occupies  at  present,  as  it  has  occuiiied  since  early  times,  the  island 
world  of  Melanesia ;  on  the  other  hand,  comparatively  small  fragments  of  the 
stock,  with  a  larger  proportion  of  mixed  peoples  of  partly  Malay  partly  Mongol 
elements,  are  found  on  the  continent  of  Asia.  In  this  sense  Indonesia  (see  the 
accompanying  map)  is  the  cradle  of  the  Malay  race  as  a  separate  group  of  man- 
kind. Indonesia  was  the  starting-point  of  those  marvellous  migrations  which 
it  is  our  immediate  intention  to  examine  more  closely.  The  larger  islands  within 
the  Malay  island  world  have  exercised  an  isolating  and  warping  influence  on  the 
inhabitants,  and  thus  have  produced  nations  as  peculiar  as  the  Batta(k)s  on  Suma- 
tra, the  Dyaks  on  Borneo,  and  the  Tagales  on  the  Philippines  ;  but  this  fact  must 
not  shake  our  conviction  that,  taken  as  a  whole,  the  Malay  race,  as  we  call  it,  is  a 
comparatively  definite  idea.  The  later  infusions  of  Indian  and  Chinese  blood, 
which  are  now  frequently  observable,  do  not  concern  the  earliest  periods. 


640  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter  v 

(a)  The  Citlture  of  the  Enrlier  Period  of  Migratiuii.  —  At  first  sight,  it  ought 
not  to  be  a  difficult  task  to  describe  the  culture  of  those  racial  elements  which 
migrated  from  Indonesia  in  various  directions ;  among  the  descendants  of  the  emi- 
grants tliere  are  many  tribes,  especially  in  Oceania,  which  liave  found  little  oppor- 
tunity on  solitary  islands  to  acquire  new  wealth  of  civilization,  and  therefore  may 
have  preserved  the  old  conditions  in  some  degree  of  purity.  It  must  also  be  possi- 
ble even  at  the  present  day  to  determine,  by  the  simple  process  of  sifting  and  com- 
paring the  civilizations  of  the  dilTereut  branches  which  have  differentiated  themselves 
from  the  primitive  stock,  wliat  was  the  original  inheritance  which  all  these  had  in 
common  with  one  another. 

But  the  conditions  are  by  no  means  so  simple.  Quite  apart  from  the  possible 
continuance  of  changes  and  further  developments  in  remote  regions,  we  must  take 
into  account  the  losses  of  culture  wliich  are  almost  inseparable  from  extensive 
migrations.  Polynesia  in  particular  is  a  region  where  a  settlement  without  such 
losses  is  almost  inconceivable  ;  the  natural  conditions  are  such  that  it  is  impossible 
to  maintain  some  of  the  arts  of  civilization. 

If  we  therefore  at  the  present  day,  as  we  advance  toward  Oceania,  cross  the 
limits  within  which  a  large  number  of  crafts  and  acquisitions  are  known,  if  on  the 
eastern  islands  of  Indonesia  iron-smelting  ends,  if  on  the  Micronesian  realm  of 
islands  the  knowledge  of  weaving  and  the  circulation  of  old  East  Asiatic  or  Euro- 
pean beads  and  on  Fiji  the  potter's  art  cease,  the  cause  of  these  phenomena  is  not 
immediately  clear.  It  is  indeed  possible  that  the  inhabitants  of  Polynesia  emi- 
grated from  their  old  home  at  a  period  when  smelting,  weaving,  and  the  potter's 
art  were  still  unknown  ;  but  it  is  almost  more  probable  that  at  least  one  part  of 
the  civilization  possessed  by  the  small  coral  islands  of  the  oceans  has  been  simply 
forgotten  and  lost,  or  tinds  a  faint  echo  in  linguistic  traces,  as  the  knowledge  of 
iron  on  Fiji  (according  to  W.  Pleyte).  And  even  in  the  first  case  the  question 
may  always  remain  open  whether  the  different  branches  of  knowledge  reached 
their  present  spheres  of  extension  in  the  suite  of  hiigratory  tribes,  or  whether 
we  may  assume  a  gradual  permeation  of  culture  from  people  to  people,  which  is 
possible  without  migrations  on  a  large  scale  and  may  have  continued  to  the  pres- 
ent day. 

The  most  valuable  possession  which  can  furnish  information  as  to  earlier  times 
is  the  language,  but  unfortunately  there  is  still  an  entire  want  of  investigations 
which  would  be  directly  available  for  historical  enquiry.  So  much  may  certainly 
be  settled,  that  there  are  no  demonstrable  traces  of  Indian  or  Chinese  elements 
in  the  Polynesian  dialects  any  more  than  in  those  of  ^ladagascar.  It  is  tluis  at 
least  clear  that  the  great  migrations  must  have  taken  place  before  the  begiiniing 
of  our  era. 

A  proof  that  Indonesia  in  ancient  times  possessed  a  civilization  of  its  own 
nearly  independent  of  external  influences  is  given  by  the  supply  of  indigenous 
plants  useful  to  man  which  were  at  the  disposal  of  the  inhabitants,  even  at  the 
period  of  the  migrations.  Granted  that  the  cultivation  of  useful  growths  was 
suggested  from  outside  sources,  still  these  suggestions  were  evidently  followed  out 
independently  in  Indonesia.  Rice,  the  most  valuable  cereal  of  India  and  South 
China,  is  not  an  ancient  possession  of  Indonesian  culture,  which  is  acquainted  in- 
stead with  the  taro  (Arum  esculentitm),  the  yam  (Dioscorea),  and  sesame.  Among 
useful  trees  may  be  mentioned  the  bread-fruit  palm  (Artocarpus  incisa),  and  per- 


Jndones 


-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  541 


haps  the  cocoa-nut  ijalm,  which  are  widely  diffused  in  the  Malayo-Polynesian 
region,  at  any  rate.  Of  useful  animals  man  appears  in  earlier  times  to  have  been 
only  acquainted  with  the  dog,  possibly  tlie  pig,  but  neither  the  ox  nor  the  horse. 
This  is  again  an  important  fact.  On  a  previous  page  notice  has  been  called 
to  the  probability  that  the  agriculture  of  the  Old  World  was  older  than  the  cattle- 
breeding  industry,  which  in  its  developed  form  was  only  introduced  into  India  by 
the  Aryans.  While  therefore  in  ancient  times  the  practice  of  agriculture  may 
have  been  brought  to  Indonesia  from  the  mainland,  the  knowledge  of  cattle-breed- 
ing at  the  beginning  of  the  migration  had  not  reached  the  islands  by  that  road. 
We  are  not  able  to  settle  any  fixed  date,  but  these  facts  at  least  confirm  the  view 
that  the  years  of  migration  fall  in  a  comparatively  early  period. 

The  seamanship  of  the  immigrants  and  the  fact  that  even  in  Polynesia  tliey 
continued  to  inhabit  the  coasts  and  only  sparsely  peopled  the  interior  of  the  islands 
justify  the  conclusion  that  tlie  mass  of  the  migratory  bands  were  sent  out  from 
typical  maritime  nations.  Java,  possibly,  which  favoured  the  growth  of  population 
by  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  where  prehistoric  weapons  of  polished  stone  lead  us 
to  assume  the  existence  even  in  early  times  of  a  centre  of  some  civilization,  was  the 
chief  starting-point  for  the  migrations,  which  split  up  into  various,  but  now  hardly 
distinguishable,  subdivisions.  For  the  most  part  it  would  not  have  been  a  question 
of  enormous  journeys,  but  of  an  advance  from  island  to  island,  where  the  immi- 
grants would  have  been  content  first  to  occupy  a  part  of  the  coast,  and  then,  in  the 
traditional  manner,  to  build  up  a  new  system  of  Hfe  by  cultivating  clearings  in  the 
primeval  forests,  by  fishing,  and  by  profitable  raids.  The  arts  of  shipbuilding  and 
navigation  must  have  reached  a  comparatively  high  stage ;  double  canoes  and  out- 
riggers, which  enabled  boats  to  keep  out  at  sea  even  in  bad  weather  and  to  cross 
wide  expanses  of  water,  must  have  already  been  invented.  Even  at  the  present  day 
the  boats  of  the  Polynesians,  and  of  the  Melanesians,  who  are  closely  connected 
with  them  in  tliis  respect,  are  the  best  which  have  been  made  by  primitive  races, 
while  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  the  imitation  of  foreign  models  has  already  changed 
and  driven  out  the  old  style  of  shipbuilding.  The  sail  must  have  been  known  to 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Indonesia,  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  they  under- 
stood how  to  steer  their  course  by  the  stars  and  the  movement  of  the  waves,  and 
that  they  possessed  the  rudiments  of  nautical  cartography. 

The  social  conditions  of  the  early  period  certainly  encouraged  the  spirit  of  ad- 
venture. No  ethnic  group  in  the  world  has  shown  a  stronger  tendency  than  the 
Malays  and  Polynesians  to  encourage  the  system  of  male  associations  as  distinct 
from  families  and  clans.  The  younger  men,  who  usually  live  and  sleep  together  in 
a  separate  bachelors'  house,  are  everywhere  organised  as  a  military  body,  which 
often  is  the  ruling  force  in  the  community,  and,  in  any  event,  welcomes  adventure 
and  dangers  in  a  quite  different  spirit  from  families  or  clans  burdened  with  the 
anxiety  of  wives  and  children.  These  conditions  create  a  warlike  spirit  in  the 
people,  wliich  regards  feuds  and  raids  as  the  natural  course  of  tilings,  and  finds 
its  most  tangible  expression  in  head-hunting,  a  custom  also  peculiar  to  the  Ma- 
layo-Polynesian stock.  Originating  in  the  habit  of  erecting  the  skulls  of  ances- 
tors as  sacred  relics  in  the  men's  quarter,  it  has  led  to  a  morbid  passion  for 
collecting,  which  provokes  continual  wars  and  never  allows  neighbouring  races  to 
remain  at  peace.  Thus  Indonesia  even  now  retains  the  traces  of  a  former  state 
of  things  in  which  bold  tribes  of  navigators  and  freebooters  were  produced. 


542  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [<  i,,, ,,(.■,■  v 

(&)  Migrations  of  Earlier  Times.  —  We  are  here  vliMliug  with  such  remote 
epoclis  that  there  can  be  no  idea  of  assigning  any  precise  dates  to  the  dill'erent 
migrations ;  they  can  therefore  only  he  briefly  sketched,  in  an  order  which  does 
not  imply  any  necessary  chronological  seijuence. 

A  first  wave  of  migration  flowed  from  Indonesia  to  the  north.  It  is  in  the 
first  place  very  probable  that  Malay  tribes  selllod  in  the  Pliilippines  at  a  later 
period  than  in  the  great  Sunda  Islands,  tlie  proper  home  of  the  true  Malay  life; 
but  for  this  nation  of  skilful  seamen  it  was  only  a  step  across  from  the  Philippines 
to  Formosa,  wliere  tribes  of  unmistakably  Malay  origin  are  still  living.  Tliis  can 
hardly  have  been  the  ultimate  goal.  There  are  numerous  traces  on  the  mahilaiid 
of  South  China  which  point  to  an  immigration  of  Malays.  Again,  the  peculiarity 
of  the  Japanese  is  best  e.xplained  by  an  admixture  of  Malay  blood ;  it  is  indeed  not 
inconceivable  (see  p.  2)  that  the  political  evolution  which  began  in  the  south 
was  due  to  the  seafaring  INIalay.s  who  first  .set  foot  on  tlie  southern  islands  and 
mixed  with  the  existing  inhabitants  and  with  immigrants  from  Corea.  Since  this 
political  organisation  took  place  about  660  B.  c,  the  migration  might  be  assigned 
to  a  still  earlier  time.  Tlie  first  migration  northward  was  also  followed  by  a  sub- 
sequent one,  which  reached  as  far  at  least  as  the  I'liilippines,  if  not  farther. 

A  second  stream  of  emigrants  was  directed  toward  the  east.  On  the  Melane- 
sian  islands,  which  since  early  times  were  occupied  by  a  dark-skiuneil  race,  numer- 
ous Malay  colonies  were  founded,  which  exercised  a  marked  influence  on  the 
Melanesians,  but  were  gradually,  and  to  some  degree,  absorbed.  Even  the  conti- 
nent of  Australia  must  have  received  a  strong  infusion  of  Malay  blood.  The  Malay 
migratory  spirit  found  freer  scope  on  the  infinite  island  world  of  the  Pacific,  and 
weighty  facts  support  the  view  that  isolated  settlers  reached  even  the  shores  of 
Northwest  America.  How  those  voyages  were  made  and  what  periods  of  time 
they  required  is  not  known  to  us.  Only  the  tradition  of  New  Zealand  tells  us  in 
semi-mythical  fashion  how  the  first  immigrants,  with  their  families  and  gods,  took 
the  dangerous  voyage  from  Sawaii  and  Itarotonga  (p.  307)  to  their  new  home  in 
their  immen.se  double  canoes. 

The  third  ethnic  wave  rose  in  Indonesia,  where  volcanic  shocks  and  racial  dis- 
turbances are  equally  abundant,  swept  over  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  bore  westward 
to  Madagascar  the  first  germs  of  a  Malay  population  (cf.  p.  573);  the  Arabic 
"  Book  of  Miracles"  relates  an  expedition  of  three  hundred  sails  from  Wa-kwak  to 
Madagascar  for  the  year  94.5.  Possibly  even  the  African  coast  was  reached  in  this 
movement,  although  no  permanent  settlements  were  made  there. 

Thus  we  see  that,  at  least  a  thousand  years  ago,  the  Malay  race  spread  over  a 
region  which  extends  from  the  shores  of  America  to  the  mainland  of  Africa  over 
almost  two-thirds  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth.  The  Malayo-Polynesians  have 
kept  aloof  from  the  continents :  the  oceans  studded  with  islands  are  the  inheritance 
of  their  race,  which  has  had  no  rival  in  the  command  of  the  seas  except  the  Euro- 
pean group  of  Aryan  nations  in  our  own  days. 

(c)  The  Mir/rations  of  the  Malays  in  the  Stricter  Sense.  — If  the  lessons  of 
comparative  philology  and  ethnology  supply  all  our  knowledge  of  the  old  migra- 
tions, we  have,  in  compensation,  another  ethnic  movement  more  directly  under  our 
eyes,  which  also  began  with  members  of  the  ^lalay  race,  and  which,  although  it 
hardly  crossed  the  boundaries  of  Indonesia,  forms  nevertheless  a  fitting  counterpart 


Indonesia 


]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  543 


to  earlier  events.  The  name  of  Malays  did  not  originally  belong  to  the  whole  race, 
but  only  to  one  definite  people  of  the  Archipelago  (p.  539),  and  it  is  this  very 
people  which  by  its  migrations  in  more  modern  times  has  reproduced  primitive 
history  on  a  small  scale,  and  thus  shown  itself  worthy  to  give  its  name  to  the 
whole  group  of  restless  peoples.  Probably,  indeed,  it  was  not  even  the  whole  stock 
with  which  we  are  at  present  concerned  that  bore  the  name  of  Malay,  but  only  the 
most  prominent  subdivision  of  it. 

The  original  home  of  the  people  lay  on  Sumatra  in  the  district  of  Jlenangka- 
bau.  The  name  "  Malayu  "  is  applied  to  the  island  of  Sumatra  even  by  Ptolemy,  and 
in  1150  the  Arabian  geographer  Edrisi  mentions  an  island  Malai,  which  carried  on 
a  brisk  trade  in  spices.  Indian  civilization,  it  would  seem,  had  considerable  influ- 
ence on  Meuangkabau,  for  according  to  the  native  traditions  of  the  Mala\-s  it  was 
Sri  Turi  Bumana,  a  prmce  of  Indian  or  Javanese  descent  (according  to  the  legend 
he  traced  his  lineage  to  Alexander  the  Great),  who  led  a  part  of  the  people  over 
the  sea  to  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  and  in  1160  founded  the  centre  of  his  power 
in  Singapore.  The  new  State  is  said  to  have  aroused  the  jealousy  of  a  powerful 
Javanese  realm,  presumably  ilodyopahit,  and  Singapore  was  ultimately  conquered 
in  the  year  1252  by  the  Javanese.  A  new  Malay  capital,  Malacca,  was  subse- 
quently founded  on  the  mainland.  In  the  year  1276  the  reigning  chief  together 
with  his  people  were  converted  to  Islam.  The  Malays,  who  had  found  on  the 
peninsula  only  timid  forest  tribes  of  poor  physique,  multiplied  in  course  of  time 
so  enormou.sly  that  it  became  necessary  to  send  out  new  colonies,  and  Malay 
traders  and  settlers  appeared  on  all  the  coast  districts  of  West  Indonesia.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  State  of  Malacca  was  far  more  powerful 
than  the  old  Menaugkabau,  and  became  the  political  and  ethnical  centre  of  Malay 
life.  The  result  was  that  the  true  insular  JMalays  apparently  spread  from  the 
mainland  over  the  island  world  of  the  East  Indies.  The  Malay  settlers  played 
to  some  extent  the  role  of  State  builders,  especially  in  Borneo,  where  Brunei 
in  the  north  was  a  genuine  Malay  State ;  others  were  formed  on  the  west  coast. 
The  Malays  mixed  everywhere  with  the  aborigines,  and  made  their  language  the 
common  dialect  of  intercourse  for  the  Sunda  Islands. 

The  Bugi  on  the  Celebes  also  spread  over  a  wide  area  from  their  original 
homes.  Trifling  as  all  these  modern  events  may  be  in  comparison  with  those 
of  old  times,  still  they  teacli  us  to  grasp  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  past, 
and  to  realise  the  possibility  of  migrations  as  comprehensive  as  those  which  the 
Malayo-Polynesians  accomplished. 

B.    Foreign  Interference 

The  influences  of  the  voyages  and  settlements  were  not  so  powerful  as  those 
foreign  forces  which  were  continually  at  work  owing  to  the  favourable  i^osition  of 
the  islands  for  purposes  of  intercourse.  Asiatic  nations  had  long  sought  out  the 
Archipelago,  had  founded  settlements,  and  had  been  able  occasionally  to  exercise 
some  pohtical  influence.  The  islands  were,  indeed,  not  only  half-way  houses  for 
communication  between  Eastern  Asia  and  the  west,  but  they  themselves  offered 
coveted  treasures ;  first  and  foremost  among  these  were  spices,  the  staple  of  the 
Indian  trade ;  gold  and  diamonds  were  found  in  the  mines  of  Borneo,  and  there 
were  many  other  valuable   products.     The   Chinese  from  East  Asia  obtained   a 


044  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  lcf.„pter  r 

footing  ill  ilie  Malay  Archipela^'o  ;  from  tlie  west  came  the  agents  of  tlie  Indo- 
nesiau  and  East  Asiatic  commerce, — the  Hindus  first,  tlien  the  Arabs,  and  soon 
after  them  the  first  Europeans,  the  present  rulers  of  the  Indonesian  island  world. 

(a)  Hie  Chinese.  —  The  Chinese  are  not  a  seafaring  nation  in  the  correct 
acceptation  of  the  word  (cf.  Vol.  I,  p.  575).  It  was  only  when  tiiey  acquired, 
after  the  conquest  of  South  Cliina,  a  seaboard  with  good  harbours,  and  mi.xed 
at  the  same  time  with  the  old  seafaring  population,  that  a  maritime  trade  with  the 
rich  tropical  regions  of  Indonesia  began  to  flourish ;  only  jierhaps  as  a  continuation 
of  au  older  commerce,  which  had  been  originated  V)y  the  nortliward  migration 
of  the  Malayan  race,  and  consequently  lay  in  the  hands  of  Malayan  tribes.  Since 
South  China  therefore  came  into  the  possession  of  China  in  220  B.  r.  (p.  74),  it 
must  have  been  subsequent  to  that  time,  and  probably  much  later,  that  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Chinese  was  fully  felt  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Archipelago.  Per- 
manent connections  with  Annam  can  hardly  have  been  established  before  the 
Christian  era  (p.  529).  It  was  not  the  love  of  a  seafaring  life  that  incited  the 
Cliinese  to  travel,  but  the  commercial  instinct,  that  appeared  as  soon  as  otlier 
nations  commanded  the  commerce  and  sought  out  the  Chinese  in  their  own 
ports.  The  Chinese  fleet  then  quickly  dwindled,  the  number  of  voyages  lessened, 
and  the  merchants  of  the  Celestial  Empire  found  it  safer  and  more  convenient 
to  trade  with  foreigners  at  home,  than  to  entrust  their  precious  lives  to  the  thin 
planks  of  a  vessel  (cf.  p.  592).  But  the  stream  of  emigration  from  overpopulated 
China  developed  independently  of  these  occurrences,  and  turned  by  preference, 
whether  in  native  or  foreign  ships,  toward  the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  in  many 
countries  of  which  it  produced  important  ethnical  changes. 

Very  contradictory  views  are  entertained  about  the  extent  of  the  oldest  Chinese 
maritime  trade,  and  especially  about  the  question,  with  which  we  are  not  here 
so  much  concerned,  of  the  distance  which  Chinese  vessels  sailed  toward  the  west. 
It  appears  from  the  annals  of  the  Liang  dynasty,  which  reigned  in  the  first  half  of 
the  si.\th  century  of  our  era  (p.  89),  that  the  Chinese  were  already  acquainted  with 
some  ports  on  the  Malacca  Straits  which  clearly  served  as  marts  for  the  trade 
between  India  and  the  farther  East.  As  early  as  the  fifth  century  commercial 
relations  had.  been  developed  with  Java,  stimulated  perhaps  by  the  journeys 
of  the  Buddhist  missionary  Fa  hien  (pp.  82  and  409),  who,  driven  out  of  his  course 
by  a  storm  to  Java,  brought  back  to  China  more  precise  information  as  to  the 
island.  The  south  of  Sumatra  also  at  that  time  maintained  communications 
witli  China.  The  political  system  of  Java  was  sufficiently  well  organised  to  facili- 
tate the  establishment  of  a  comj>arati\-ely  secure  and  profitable  trade.  From  these 
islands  the  Chinese  obtained  precious  metals,  tortoise  shell,  ivory,  cocoa-nuts,  and 
sugar-cane ;  and  the  commodities  which  they  offered  in  return  were  mainly 
cotton  and  silk  stuffs.  There  are  constant  allusions  to  presents  sent  by  Indone- 
sian princes,  on  whom  the  Chinese  court  bestowed  high-sounding  titles,  seals 
of  office,  and  occasionally  diplomatic  support.  In  the  year  1129  one  such  prince 
received  the  title  of  king  of  Java.  Disputes  between  the  settled  Chinese  mer- 
chants (who  plainly  showed  even  thus  early  a  tendency  to  form  State  within 
State)  and  the  Javanese  princes  led,  in  later  times,  to  not  infrequent  interruptions 
of  this  commercial  intercourse ;  indeed,  after  the  conquest  of  Ciiina  by  the 
Mongols  (p.  95)  hostile  complications  were  produced.     A  Mongol-Chinese  army 


in,ones.a]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  545 

invaded  Java  in  the  year  1293,  after  it  had  secured  a  strategic  base  on  the  island 
of  Billiton,  but  it  was  forced  to  sail  away  without  any  tangible  results.  During 
the  age  of  the  Ming  dynasty  the  trade  was  once  more  flourishing,  and  we  can 
even  trace  some  laolitical  intluence  exercised  by  China  (p.  101).  In  the  years 
1405-1407  a  Chinese  fleet  was  stationed  in  the  Arcliipelago ;  its  admiral  enforced 
the  submission  of  a  number  of  chieftains,  and  brought  the  ruler  of  Palembang 
prisoner  to  China   (cf.  p.  557). 

The  coasts  of  Borneo,  which  were  touched  at  on  every  voyage  to  and  from 
Java,  soon  attracted  a  similar  influx  of  Cliinese  merchants,  to  whom  the  wealth 
of  Borneo  in  gold  and  diamonds  was  no  secret.  The  kingdom  of  Polo,  in  the  north 
of  the  island,  wliich  appears  in  tlie  Chinese  annals  for  the  first  time  in  the  seventh 
century,  was  regularly  visited  by  the  Chinese  in  the  tenth  century.  On  the  west 
coast,  Puni,  whose  prince  sent  an  embassy  to  China  for  the  first  time  in  977,  was 
a  much-frequented  town,  while  Banjermassin,  now  the  most  prosperous  trading 
place,  is  not  mentioned  until  1:368. 

As  the  spread  of  Islam  with  its  consequences  more  and  more  crippled  the 
trade  of  the  Chinese  with  the  Sunda  Islands,  they  turned  their  attention  to  a 
nearer  but  hitherto  much-neglected  sphere,  the  Philippines.  There  too  the  Malay 
tribes  were  carrying  on  a  brisk  commerce  before  the  Chinese  encroached  and 
€stablished  themselves  on  different  points  along  the  coast.  This  step  was  taken 
in  the  fourteenth  century  at  latest.  But  then  the  Chinese  trader  was  already 
followed  by  emigrants,  who  settled  in  large  numbers  on  the  newly  discovered 
territory,  mi.xed  with  the  aborigines,  and  in  this  way,  just  as  m  North  Borueo, 
called  into  life  new  Chinese-Malay  tribes.  When,  after  the  interference  of  the 
Spaniards,  the  Chinese  traders  withdrew  or  were  restricted  to  definite  localities, 
these  mixed  tribes  remained  beliind  in  the  country. 

To  sum  up,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Chinese,  both  here  and  in  Indonesia,  exer- 
cised a  certain  amount  of  political  influence,  and  produced  some  minor  ethnic 
changes,  and  that  they  are  even  now  still  working  in  this  latter  direction ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  intellectual  influence  of  China  has  not  been  great,  and  cannot  be 
compared  even  remotely  with  that  of  the  Indians  and  Arabs.  Chinamen  and 
Malays  clearly  are  not  in  sympathy  with  each  other.  At  the  present  day  a  large 
share  of  the  trade  of  the  Archipelago  once  more  lies  in  Chinese  hands,  the  immi- 
gration has  enormously  increased,  and  the  "yellow  peril"  is  nowhere  so  noticeable 
as  there ;  but  Indonesia  must  not,  in  any  way,  be  called  for  this  reason  an  offshoot 
of  Chinese  civilization.  The  Chinaman  shares  with  the  European  the  fate  of  exer- 
cising little  influence  on  the  intellectual  life  of  the  Malay.  The  cause  in  both 
cases  was  the  same  ;  both  races  appeared  first  and  foremost  as  traders  and  rulers, 
but  kindled  no  flame  of  religious  zeah  The  Chinaman  failed  because  he  was  indif- 
ferent to  all  religious  questions ;  the  European,  because  Islam  with  its  greater 
power  of  enlisting  followers  prevented  Christianity,  on  which  it  had  stolen  a  long 
march,  from  exerting  any  influence.  It  is  possible  that  in  earlier  times  the  Chinese 
helped  Buddhism  to  victory  in  Indonesia,  but  at  present  we  possess  no  certain 
information  on  the  subject. 

(ft)  The  Inhabitants  of  India.  —  The  inhabitants  of  India  have  influenced  their 
insular  neighbours  quite  differently  from  the  Chinese.  They  brought  to  them, 
together  with   an  advanced  civilization,  a  new  religion,  or  rather  two  religious, 

VOL.  II  — 35 


546  HISTORY    OF   'I'l IK    WORLD  [a.ajjier  r 

wliicli  wi'ie  ilestineil  to  strike  niot  siile  liy  sulc  in  ilio  Arcliiiu'li^'o,  —  15inliiiianism 
and  Bmlilliisni.  The  Hindus  and  the  other  inhabilanls  of  India,  who  liave  gained 
their  civilization  from  them,  are  as  little  devoted  to  seafaring  as  the  Chinese,  for 
the  coasts  of  India  are  comparatively  poor  in  good  liarbours.  Probably  the  first  to 
cio^s  the  Bay  of  Bengal  were  the  sea-loving  inliabitants  of  the  Sunda  Islands 
themselves,  who  first  as  bold  pir.ites,  like  llie  Norwegian  Vikings,  ravaged  the 
coasts,  but  also  sowed  tlie  first  seeds  of  commerce.  But  after  tiiis  tlie  inhabitants 
of  the  coasts  of  Nearer  India,  who  hitht^rto  had  kept  up  a  brisk  intercourse  only 
with  Arabia  and  the  Persian  G\\\t  found  soinelhing  very  attractive  in  the  inter- 
course with  Iiulonesia,  which  first  indui'ed  some  enterprising  merchants  to  sail  to 
the  islands  with  their  store  of  spices,  until  at  last  an  organised  and  profitable  trade 
was  opened.  Many  centuries,  however,  must  needs  pass  before  tlie  spiritual  in- 
fluence of  Indian  culture  really  made  itself  felt. 

Since  the  Hindu  has  as  little  taste  for  recording  history  as  the  Malay,  the 
beginning  of  the  intercourse  between  the  two  groups  of  peoples  can  only  be  settled 
by  indirect  evidence.  John  Crawfurd  (1783-1868)  in  this  connection  relies  on 
the  fact  that  the  two  articles  of  trade  peculiar  to  Indonesia,  and  in  earlier  times 
procurable  from  no  other  source,  were  the  clove  and  the  nutmeg.  The  first  appear- 
ance of  these  products  on  the  Western  markets  must,  acconlingly,  give  an  indica- 
tion of  the  latest  date  at  which  tlie  intercourse  of  Nearer  India  with  the  Malay 
Arcliipelago  can  have  been  systematically  developed.  Both  these  spices  were 
named  among  the  articles  imported  to  Alexandria  for  the  first  time  in  the  age 
of  Marcus  Aurelius,  that  is  to  .say,  about  180  A.  n.,  while  a  century  earlier  the 
"  Periplus  of  the  Erythnean  Sea  "  does  not  mention  them.  If,  then,  we  reflect 
that  a  certain  time  would  have  been  required  to  familiarise  the  natives  of  India 
with  these  spices  before  there  was  any  idea  of  shipping  them  further,  and  that 
perhaps  on  the  first  trading  voyages,  which  must  necessarily  have  been  directed 
toward  the  straits  of  ilalacca,  products  of  that  region  first,  and  afterward  the 
spices  wiiich  flourish  in  the  more  distant  parts  of  the  Archipelago,  bail  been  ex- 
changed, we  are  justified  in  placing  the  beginnings  of  the  Indian-Malay  trade  in 
the  first  century  of  our  chronology.  This  tlieory  is  supported  by  tlie  mention  in 
the  "  Periplus "  of  voyages  by  tiie  inhabitants  of  India  to  the  "  Golden  Cherso- 
uese,"  by  which  is  probably  meant  the  peninsula  of  Malacca.  Cliinese  accounts 
lead  us  to  suppose  that  at  this  time  Imlian  mercliants  bad  even  reached  the  south 
coast  of  China.  At  a  later  period  more  detailed  accounts  of  Indonesia  reached  tlie 
Gra;co-Roman  world.  Even  before  cloves  and  nutmegs  appeared  in  the  trade-lists 
of  Alexandria,  Ptolemy,  the  geograplier,  had  already  inserted  on  his  map  of  the 
world  the  names  "  ]Malayu  "  (p.  543)  and  "  Jawa."  Various  other  facts  point  to  the 
position  of  the  island  of  Java  as  the  centre  of  the  civilization  of  Indonesia,  and 
the  emporium  for  the  commerce  which  some  centuries  later  was  destined  to  allure 
even  the  ponderous  junks  of  the  Chinese  (cf.  p.  544)  to  a  voyage  along  their  coasts. 

Following  in  tlie  tracks  of  the  iiicrchaiils,  and  jicrhaps  themselves  condescend- 
ing to  do  a  stroke  of  business,  Indian  priests  gradually  came  to  the  islands  and 
won  reputation  and  importance  there.  India  itself,  however,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era,  was  not  a  united  country  from  tlie  religious  point  of  view. 
Buddhism,  like  an  invading  torrent,  had  destroyed  the  old  Braiima  creed,  had 
shattered  the  caste  system,  and  had  then  sent  out  its  missionaries  to  achieve 
splendid  success  in  almost  all  the  surrounding  countries  (p.  409).     But  it  had  not 


Monesia-l  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  547 

been  able  to  overthrow  the  old  religion  of  the  land ;  Brahmanism  once  more  as- 
serted itself  with  an  inexhaustible  vitality.  At  the  present  day  Buddhism  has 
virtually  disappeared  in  its  first  home,  while  the  old  creed  has  again  obtained  an 
almost  exclusive  dominion.  The  growth  of  Hindu  influence  in  Indonesia  falls  in 
the  transition  period  when  the  two  forms  of  religion  existed  side  b}'  side,  and  the 
religious  disputes  with  India  are  not  without  importance  for  this  outpost  of  Indian 
culture.  Buddhists  and  Brahmans  come  on  the  scene  side  by  side,  often  avowedly 
as  rivals,  although  it  remains  doubtful  whether  the  schism  led  to  any  warlike  com- 
plications. The  fortunes  of  the  two  sects  in  the  Malay  Arcliipelago  are  remark- 
ably like  those  of  their  co-religionists  in  India.  In  the  former  region  Buddhism 
was  temporarily  victorious,  and  left  its  mark  on  the  most  glorious  epoch  of  Java- 
nese history  ;  but  Brahmanism  showed  greater  vitality,  and  has  not  even  yet  been 
entirely  quenched,  while  the  Buddhist  faith  only  speaks  to  us  from  the  gigantic 
ruins  of  its  temples. 

The  thought  is  suggested  that  the  Brahman  Hindus  came  from  a  different  part 
of  the  peninsula  to  the  Buddhist.  James  Fergussou  conjectured  the  home  of  the 
Buddhist  immigrants  to  be  in  Gujerat  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  and  that  of 
the  Brahman  to  be  in  Telingana  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kistna.  The  architec- 
ture of  the  Indian  temples  on  Java  and  the  language  of  the  Sanscrit  inscriptions 
found  there  lend  colour  to  this  view.  We  may  mention,  however,  that  recently  it 
has  been  asserted  by  H.  Kern  and  J.  Groneman,  great  authorities  on  Buddhism, 
that  the  celebrated  temples  of  Boro-budur  must  have  been  erected  850-900  by 
followers  of  the  southern  Buddhists  (Hinayana ;  figures  of  Buddha  with  the  right 
shoulder  bared),  whose  sect,  for  example,  predominated  on  South  Sumatra  in  the 
kingdom  of  Sri-Bhodja.  Brahmans  and  Buddhists  certainly  did  not  appear  con- 
temporaneously in  Java.  The  most  ancient  temples  were  certainly  not  erected 
by  Buddhists,  but  by  worshippers  of  Vishnu  (p.  410)  in  the  fifth  century  A.  D. 
Some  inscriptions  found  in  West  Java,  which  may  also  be  ascribed  to  followers  of 
Vishnu,  date  from  the  same  century.  The  Chinese  Buddhist  Fa  hien,  who  visited 
the  island  about  this  time,  mentions  the  Hindus,  but  does  not  appear  to  have 
found  any  members  of  his  own  faith  there.  According  to  this  view  the  Indians 
of  the  Coromandel  coast  would  have  first  established  commercial  relations  with 
Indonesia ;  it  was  only  later  that  they  were  followed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
northwest  coast  of  India,  who,  being  also  connected  with  the  civilized  countries  of 
the  West,  gave  a  great  stimulus  to  trade,  and  became  the  leading  spirits  of  the 
Indian  colony  in  Java.  This,  then,  explains  the  later  predominance  of  Buddhism 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

In  the  eighth  century  A.  D.  the  immigration  of  the  Hindus,  including  in  then- 
number  many  Buddhists,  seems  to  have  increased  in  Java  to  an  extraordinary 
extent;  the  construction  of  a  Buddhist  temple  at  Kalasan  in  the  year  779  is 
recorded  in  inscriptions.  The  victory  of  Indian  civilization  was  then  confirmed ; 
the  rulers  turned  with  enthusiasm  to  the  new  forms  of  belief,  and  spent  their 
accumulated  riches  in  the  erection  of  vast  temples  modelled  upon  those  of  India. 
From  Java,  which  was  then  the  political  centre  of  the  Archipelago,  the  culture 
and  religion  of  the  Hindus  spread  to  the  neighbouring  islands,  to  Sumatra,  South 
Borneo,  and  other  parts  of  the  Archipelago.  The  most  easterly  points  where  Bud- 
dhism achieved  any  results  were  the  island  of  Ternate  and  the  islet  of  Tobi, 
northeast  of  Halmahera,  which  already  formed  a  stepping-stone  to  Micronesia. 


548  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [a.aj.ter  v 

At  that  time  Prili  was  the  language  of  the  educated  classes.  Tlie  Indian  syst<?ms 
of  writing  stimulated  the  creation  of  native  scripts  even  among  tiiose  tribes  wliich, 
like  the  liattaks  in  tlie  interior  of  Sumatra,  were  Imt  slightly  allected  in  other 
respects  by  the  wave  of  civilization.  Tiie  inlluence  of  India  subsequently  dimin- 
ished. In  tlie  Kfteenth  century  it  once  more  revived,  a  fact  that  may  certainly  be 
connected  with  the  political  condition  of  Java.  Since  lUiddliism  had  at  this  time 
almost  disappeared  in  Nearer  India,  tliis  rovival  implies  also  a  stren^;tliening  of  the 
lirahman  doctrine,  whioii  had  survived,  tiierefore,  the  fall  of  the  Indian  civilization 
(vide  the  figures  from  Bali  illustrating  a  Brahman  legend,  p.  568). 

(c)  Hie  Araha. —  In  tlie  meantime  the  victorious  successors  to  Hinduism,  the 
Islamitic  Arabs,  had  appeared  upon  the  scene.  The  Arabian  trade  to  Egypt  and 
India  had  flourished  before  the  time  of  ]\laliomet,  and  had  received  the  products 
of  Indonesia  from  the  hands  of  the  Indian  mercliants  and  transmitted  them  to 
the  civilized  peoples  of  tlie  West.  It  is  possible  that  Arabian  traders  may  have 
early  reached  Java  witliout  gaining  any  influence  there.  It  was  Ishim  which  first 
stamped  the  wanderings  of  the  Arabs  with  their  peculiar  character ;  it  changed 
harmless  traders  into  the  teacliers  of  a  new  doctrine,  whose  sim]ilicity  stood  in 
happy  contrast  to  the  elaborate  theology  of  the  Hindus,  and  to  the  degenerate  creed 
of  Buddha,  which  could  have  retained  little  of  its  original  purity  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago.  The  new  duties  which  liis  religion  now  imposed  on  the  Arabian 
merciiant  inspired  him  with  a  fresh  spirit  for  adventure,  and  with  a  boldness 
that  did  not  shrink  from  crossing  tlie  Indian  Ocean.  The  rise  of  the  Caliphate, 
which  drew  to  itself  all  the  wealth  of  the  Orient,  secured  to  tlie  bold  mariners 
and  traders  a  market  for  their  wares  and  handsome  profits.  Basra  then  attained 
pros}3erity,  and  was  the  point  from  which  those  daring  voyages  were  made  wliose 
fame  is  re-eclioed  in  the  marvellous  adventures  of  Sindbad  the  Sailor  in  the  Arabian 
Nights,  and  Oman  on  the  Persian  Gulf  became  an  important  emporium ;  but  even 
the  older  ports  in  Southern  Arabia  competed  with  their  new  rivals,  and  still  retained 
the  trade  at  least  with  Kgypt. 

The  voyages  of  the  Arabs  at  the  time  of  the  Caliphate  form  the  first  stage  in  the 
connections  between  Indonesia  and  the  world  of  Islam,  wliich  seem  at  first  to  have 
been  of  a  purely  commercial  character.  The  enterprising  spirit  of  tiie  Arabian 
merchants  soon  led  them,  after  once  the  first  steps  had  been  taken,  beyond  the 
Malay  Archipelago  to  the  coasts  of  China,  which,  in  the  year  850,  were  already 
connected  witli  Oman  in  the  Persian  Gulf  by  a  flourishing  maritime  trade.  Tliis, 
however,  necessitated  the  growth  of  stations  for  tlie  transit  trade  in  Indonesia 
itself,  where  Arabian  traders  permanently  settled  and,  as  we  can  easily  understand, 
endeavoured  to  win  supporters  for  Islam.  Even  then  conversions  on  a  large  scale 
might  have  resulted  had  not  tlie  overthrow  of  the  Calii)hate  gradually  caused  an 
e.vtraordiuary  decline  in  tiie  Arabian  trade,  and  consequently  in  the  influence  of 
the  Arabs  throughout  Indonesia. 

A  new  stimulus  was  given  to  the  intercourse  between  the  States  of  Islam  and 
the  Malay  Archipelago  when,  at  tlie  time  of  tlie  Crusades,  the  Mohammedan 
world  regained  its  power,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Saracens  flourished,  about 
1200  A.  D.  Nevertheless,  Islam  appears  to  have  achieved  little  success  at  that  time 
in  Indonesia,  apart  possibly  from  the  conversion  of  Mohammed  Shfdi,  a  Malay 
prince  resident  in  Malacca;  this  event,  which,  according  to  a  somewhat  untrust- 


in,,onesi.-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  549 

worthy  account,  occurred  in  1276,  was  of  great  importance  for  the  future,  since  the 
Malays  in  the  narrower  sense  became  the  most  zealous  Mohammedans  of  the 
Archipelago. 

The  third  great  revival  of  trade,  produced  by  the  prosperity  of  the  Turkish  and 
Egyptian  empires  in  the  fourteenth  century,  prepared  the  way  for  the  victory  of  the 
new  doctrine,  which  was  permanently  decided  by  the  acquisition  of  Java.  The 
first  unsuccessful  attempt  at  a  Mohammedan  movement  on  Java  took  place  in 
1328  ;  a  second,  equally  futile,  was  made  in  1391.  But  little  by  little  the  continu- 
ous exertions  of  the  Arabian  merchants,  who  soon  found  ready  helpers  among  the 
natives,  and  had  won  sympathisers  in  the  Malays  of  Malacca,  prepared  the  ground 
for  the  final  victory  of  tlie  Mohammedan  doctrine.  The  Brahmans,  whose  religion, 
as  now  appeared,  had  struck  no  deep  roots  among  the  people,  offered  a  feeble  and 
ineffectual  resistance  to  the  new  creed.  The  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Modyopahit, 
which  had  been  the  refuge  of  the  Indian  religious  party,  completely  destroyed 
Brahmauism  in  Java  in  the  year  1478. 

(d)  Tlie  Europeans.  —  Victory  cheered  the  missionaries  of  Islam  at  the  end. 
A  few  decades  later  the  first  Europeans  appeared  in  the  Archipelago.  They,  indeed, 
were  fated  to  win  the  political  supremacy,  but  their  spiritual  influence  was  not 
equal  to  that  of  Islam. 

(a)  The  Portuguese. — The  Portuguese  admiral,  Diogo  Lopez  de  Sequeira 
(p.  482),  and  his  men,  when  they  appeared  in  the  year  1509  on  the  coast  of 
Sumatra,  were  certainly  not  the  first  navigators  of  European  race  to  set  foot  on  the 
shores  of  the  Malay  Islands.  Many  a  bold  trader  may  have  pushed  his  way  thus 
far  in  earlier  times  ;  but  the  first  traveller  in  whom  the  European  spirit  of 
exploration  and  strength  of  purpose  were  embodied,  the  great  Venetian,  Marco 
Polo  (p.  96),  had  visited  the  islands  in  the  year  1295,  and  reached  home  safely 
after  a  prosperous  voyage.  No  brisk  intercourse  with  Europe  could  be  main- 
tained, however,  untH  a  successful  attempt  had  been  made,  in  1497-1498,  to 
circumnavigate  the  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  and  thus  discover  the  direct 
sea  route  to  the  East  Indies  (p.  450).     After  tliat,  the  region  was  soon  opened  up. 

The  first  expedition  imder  Sequeira  with  difficulty  escaped  annihilation,  as  it 
was  attacked,  by  order  of  the  native  prince,  while  anchoring  in  the  harbour  of 
Malacca.  In  any  case  the  governor  Alfonso  d' Albuquerque,  when  he  was  on  his 
way  to  Malacca,  in  1511,  had  a  splendid  excuse  to  hand  for  adopting  a  vigorous 
policy  and  plundering  the  Malay  merchantmen  as  he  passed.  Since  the  sultan  of 
Malacca  offered  no  satisfactory  indemnity,  war  was  declared  with  him ;  the  town 
was  captured  after  a  hard  fight,  and  was  made  into  a  strong  base  for  the  Portu- 
guese power.  Albuquerque  then  attempted  to  establish  communications  with 
Java,  and  made  preparations  to  enter  into  closer  relations  with  the  Spice  Islands 
in  the  East,  the  Moluccas.  After  his  departure  repeated  efforts  were  made  to 
recover  Malacca  from  the  Portuguese,  but  the  fort  held  out. 

The  Portuguese  had  followed  on  the  tracks  of  the  Arabs  as  far  as  Malacca,  the 
crossing  point  of  the  Indian  and  East  Asiatic  trade,  and  they  naturally  cherished 
the  wish  of  advancing  to  China  and  thus  securing  the  trade  with  that  country. 
A  fleet  under  Fernao  Perez  d'Andrade  sailed  in  the  year  1516  from  Malacca,  and, 
after  an  unsuccessful  preliminary  attempt,  reached  Canton  in  1517.     Communica- 


050  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ychupter  v 

tions  with  the  Moluccas  had  already  beeu  formed  in  1512  through  the  ell'orts  of 
Francisco  Serrao,  and  since  the  Portuguese  interfered  in  the  disputes  of  the 
natives,  the  commander  of  their  squadron,  Antonio  de  Brito,  soon  succeeded  in 
acquiring  influence  there,  and  in  founding  a  fort  on  Ternate  in  15l'2.  They  were 
unpleasantly  disturbed  in  their  plans  by  the  small  Spaiiisli  squadron  of  MagalhSes 
(or  Magellan),  who  had  been  killed  on  Matan  on  April  27  (Vol.  I,  p.  586) ;  this  fleet, 
after  crossing  the  Pacific,  appeared  on  November  8,  1521,  ofl"  Tidor,  and  tried  to 
enforce  the  claims  of  the  king  uf  Spain  to  the  Moluccas. 

Generally  speaking,  it  was  clear,  even  then,  that  the  Portuguese  could  not  pos- 
sibly be  in  a  position  to  make  full  use  of  the  enormous  tract  of  newly  discovered 
territory,  or  even  to  colonise  it.  There  was  never  any  idea  of  a  real  conquest  even 
of  the  coast  districts.  A  large  part  of  tlie  available  forces  must  have  been  employed 
in  holdin"  Malacca  and  keeping  the  small  Malay  predatory  States  in  check,  while 
the  wars  with  China  made  further  demands.  The  Malay  prince  of  Bintang,  in 
particular,  with  his  large  fleet  continually  threatened  the  Portuguese  possessions  on 
the  strait  of  Malacca,  and  after  1523  caused  great  distress  in  the  colony  until  his 
capital  was  destroyed  in  1527.  The  position  of  the  Portuguese  on  the  Moluccas 
was  also  far  from  secure,  since  the  State  of  Tidor,  which  was  friendly  to  Spain, 
siiowed  intense  hostility.  Commercial  relations  had  been  established  since  1522 
with  the  State  of  Sunda  in  western  Java,  but  the  permission  to  plant  a  settle- 
ment in  the  country  itself  was  refused.  On  Sumatra,  where  Meuangkabau  was 
visited  by  the  Portuguese  as  early  as  1514,  some  petty  States  recognised  the 
suzerainty  of  Portugal;  Acheh  (Achin),  on  the  contrary,  was  able  to  assert  its 
independence,  while  attempts  to  establish  intercourse  with  Borneo  were  not  made 
until  1530. 

In  the  same  year  new  disturbances  broke  out  on  the  Moluccas,  since  the 
encroachments  of  the  Portuguese  commanders,  who  had  taken  the  king  of 
Ternate  prisoner,  had  incensed  the  subjects  of  tliis  ally.  When  the  new  com- 
mander-in-chief, Gonzalo  Pereira,  to  crown  all,  declared  that  the  clove  trade  was 
tlie  monopoly  of  the  Portuguese  government,  the  indignation  was  so  intense 
that  the  queen  ordered  him  to  be  murdered,  and  the  lives  of  the  other  Portu- 
guese were  in  the  greatest  jeopardy.  Peace  was  restored  with  the  utmost  diffi- 
culty. Fresh  disorders  were  due  to  that  corrupt  mob  of  adventurers  who  ruled 
the  islands  in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Portugal,  abandoned  themselves  to  the 
most  licentious  excesses,  and  undermined  their  authority  by  dissensions  among 
themselves.  The  governor,  Tristao  de  Taide,  brought  matters  to  such  a  pitch 
that  all  the  princes  of  the  Moluccas  combined  against  him  (1533);  his  successor, 
Antonio  Galvao,  at  last  ended  the  war  with  considerable  good  fortune,  and 
restored  the  prestige  of  Portugal  on  the  Spice  Islands.  His  administration  cer- 
tainly marked  the  most  prosperous  epoch  of  Portuguese  rule  in  those  parts. 
Later,  the  struggles  recommenced,  and  finally,  in  1580,  led  to  the  evacuation 
of  Ternate  by  the  Portuguese  and  their  .settlement  in  Tidor. 

Thus  the  influence  of  the  Portuguese  was  restricted  to  parts  of  the  Moluccas 
and  some  places  on  the  strait  of  Malacca.  Indonesia  was  in  most  respects  only 
the  thoroughfare  for  the  Chino-.Tapanese  trade,  which  at  first  developed  with  as 
much  promise  as  the  East-Asiatic  missions  (p.  102).  The  principal  station  of  the 
trade  continued  to  be  Malacca,  notwithstanding  its  dangerous  position  between 
States  of  Malay  pirates  and  the  powerful  Acheh  on  Sumatra. 


i,.jo„esia]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  551 

The  history  of  Spanish  colonisation  in  tlie  Malay  Archipelago  is  almost  entirelj' 
bound  up  with  the  history  of  the  Philippines ;  the  reader  will  therefore  consult 
pp.  569-572. 

(/3)  The  Dutch. — The  Portuguese  rule  in  Indonesia  was  as  brief  as  that  in 
India  (p.  452).  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  two  nations  which  were 
destined  to  enter  on  the  rich  inheritance,  the  Dutch  and  the  English,  began  their 
first  attempts  at  coninierce  and  colonisation  in  the  Indian  waters.  The  Dutch  in 
particular,  through  tlieir  war  with  Spain,  which  crippled  the  hitherto  prosperous 
trade  with  the  American  colonies,  were  compelled  to  seek  new  fields  for  their 
activity.  Their  eyes  were  turned  to  India  when  Portugal,  weakened  rather  than 
strengthened  by  the  union  with  Spain  (1580),  tried  in  vaiu  to  enforce  its  influence 
over  a  vast  tract  of  territory ;  even  without  at  once  becoming  hostile  competitors 
to  Portuguese  trade,  the  Dutch  merchants  might  hope  to  discover  virgin  lands, 
whose  exploitation  promised  rich  gains. 

The  first  Dutch  fieet  set  sail  from  Texel  on  April  2,  1595,  under  the  command 
of  Cornelis  de  Houtmans  (p.  453),  a  rough  adventurer,  and  anchored  on  June  2, 
1596,  off  Bantam,  the  chief  trading  port  of  Java.  This  expedition  did  little  to 
secure  the  friendship  of  the  natives,  owing  to  the  bad  qualities  of  the  commander; 
but  at  the  least  it  paved  the  way  for  further  enterprise.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years  a  number  of  small  trading  companies  arose,  which  only  succeeded  in  interfer- 
ing with  each  other  and  causing  mutual  ruin,  until  they  were  finally  combined, 
through  the  co-operation  of  Oldenbarneveld  and  Prince  Maurice,  on  ilarch  20, 
1602,  into  a  large  company,  "  the  Universal  Dutch  United  East  India  Company." 
This  company  soon  obtained  possessions  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  after  1632 
exercised  full  sovereign  sway  over  its  territory. 

The  company  foimded  a  permanent  settlement  in  Bantam,  whose  prince  made 
friendly  overtures,  and  took  over  the  already  existing  trading  enterprises  in  Ter- 
nate,  Amboina,  and  Banda,  the  existence  of  which  proves  incidentally  that  even 
the  Dutch  had  at  once  tried  to  win  their  share  of  the  spice  trade.  Disputes  in 
consequence  arose  on  the  Moluccas  m  1603,  when  the  natives,  exasperated  by  the 
oppression  of  tlie  Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  took  the  side  of  the  Dutch.  The 
undertakings  of  the  company  were,  however,  first  put  on  a  systematic  basis  in 
the  year  1609,  when  the  office  of  a  governor-general  was  created,  at  wliose  side  the 
"  Council  of  India  "  was  placed,  and  thus  a  sort  of  independent  government  was 
established  in  the  Archipelago.  The  Spaniards  now  suffered  a  complete  defeat. 
And  when  in  their  place  the  English  appeared  and  entered  into  serious  compe- 
tition with  the  company,  they  found  themselves  confronted  by  the  governor- 
general,  Jan  Pieterszon  Coen,  a  man  who,  competent  to  face  all  dangers,  finally 
consolidated  the  supremacy  of  the  Dutch.  The  English  tried  in  vain  to  acquire 
influence  on  Java  by  help  of  the  sultan  of  Bantam.  Coen  defeated  his  oppo- 
nents, removed  the  Dutch  settlement  to  Jacatra,  where  he  founded  in  the  year 
1619  the  future  centre  of  Dutch  power,  Batavia,  and  compelled  Bantam,  whose 
trade  was  thus  greatly  damaged,  to  listen  to  terms.  "  We  have  set  foot  on  Java 
and  acquired  power  in  the  countrj%"  Coen  wrote  to  the  directors  of  the  company  ; 
"  see  and  reflect  what  bold  courage  can  achieve ! "  To  his  chagrin  the  Dutcli 
government,  from  considerations  of  European  policy,  determined  to  admit  the 
English  again  to  the  Archipelago.    This  proceeding  led  to  numerous  complications. 


552  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  la.aj^ter  v 

and  tiiially  to  the  execution  of  a  number  of  Englishmen,  who  had  apparently  tried 
to  ca}iHirL'  the  Dutch  ports  on  Aniboina.  Coeu's  whole  energies  were  reiiuired  to 
hold  liatavia,  which  was  besieged  in  lfi2S  by  tlie  Javanese.  His  death,  which 
occurred  in  that  same  year,  was  a  heavy  blow  to  the  Dutch  power. 

The  influence  of  the  company,  however,  was  now  sufficiently  assured  to  with- 
stand slight  shocks.  The  Portuguese  had  been  little  by  little  driven  back  and  forced 
almost  entirely  to  abandon  tiie  Ea.st  Asiatic  trade.  The  Englisli  found  a  field  for 
their  activity  in  India,  and  the  Spaniards  retained  the  Philippines,  but  were  com- 
{>elled  in  1663  definitely  to  waive  all  claim  to  the  iloluccas.  Java  and  the  Spice 
Islands  were  the  bases  of  the  Dutch  power,  which  reached  its  greatest  prosperity 
under  the  governor-general,  Anton  van  Diemen  (1636-1645).  ^Malacca  was  then 
conquered,  a  friendly  understanding  established  with  tlie  princes  of  Java,  and 
Batavia  enlarged  and  fortified  in  every  way.  Soon  afterward  the  sea  route  to  the 
East  Indies  was  secured  by  tlie  founding  of  one  station  at  tlie  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  anotlier  on  Mauritius.  But  in  this  connection  the  huckstering  spirit  of  the 
trading  company  was  unpleasantly  shown  in  the  regulations  which  were  passed 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  spice  monopoly  in  the  ]\Ioliiccas,  and  were  fraught  with 
the  most  lamentable  consequences  for  the  native  population. 

Greater  attention  was  now  gradually  paid  to  the  hitherto  neglected  islands  of 
the  Archipelago,  especially  as  Formosa  (captured  in  1624)  in  1662  was  lost  to  the 
Chinese.  The  attempts  to  set  foot  on  Borneo  met  at  first  with  little  success  ;  on 
the  other  hand,  factories  were  founded  on  difterent  jraints  of  the  coast  of  Sumatra, 
and  in  the  year  1667  the  prince  of  Macassar  on  Celebes  was  conquered  and  com- 
pelled to  conclude  a  treaty  to  the  advantage  of  the  company.  In  Java  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Dutch  continually  increased  ;  Bantam  was  humbled  in  1684,  and  the 
final  withdrawal  of  the  English  from  Java  was  the  result.  But  even  in  later  times 
there  were  many  severe  struggles. 

Like  all  the  great  sovereign  trading  companies  of  the  age  of  discovery  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company  enjoyed  but  a  short  period  of  prosperity.  The  old 
spirit  of  enterprise  died  away ;  a  niggardly  pettiness  spread  more  and  more,  and 
produced  a  demoralising  effect  on  the  servants  of  the  company,  although  their 
dangerous  posts  and  the  tropical  climate  must  have  served  as  an  excuse  in  any 
case  for  numerous  excesses.  In  1731  the  governor-general,  Diederick  Durven, 
had  to  be  recalled,  after  barely  two  years  of  office,  on  account  of  unparalleled 
misconduct ;  but  the  state  of  things  did  not  improve  appreciably  even  after  his 
departure.  The  misgovernment  weighed  most  heavilj-  on  the  Chinese  merchants 
and  workmen  who  were  settled  in  the  towns.  At  last,  in  Java,  this  part  of  the 
population  which  was  essentially  untrustworthy,  and  had  always  been  aiming  at 
political  influence,  was  driven  into  open  revolt.  Since  the  Chinese  rendered  the 
vicinity  of  Batavia  insecure,  the  citizens  armed  themselves,  and  at  the  order  of 
the  governor-general,  Adrian  Valckenier,  massacred  all  the  Chinese  in  the  town 
(October,  1740).  But  it  was  only  after  a  long  series  of  fights  that  the  insurgents, 
who  liad  formed  an  alliance  with  Javanese  princes,  were  completely  defeated,  and 
the  opportunity  was  seized  of  once  more  extending  the  territory  of  the  company. 

The  strength  of  the  company  was  based  on  its  jealou.sly  guarded  trade 
monopoly ;  a  blow  directed  at  that  was  necessarily  keenly  felt.  It  was  observed 
in  Holland  with  a  justifiable  anxiety  that  the  English,  who.se  naval  power  was 
growing  to  be  the  first  in  the  world,  once  more  directed  their  activities  to  the  East 


Mon.sia']  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  553 

Indies,  and  came  into  competition  with  the  company  not  only  on  the  mainland,  but 
also  on  Sumatra  and  the  Moluccas,  answering  all  remonstrances  with  thinly  veiled 
menaces.  The  mouldering  officialism  of  the  Dutch  company  was  totally  unable 
to  cope  with  this  fresh  energy.  While  individuals  amassed  wealth,  the  income  of 
the  company  diminished,  and  all  profits  had  to  be  sacrificed  on  the  unceasing  wars 
with  Malay  pirates  and  similar  costly  undertakings. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  States-General  were  compelled 
to  aid  the  helpless  sovereign  company  by  sending  a  small  fleet  of  warships.  But 
when  the  Netherlands  after  their  transformation  into  the  "  Batavian  Eepublic " 
(January  26,  1795)  were  involved  in  war  with  England,  the  fate  of  the  company 
was  sealed  ;  it  fell  as  an  indirect  victim  of  the  French  Kevolution.  The  Cape  set- 
tlement first  went ;  then  Ceylon  and  all  the  possessions  in  India  were  lost.  In  1795, 
Malacca  also  fell,  and  a  year  later  Amboina  and  Banda  were  taken.  Ternate  alone 
offered  any  resistance.  Java,  which  for  the  moment  was  not  attacked  by  the  Eng- 
lish, was  soon  almost  the  only  relic  of  the  once  wide  realm  of  the  company  which, 
harassed  with  debts  and  enfeebled  by  tlie  political  situation  at  home,  could  only 
hold  out  a  few  years  longer  by  desperate  means.  The  company  was  dissolved  in 
the  year  1798,  and  the  "Batavian  Republic"  took  over  its  possessions  in  1800. 

The  change  of  the  republic  into  a  kingdom  held  at  the  will  of  Napoleon  (May 
26,  180G),  and  the  French  occupation  of  Holland  (July  9,  1810),  involved  further 
important  consequences  for  the  East  Asiatic  possessions.  The  English  took  advan- 
tage of  the  propitious  moment  to  become  masters  of  the  colonies  which  had  now 
become  French,  and  in  the  year  1811,  as  a  final  blow,  equipped  an  expedition 
against  Java.  Its  success  was  complete  ;  Batavia  fell  without  any  resistance,  and 
the  small  Dutch  army,  which  held  out  for  a  short  time  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capi- 
tal, was  forced  to  surrender  on  September  IS.  England  took  possession  of  the 
Dutch  colonies,  and  proved  lier  loyalty  to  those  great  principles  which  have  raised 
her  to  lie  the  first  maritime  and  commercial  power  of  the  world,  by  abolishing  the 
monopolies  and  establishing  free  trade.  But  the  precipitate  introduction  of  these 
reforms  and  other  injudicious  measures  soon  led  to  all  sorts  of  conflicts  and  dis- 
orders, which  deprived  the  English  government  of  any  advantage  which  might 
otherwise  have  been  gained  from  their  new  possession.  After  tlie  fall  of  Napoleon 
the  Netherlands,  by  the  treaty  of  London  of'August  13, 1814,  received  back  the  col- 
onies which  had  been  taken  from  them,  with  the  exception  of  the  Cape  and  Ceylon. 
On  June  24,  1816,  the  Dutch  commissioners  at  Batavia  took  over  the  government 
from  tlie  hands  of  the  English  commander.  Nevertheless,  the  English  soon  after- 
ward struck  a  severe  blow  directly  at  the  Dutch  colony,  by  adding  to  their  pos- 
sessions on  Malacca,  which  had  been  held  since  1786,  the  island  of  Singapore,  which 
they  acquired  by  purchase,  and  by  establishing  there  in  a  short  time  a  flourishing 
emporium  for  world  trade.  Batavia  was  the  chief  loser  by  this,  and  its  population 
soon  sank  to  the  half  of  what  it  had  formerly  been. 

The  dissolution  of  the  company  and  the  English  reforms  had  broken  down  the 
narrow-spirited  system  of  monopolies,  and  the  Dutch  government  had  no  option 
but  to  conform  to  the  altered  conditions.  A  small  country,  however,  like  Holland 
could  not,  from  economic  reasons,  adhere  to  the  Enghsh  system  of  free  trade,  nor 
waive  all  direct  national  revenue,  and  in  its  place  await  the  indirect  results  of 
unrestricted  commerce ;  the  colonies  were  compelled  not  only  to  support  them- 
selves and  the  colonial  army  which  had  now  been  formed,  but  also  to  provide  for  a 


554  HISTORY    ()!•    THE    WORLD  \_cJn,j,t,;- r 

surplus.  Thus  the  spice  luoiuipoly  on  tlie  Muhiccas,  wliich  liad  been  successfully 
abolisla'd,  was  reiutroduced,  though  in  a  somewhat  moditied  form  and  less  protit- 
ably  thau  before,  since  in  the  interval  the  cultivation  of  spices  had  been  introduced 
into  other  parts  of  the  tropical  world.  The  bulk  of  the  revenue  had  to  be  supplied 
by  the  patient  population  of  Java,  which  since  18.'50,  in  accordance  with  a  scheme 
drawn  up  by  the  governor-general,  Jan  von  den  Bosch  (cultuur.stdsel),  was  employed 
on  a  large  scale  in  forced  labour  on  the  government  plantations,  and  was  also 
burdened  by  heavy  ta.xes.  The  Dutch  jiossessions  from  that  time  were  no  longer 
menaced  by  foreign  enemies ;  but  the  colonial  army  had  to  suppress  many  insur- 
rections and  conquer  new  territories  for  Holland.  The  Dutch,  by  slow  degrees  and 
in  various  ways,  obtained  the  undisputed  command  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  In 
the  large  islands  of  Sumatra  and  I'orueo  for  a  long  time  they  only  exercised  a  more 
or  less  acknowledged  influence  on  the  coasts,  wliile  the  interior  even  at  the  present 
day  does  not  everywhere  obey  their  rule  ;  in  any  case  the  coast  districts  gave  them 
much  work  to  do,  as  their  desperate  battles  with  Acheh  (Achin)  prove.  The 
native  princes  were  almost  everywhere  left  in  possession  of  their  titles ;  but  on 
many  occasions  the  Dutch,  not  reluctantly  perhaps,  were  forced  to  take  different 
districts  under  their  immediate  government.  The  splendid  training  which  their 
colonial  otlicials  received  assured  the  success  of  the  Dutch. 

A  great  change  in  the  internal  conditions  began  in  the  year  1868.  The 
situation  of  the  natives  on  Java,  which  had  become  intolerable  (and  still  more 
perhaps  the  knowledge  that,  in  spite  of  all  the  forced  labour,  the  profits  of  the 
government  ])lantations  did  not  realise  expectations),  led  to  the  abolition  of  the 
corvee  and  the  former  unsound  and  extravagant  methods  of  working.  The  cam- 
paign which  the  Dutch  poet  and  former  colonial  official  Eduard  Douwes  Dekker 
(Multatuli ;  cf.  above,  p.  5'^>5)  had  conducted  since  1859  against  the  abuses  in  the 
governnienL  contributed  to  this  result,  although  for  a  long  time  no  direct  effects 
of  his  attacks  were  noticeable.  The  coffee  monopoly,  indeed,  was  left,  though 
somewhat  modified ;  so,  too,  the  principle  that  the  native  should  be  left  to  work  on 
his  own  account,  and  that  then  the  results  of  his  labour  be  compulsorily  bought 
from  him  at  a  very  low  price  is  still  enforced,  since  the  balance  of  the  Indian 
finances  must  be  maintained.  It  was  possible  to  abandon  the  Javanese  system  of 
forced  labour  without  excessive  loss  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  development  of 
tobacco-growing  on  Sumatra  (since  1864)  and  of  coffee-growing  on  Celebes  opened 
up  new  sources  of  revenue.  Accordingly  in  1873  the  antiquated  spice  monopoly 
on  the  Moluccas  was  finally  abolished  without  inflicting  an  insupportable  blow  on 
the  State  finances. 

The  scientific  exploration  of  the  region  has  been  commenced  and  carried  out  in 
a  very  thorough  fashion.  From  many  points  of  view  the  Dutch  possessions  are 
models  for  the  colonial  administrator ;  and  in  spite  of  all  mistakes  the  earlier  de- 
velopment shows  how  a  small  European  people  can  succeed  in  ruling  an  infinitely 
larger  number  of  unstable  Asiatics,  and  in  making  them  profitable  to  itself. 

£.  The  Several  Pakts  of  Indonesia  in  theik  Individual  Historical 

Development 

(a)  Java.  —  Java  is  far  from  being  the  largest  island  of  the  Archipelago,  but 
it  is  certainly  the  most  fertile,  so  that  it  can  support  a  very  dense  population  ;  it 


Indonesia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  555 


is  also  the  most  accessible,  and  consequently  was  the  liist  and  favourite  resort  of 
traders.  It  is  true  that  culture  has  only  been  able  to  take  root  easily  on  the  com- 
paratively flat  north  coast  with  its  abundance  of  harbours,  while  the  steep  south 
coast,  which  looks  out  on  a  sea  seldom  navigated  in  old  days,  has  never  attained 
to  any  importance.  The  loug,  narrow  island,  through  which  a  chain  of  lofty 
volcanoes  rims,  divides  into  a  number  of  districts,  in  which  independent  political 
constitutions  could  be  developed. 

Apart  from  slight  traces  of  a  population  resembling  the  Negritos,  Java  was 
originally  inhabited  by  genuine  Malays.  No  reliable  early  history  of  the  island  is 
forthcomiug,  since  the  first  records,  which  are  still  untrustworthy,  date  from  the 
Islamitic  Age.  "We  are  thus  compelled  to  have  recourse  to  the  accounts  supplied 
by  other  nations,  and  to  the  remains  of  buildings  and  inscriptions,  which  are  stiU  to 
be  fouud  plentifully  on  the  island.  In  any  case,  Java  was  the  focus  of  the  Archi- 
pelago so  far  as  civilization  was  concerned,  and  to  some  extent  the  political  centre 
also,  and  it  has  retained  this  position  down  to  the  present  day.  Our  oldest  infor- 
mation about  Java  can  be  traced  to  the  Indian  traders,  who  had  communication 
with  the  island  since,  perhaps,  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  The  fact  that 
the  Indians  turned  special  attention  to  J<»va,  which  was  by  no  means  the  nearest 
island  of  the  Archipelago,  must  certainly  be  due  to  the  existence  there  of  rudimen- 
tary political  societies  whose  rulers  protected  the  traders,  and  whose  inhabitants 
had  already  passed  that  primitive  stage  when  man  had  no  wants.  Tlie  Indian 
merchants  by  transplanting  their  culture  to  Java,  and  giving  the  princes  an  oppor- 
tunity to  increase  their  power  and  wealth  through  trade,  had  no  small  share  in  the 
work  of  political  consolidation.  We  must  treat  as  a  mythical  incarnation  of  these 
influences  the  Adyi  Saka,  who  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  native  tradition,  and 
is  said  to  have  come  to  Java  in  78  A.  D.  (for  this  reason  the  Javanese  chronology 
begins  with  this  year);  he  gave  them  their  culture  and  rehgion,  organised  their 
constitution,  made  laws,  and  introduced  writing.  The  Javanese  legend  mentions 
the  names  of  some  of  the  kingdoms  intlueuced  by  Hindu  culture.  Meudang 
Kamulan  is  said  to  have  become  important  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  or  beginning  of 
the  seventh  century ;  in  896  the  dynasty  of  Jangala,  and  in  1158  that  of  Paja- 
jaram  (Pajadsiran),  are  said  to  have  succeeded. 

The  first  immigrants  to  Java  were  worshippers  of  Vishnu,  who  were  followed 
later  by  Buddhists ;  this  fact  appears  from  the  inscriptions  and  ruins,  and  is  con- 
firmed by  the  accounts  of  the  Chinese  Fa  hien.  The  oldest  traces  of  the  Hindus 
have  been  discovered  in  West  .Java,  not  far  from  the  modern  Batavia.  There  must 
have  been  a  kingdom  in  that  part,  between  400  and  500  a.  d.,  whose  monarch  was 
already  favourable  to  the  new  culture  and  religion.  It  is  possible  that  the  first 
Buddhists  then  appeared  on  the  island  and  acquired  influence.  Important  inscrip- 
tions dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  teU  us  of  a  prince  of  West 
Java,  Aditya  dharma,  an  enthusiastic  Buddhist  and  ruler  of  a  kingdom  which 
comprised  parts  of  the  neighbouring  Sumatra;  he  conqueifed  a  Javanese  prince, 
Siwaraga,  whose  name  leads  us  to  conclude  that  he  was  a  supporter  of  the  Brahman 
doctrines,  and  built  a  magnificent  palace  in  a  part  of  Java  wliich  can  no  longer  be 
identified.  It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  any  question  of  a  religious  war  which 
led  to  this  conflict,  but  merely  of  a  political  feud.  We  learn  from  Chinese  sources 
that  there  was  a  kingdom  of  Java  to  which  twenty-eight  petty  princes  owed  alle- 
giance, and  that  in  the  vear  674  a  woman,  Sima,  was  on  the  throne  ;  this  kingdom. 


556  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [a.ajjter  v 

whose  capital  lay  originally  farther  to  the  east,  embraced,  presuniahly,  the  central 
parts  of  the.  island,  and  was  not  tlierefore  identical  with  that  of  Aditya  dlianna. 

Buddhism,  at  all  events,  supported  by  a  brisk  immigration  fnmi  India,  increased 
rapidly  in  power  at  this  time,  especially  in  tlie  central  parts  of  Java,  while  in 
the  east,  and  jierhaps  in  the  west  also,  Urahmanism  held  its  own.  In  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries  there  were  flourishing  Buddiiist  kingdoms,  whose  jiower  and 
splendour  may  be  conjectured  from  tlie  magnilicent  architectural  remains,  above 
all,  the  ruins  of  temples  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  and  from  numerous  inscriptions. 
The  fact  that  in  the  year  813  negro  .slaves  from  Zanzibar  were  sent  by  Java  as  a 
present  to  the  Chinese  court  shows  the  extent  of  Javanese  commerce  of  that  time. 
If  we  may  judge  df  the  importance  of  the  States  by  the  remains  of  the  temples, 
the  kingdom  of  Boro-Budur  must  have  surpassed  all  others,  until  it  fell,  probably 
at  the  close  of  the  tenth  century.  After  tlie  first  quarter  of  tliis  century  hardly 
any  more  temples  or  inscriptions  seem  to  have  been  erected  in  central  Java,  a 
significant  sign  of  the  complete  decay  of  the  national  forces.  With  this  ended  the 
golden  age  of  Buddliism. 

At  the  same  time  the  centre  of  gravity  of  political  power  sliifted  to  the  east  of 
the  island.  Inscriptions  of  the  eleventh  century  tell  of  a  king,  Er-lauga,  whose 
hereditary  realm  must  have  lain  in  the  region  of  the  present  Surabaya ;  by  suc- 
cessful campaigns  he  brought  a  large  i)art  of  Java  under  his  rule,  and  seems  to 
have  stood  at  the  zenith  of  his  power  in  the  year  1035.  His  purely  Malay  name 
proves  that  the  dynasty  from  whicli  lie  sprung  was  of  native  origin.  He  was, 
however,  thoroughly  imbued  with  Indian  culture,  as  may  be  concluded  from  the 
increase  of  Sanscrit  inscriptions  in  East  ,Iava  after  the  begiiniing  of  the  eleventh 
century.  A  Chinese  account  leads  us  to  conjecture  that  about  the  same  time  a 
kingdom  existed  in  the  west  of  Java  wliich  was  at  war  witli  a  State  in  southern 
Sumatra. 

The  next  centuries  are  somewhat  obscure;  this  may  be  connected  with  a  cer- 
tain decline  in  the  trade  and  thus  in  the  influence  of  the  civilization  of  India, 
but  is  principally  due  to  the  division  and  subdivision  of  Java  into  numerous  petty 
States.  But  in  spite  of  this  want  of  union  the  attempt  of  the  Mongol  monarch 
Kublai  (p.  177)  to  seize  Java  proved  unsuccessful;  only  a  part  of  the  east  was  laid 
waste.  That  side  of  the  island  contained  among  others  the  States  of  Pasuruau, 
Kadiri,  and  Surabaya,  the  first  of  which  gradually  lost  in  importance.  The  States 
in  Central  Java  apparently  sank  into  insignificance  as  compared  with  tho.se  of  the 
east ;  this  condition  of  things  lasted  until  the  intercourse  with  Nearer  India  once 
more  flourished,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Solo  and  Semarang  began  in  consequences  to 
revive. 

This  new  Hinduistic  age,  in  which  Brahmanism  again  became  prominent,  had 
however  a ■  stimulating  influence  on  the  east,  where  the  kingdom  of  Modyopahit 
(Majapahit,  Madchaput)  rose  to  be  a  mighty  power;  in  the  west  at  that  time 
the  kingdom  of  Pajajaram  (p.  555)  was  tiie  foremost  power.  Javanese  records 
give  the  year  1221  (according  to  the  Saka  reckoning,  1144)  as  the  date  of  the 
founding  of  Modyopahit,  or,  more  correctly,  of  the  preceding  kingdom  of  Tumapel, 
and  name  as  the  first  sovereign  Ken  A(ng)rok,  who  took  as  king  the  title  Eayasa, 
and  is  said  to  have  died  in  1247  Saka  (1169).  The  kingdom  of  Modyopahit  in 
the  narrower  sense  was  not  probably  founded  before  1278 ;  the  first  king  was 
Kertarayasa. 


Indonesia]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  557 

Modyopahit  is  the  best  known  of  the  earlier  Javanese  kingdoms,  since  it  lasted 
almost  to  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans,  and  an  offshoot  survived  destruction  by 
Islam.  A  glance  at  the  power  of  ]\Iodyopaliit  is  therefore  instructive,  since  it  is 
typical  of  the  peculiar  conditions  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  all  the  seafaring 
population  of  the  States  on  the  coast  or  on  the  islands.  Modyopahit  never  made 
an  attempt  to  subjugate  completely  the  island  of  Java  and  cliange  it  into  a  united 
nation,  but  it  made  its  power  felt  on  the  coasts  of  the  neighbouring  islands,  just  as 
Sweden  for  a  time  ruled  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  without  annexing  Norway,  or  as 
England  had  long  laid  claim  to  the  French  coasts  before  Scotland  was  joined  to  the 
British  realm.  We  may  allude,  in  passing,  to  the  colonies  of  Ancient  Greece,  to 
Carthage  or  Oman.  In  the  west  of  Java  a  strong  kingdom  still  stood,  which  for  a 
time  reduced  Modyopahit  to  great  straits.  The  advance  of  Modyopahit  was  natu- 
raUy  only  possible  when  a  large  fleet  was  available ;  this  is  said  to  have  destroyed, 
in  1252,  the  Malay  capital  Singapore.  The  kingdom  attained  its  greatest  size 
under  the  warlike  king  Ankawijaya,  who  mounted  the  throne  in  1390,  and  is  said 
to  have  subjugated  thirty-six  petty  States.  It  is  certain  that  the  kingdom  had 
possessions  on  Sumatra  and  settled  .Javanese  colonists  there,  also  that  the  south 
coast  of  Borneo  stood  partially  under  its  influence.  It  is  probable  that  the  .Java- 
nese, who,  it  can  be  proved,  settled  on  the  Moluccas,  had  also  gained  political 
power  there.  The  island  of  Bali  in  the  east  of  Java  formed  an  integral  part  of 
Modyopahit.  The  kingdom  seldom  formed  a  united  nation,  but  it  exercised  a 
suzerainty  over  numerous  petty  States,  which  gladly  seized  every  opportunity  of 
regaining  independence.  A  great  war  between  West  and  East  Java,  which  had  no 
decisive  results,  broke  out  in  the  year  1403  and  led  to  the  interference  of  Chinese 
troops  (cf.  p.  .^46). 

In  spite  of  all  the  brilliance  of  the  Hindu  States,  the  seeds  of  corruption  had 
been  earl)  sown  in  them.  Tlie  immense  prosperity  of  the  Arabian  people  had  cen- 
turies before  brought  into  the  country  Arab  merchants,  who  ended  in  permanently 
settling  there,  as  the  merchants  of  India  had  already  done,  and  had  won  converts 
for  Islam  in  different  parts  of  the  Archipelago,  chiefly  among  the  Malays  on  Ma- 
lacca, but  also  among  the  Chinese  traders.  "  The  Oriental  merchant,"  says  Conrad 
Leemans,  "is  a  man  of  quite  different  stamp  from  the  European.  While  the  latter 
always  endeavours  to  return  to  his  home,  the  Oriental  prolongs  his  stay,  easily 
becomes  a  permanent  settler,  takes  a  wife  of  the  country,  and  has  no  difficulty  in 
deciding  never  to  revisit  his  own  land.  He  is  assimilated  to  the  native  population, 
and  brings  into  it  parts  of  his  language,  religion,  customs,  and  habits."  It  was 
clikracteristic  of  the  heroic  age  of  Islam  that  the  Arabian  merchants  had  other  aims 
beyond  winning  rich  profits  from  trade :  they  tried  to  obtain  poHtical  dominion  by 
means  of  reUgious  proselytism.  Apparently  the  kingdom  of  Modyopahit,  the  bul- 
wark of  Hinduism,  had  early  been  fixed  upon  as  the  goal  of  their  efforts. 

The  comparatively  feeble  resistance  of  the  Buddhist  and  the  Brahman  doctrines 
is  partly  explained  by  the  fact  that  both  were  really  comprehended  by  the  higher 
classes  alone,  while  the  people  clung  to  outward  forms  only.  A  Chinese  annalist 
at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  calls  the  natives  of  Java  downright  devil- 
worshippers  (cf.  p.  568)  ;  he  does  not  therefore  put  them  on  a  footmgwith  the  Bud- 
dhists of  China  or  Further  India,  so  familiar  to  him.  The  first  victory  of  Islam  was 
won  in  the  Sumatran  possessions  of  Modyopahit.  The  new  doctrine  found  converts 
among  the  nobles  of  the  kingdom ;  of  these  Arya  Damar,  the  governor  in  Sumatra, 


55S  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [no.j.ter  r 

ami  above  all,  his  son  riaden  Palah  aro  ineiitioiicMl.  Tlie  improliable  Javanese 
account  of  the  fall  of  Modyopahit  only  leads  us  to  sujtpose  tliat  a  revolt  of  the 
nobles  who  had  been  won  over  to  Islam,  ]in)bably  assisted  by  female  intrigues, 
cost  the  reii;ning  monarch,  Bromijoyo,  his  tlirone  (1478).  The  Bralimanists  who 
remained  loyal  withdrew  to  the  island  of  liali,  whence  for  a  long  time  tliey  com- 
manded a  part  of  the  east  coast  of  Java,  and  when  that  was  no  longer  possible, 
hindeivd  at  least  the  advance  of  Islam  on  Bali  (cf.  below,  p.  562).  The  victory  of 
Islam  in  Modyopahit  soon  had  its  counterparts  in  the  other  States  of  the  island. 
Even  in  1552  tlie  ruler  of  Bantam  sought  to  obtain  the  protection  of  the  Portuguese 
against  the  Moliammedans  ;  but  it  was  too  late.  When  two  years  afterward  a 
Portuguese  fleet  appeared,  the  important  trading  town  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Mohammodaus.  Since  the  conversions  in  the  several  districts  of  Java  took  place 
at  different  times,  and  were  mostly  associated  with  disturbances,  a  number  of  petty 
States  soon  arose,  of  which  Pajang  and  Damak  were  the  most  powerful.  On  the 
island  of  Madura,  whose  destinies  were  always  closely  linked  with  those  of  Java, 
there  were  three  indt;peudent  kiiigdmns. 

Some  one  hundred  years  after  the  triumph  of  Islam  the  situation  was  altered. 
The  princes  of  ^lataram  had  gradually  attained  greater  and  greater  power,  though 
their  country  had  originally  been  only  a  province  of  Pajang;  in  the  end  they 
had  subjugated  most  of  the  east  and  the  centre  of  the  island.  In  the  west,  on 
the  contrary.  Bantam,  now  Islamitic,  was  still  the  predominant  power.  The  Dutch, 
after  1596,  tried  to  negotiate  an  alliance  with  it,  which  could  not  permanently 
prove  advantageous  to  Bantam.  The  founding  of  Batavia  and  the  interference  of 
the  English  soon  led  to  hostile  complications,  but  the  attempt  to  expel  tlie  Dutch 
once  more  from  the  island  did  not  succeed.  Xlie  Dutch  Trading  Company  natu- 
rally also  came  in  conflict  witli  the  ambitious  kingdom  of  Mataram.  The  "  Susu- 
hunan,"  or  Sultan,  Agoug  of  Mataram,  had  formed  a  scheme  to  subdue  the  west  of 
Java,  and  had  proposed  an  alliance  to  the  Dutch ;  but  he  found  no  response  from 
the  cautious  merchants,  and  consequently  twice  (in  1628  and  1629)  made  an 
attempt  to  seize  Batavia.  After  liis  deatli  his  son  lugologo  (1645-1G70)  concluded 
a  treaty  of  peace  and  amity  with  the  company  (1646).  Since  the  Dutch  did  not 
for  a  time  try  to  extend  their  possessions  on  Java,  the  peace  was  one  of  some 
duration.  Ingologo's  successor,  the  sultan  Amaug  Kurat,  first  invoked  the  help 
of  the  Dutch  against  a  Buginese  freebooter  who  had  settled  in  Surabaya.  He  was 
expelled,  and  a  rebellious  prince,  Truna  Java,  also  succumbed  to  the  attack  of 
the  Dutch  fleet.  The  company  in  the  treaty  of  Japara  (1677)  were  well  paid  by 
concessions  of  territory  and  trading  facilities  for  the  help  which  they  had  rendered. 

But  the  complications  were  not  yet  ended.  Truna  Java  once  more  drew  the 
sword  against  the  apparently  unpopular  Araang  Kurat,  drove  him  out  from  his 
capital,  and  selected  Kadiri  as  the  capital  of  tlie  kingdom,  which  he  had  the  inten- 
tion of  founding.  B\it  the  decision  rested  with  the  Dutch,  and  they  were  resolveil 
to  keep  the  old  dynasty  on  the  throne,  for  the  good  reason  tliat  the  expelled  prince 
was  forced  to  submit  to  quite  different  terms  from  those  offered  by  his  victorious 
rivaL  They  defeated  the  usurper  and  jdaced  the  son  of  Amaiig  Kurat,  who  had 
died  meanwhile,  on  the  throne  ;  a  small  Dutch  garrison  was  left  in  the  capital  to 
protect  him.  In  the  year  1703  the  death  of  the  sultan  gave  rise  to  violent  dis- 
putes about  the  succession.  Once  more  naturally  (cf.  the  English  policy  in  India, 
pp.  467-493)  Paku  Buwono,  the  candidate  who  with  the  help  of  the  company  sue- 


7„.o„«.v,]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  559 

ceeded  in  establishing  his  claim  to  the  throne,  had  to  show  his  gratitude  by  sur- 
renders and  concessions  of  every  kind  (1705)  ;  the  tlisputes,  however,  still  lasted. 
Henceforth  the  sultans  of  Mataraiu  could  only  hold  the  sceptre  and  avert  the  fall 
of  their  feudal  sovereignty  by  the  continuous  support  of  the  Dutch.  Confusion 
reached  its  height  when,  by  the  revolt  of  the  Chinese  in  the  year  1740,  the  pow^er 
of  the  company  itself  was  shaken  to  its  foundations.  The  reigning  sultan  as  well 
as  the  priuces  of  Bantam  and  Cheribon  encouraged  the  rebellion,  though  they 
feigned  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  company ;  the  result  was  that  the  sultan 
had  to  consent  to  fresh  concessions  after  the  defeat  of  the  Chinese,  and,  what  was 
most  important,  renounced  his  sovereignty  over  the  island  of  Madura.  The  king- 
dom of  Mataram,  after  the  loss  of  the  coast,  became  more  and  more  an  inland 
State,  and  consequently  was  left  helpless  against  the  maritime  power  of  the  Dutch. 
The  seat  of  government  was  then  removed  to  Solo  (Surakarta). 

But  the  greater  the  intlueuce  which  the  company  acquired  over  Mataram,  the 
more  it  saw  itself  dragged  into  the  endless  rebellions  and  wars  of  succession  which 
had  now  become  traditional  in  that  kingdom.  From  1749  to  1755  a  war  raged, 
which  was  finally  decided  by  a  partition  of  the  kingdom.  The  sultan  Paku 
Buwouo  III  received  the  eastern  part,  with  the  capital  Surakarta ;  his  rival,  Mangku 
Bumi,  the  western,  with  Jokjakarta  as  chief  town ;  while  a  third  claimant  was 
granted  some  minor  concessions  (treaties  of  1755  and  1758).  Besides  the  two 
States  formed  out  of  the  ancient  Mataram,  there  still  remained  in  the  west  the 
kingdoms  of  Bantam  and  Cheribon,  both  entkely  subject  to  the  company,  which, 
in  fact,  possessed  the  greater  part  of  Java.  Under  the  conditions  thus  established 
the  more  important  disputes  were  ended ;  but  the  maladministration  of  the  com- 
pany, together  with  its  oppression  of  the  natives,  produced  their  natural  result  in  a 
series  of  petty  distmbances  during  which  robbery  and  pillage  were  carried  on  with- 
out a  check.  The  final  collapse  of  the  company  and  the  chequered  fortunes  of 
the  Netherlands  in  1800  naturally  increased  the  disorders  on  Java,  and  the  reforms 
which  General  Herman  Willem  Daeudels  finally  carried  out  in  the  yea  1808  came 
too  late.  England  took  possession  of  the  island  in  1811  and  held  it  till  1816.  At 
tills  time  the  remaining  territories  of  Bantam  and  Cheribon  were  taken  away,  and 
nothing  was  left  to  the  two  sultans  beyond  a  pension  and  the  empty  title.  Thus 
only  the  susuhunan  of  Surakarta  and  the  sultan  of  Jokjakarta  were  left  as  semi- 
independent  rulers  ;  but  both,  as  a  penalty  for  their  resistance  to  the  English,  were 
once  more  confined  to  tlieir  own  territory,  and  watched  by  garrisons  posted  in  their 
cliief  towns. 

With  the  second  occupation  of  Java  by  the  Dutch  a  new,  but  on  the  whole 
hardly  more  prosperous,  era  opens  for  the  island.  The  narrow-spirited  monopolies 
and  trading  restrictions  of  the  old  company  were,  it  is  true,  not  revived,  or  only  in 
a  moLlified  form  ;  and  since  the  government  devoted  its  attention  to  the  widest 
possible  cultivation  of  useful  plants,  it  not  only  enlarged  its  revenue,  but  promoted 
the  increase  of  tlie  population  and  of  the  general  welfare.  But  all  the  heavier  did 
the  burden  of  the  corvic  weigh  upon  the  natives.  Insurrections  were  therefore 
stiU  very  frequent ;  one  of  them  ended  with  the  banishment  of  the  discontented 
ex-sultan  of  Bantam  (1832).  An  earlier  rebellion,  which  broke  out  in  1825  in 
Jokjakarta,  under  the  leadership  of  the  illegitimate  prince  Dhigo  Xegoro,  against 
the  governor-general  Godard  van  der  Capellen,  had  been  still  more  dangerous.  As 
had  happened  in  previous  cases,  the  troops  of  the  princes  of  Madura,  who  were 


OGO  HISTORY    OF    THP:    W'ORI.D  [a.ajjter  v 

loyal  to  the  Dutch,  leut  etticieiit  aid  in  its  suppression.  Although  this  revolt 
exposed  many  weak  points  in  the  administration  of  the  Dutch  Indies,  it  is  only 
since  1S6S  that  radical  clianges  have  been  made  (cf.  above,  p.  554).  The  corvee 
Wixs  virtually  abulisiied  in  case  of  the  natives  and  a  more  diuitable  system  of  gov- 
ernment introduced.  Java,  on  the  whole,  since  the  Dutch  government  turned 
its  attention  successfully  to  the  other  islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  has  no 
longer  been  able  entirely  to  maintain  its  position  as  head  of  the  Indonesian 
colonies. 

(t)  SiuiuUra. — Sumatra,  which  is  far  larger  than  Java,  but  of  a  similarly  elon- 
gated shape,  rises  in  the  interior  into  numerous  uidaiids  possessing  a  comparatively 
cool  climate ;  the  east  coast  is  flatter  and  more  accessible  than  the  west  coast,  in 
front  of  which  Hes  a  row  of  small  islands.  The  political  attitude  of  Sumatra  has 
been  determined  by  its  geographical  position ;  it  has  been  connected  on  the  one 
hand  with  the  Strait  of  Malacca,  on  the  other,  with  Java.  But  ethnographically 
it  is  a  purely  Malay  country,  the  jjlace  probably  from  which  the  aucient  migra- 
tions to  the  west  started.  In  the  Battas  CBataks)  of  the  interior  a  people  has 
been  preserved  whicli,  although  largely  impregnated  with  the  results  of  civilization, 
has  still  retained  a  considerable  share  of  its  original  peculiarities,  and  has  resisted 
the  introduction  of  any  religious  teaching  from  without.  Sumatra,  as  might  be 
expected  from  its  position,  probably  came  into  contact  with  India  and  its  culture 
at  a  somewhat  earlier  period  than  Java,  since  the  rich  pepper-growing  districts  on 
the  Strait  of  Malacca  were  the  first  to  create  a  .systematic  commerce.  It  is  quite 
in  harmony  with  these  conditions  that  the  districts  on  the  northern  extremity,  the 
modern  Acheh  (Achin),  were  the  earliest  which  showed  traces  of  Hindu  influ- 
ence and,  consequently,  the  beginnings  of  an  organised  national  life ;  thence  thi.s 
influence  spread  farther  to  the  inland  region,  where  signs  of  it  are  to  be  found 
even  at  the  present  day  among  the  Battaks.  The  older  kingdoms  of  the  north- 
em  extremity  w^ere  Poll  (according  to  the  Chinese  transliteration)  and  Sumatra 
(according  to  Ibn  Batuta,  more  correctly  Saniathra  or  Sauiutiira)  ;  the  capital  of 
the  latter,  situated  east  of  the  modem  Acheh,  has  given  its  name  to  the  entire 
island.  In  Java  it  was  the  culture  and  the  religion  of  the  Hindus  which  made 
themselves  chiefly  ftdt,  while  the  political  power  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
natives ;  in  North  Sumatra,  on  the  contrary,  the  immigrants  from  India  seem  com- 
pletely to  have  assumed  the  lead  in  the  State,  and  to  have  created  a  feudal  king- 
dom quite  in  the  Indian  style.  This  kingdom,  whose  capital  for  many  years  was 
Pasir,  held  at  times  an  extended  .sway  and  comprised  a  large  part  of  the  coasts  of 
Sumatra.  While  the  Indian  civilization  thus  struck  root  in  the  north,  and  the 
political  organisation  of  the  kingdom  of  Menangkabau  in  the  central  districts  was 
probably  also  due  to  its  influence,  it  began  indirectly  to  affect  the  south,  where, 
according  to  Cliinese  accounts,  a  State  had  been  formed  as  early  as  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. Soutliern  Sumatra  by  its  geographical  position  has  always  been  fated  to  be 
in  some  degree  dej^endeut  on  the  populous  and  powerful  Java.  In  the  earliest 
Hindu  period  of  Java  we  learn  of  a  prince  whose  territory  lay  on  both  sides  of 
the  Sunda  Str.ait.  It  is  possible  that  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Sumatra  en- 
joyed greater  independence  afterward,  since  we  have  no  detailed  accounts  of  the 
relations  between  the  two  islands,  except  Chinese  accounts  of  wars  between  West 
Ji'va  and  Southern    Sumatra  in  the  tenth  centurv.      In   1377   Southern  Suma- 


„..,o,.s,q  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  561 

tra,  whose  I'uler  actually  appealed  to  China  for  help,  was  conquered  by  the  Java- 
nese ;  for  a  time  it  belonged  to  Modyopaiiit.  Palembang  was  then  founded  by 
Javanese  colonists  ;  it  has  been  already  related  how  Islam  found  its  first  adherents 
there,  and  became  a  menace  to  the  kingdom  of  ]\Iodyopahit. 

In  the  north  also  Islam  effected  the  overthrow  of  Hinduism.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  thirteenth  century  the  first  preachers  of  the  new  doctrine  appeared  in  the 
Strait  of  Malacca,  and  at  first  gained  intiuence  over  the  Malays,  in  the  narrower 
sense  of  the  word,  who  came  originally  from  Sumatra  and  ruled  the  Peninsula 
of  Malacca  and  the  islands  lying  off  it.  In  Acheh  (Achin)  itself,  on  the  other 
liand,  tliey  won  no  success  until  tlie  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  later,  that 
is,  than  in  Eastern  Java.  At  any  rate,  the  political  supremacy  of  the  Hindus 
seems  already  to  have  broken  up,  and  to  have  given  place  to  native  dynasties. 
Ali  Moghayat  Shah  was,  according  to  a  credible  tradition,  the  first  Mohammedan 
sultan  of  Acheh;  Alo  ed-din  al-Kahar  (1530-1552)  seems  to  have  completely 
reorganised  the  political  system ;  he  also  conquered  a  Battak -Hindu  kingdom, 
which  continued  to  resist  the  new  doctrine  in  the  north.  In  the  succeeding  period 
Acheh  blossomed  out  into  a  powerful  State,  and  was  naturally  soon  involved  in  the 
wars  which  raged  almost  without  intermission  on  the  Strait  of  Malacca  between 
the  Portuguese  and  the  Malays.  The  fleets  and  armies  of  Acheh  repeatedly  ap- 
peared oPf  Malacca  and  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  capture  the  town  from  the 
Portuguese. 

The  Dutch,  on  entering  upon  the  inheritance  of  the  Portuguese,  took  over  their 
unfriendly  relations  with  Acheh.  At  first  everything  seemed  to  go  well;  the 
Dutch  turned  their  attention  more  to  Java  and  the  Moluccas,  and  contented  them- 
selves with  concluding  a  sort  of  commercial  treaty  with  Acheh  in  the  year  1602, 
and  with  obtaining  the  concession  of  a  strip  of  territory  for  the  establishment  of 
factories ;  in  the  meantime,  also,  owing  to  internal  disorders,  the  power  of  Acheh 
had  greatly  waned.  But  the  keener  the  interest  felt  in  Sumatra,  the  clearer  it 
l)ecame  that  the  originally  despised  Acheh  was  a  formidable  and  almost  invincible 
antagonist.  After  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  became  the  most 
dangerous  piece  on  tlie  chess-board  of  the  Dutch  colonial  policy.  A  dynasty  of 
Arabian  stock,  whose  first  ruler,  Mahmud  Shah,  mounted  the  throne  in  the  year 
1760,  resolutely  resumed  the  struggle  with  the  Dutch.  Acheh  had,  it  is  true,  been 
recognised  as  a  sovereign  State  by  the  treaty  of  London  on  March  17,  1824;  but 
tlie  fact  was  gradually  made  evident  that  a  free  Malay  State,  with  its  inevitable 
encouragement  or  tolerance  of  piracy,  could  no  longer  be  allowed  to  exist  in  so 
<langerous  a  place  as  the  Strait  of  Malacca.  Finally,  therefore,  in  the  year  1870 
Holland,  in  return  for  a  promise  to  resign  its  possessions  in  West  Africa,  received 
full  permission  to  take  any  action  it  wished  against  Acheh.  Negotiations  with 
the  sultan  led  to  no  result.  The  war,  which  began  on  March  25,  1873,  proved  un- 
expectedly difficult  and  costly,  not  merely  from  the  obstinate  resistance  offered  by 
the  population  on  various  occasions,  and  particularly  when  on  January  24, 1874,  the 
sultan's  palace  was  stormed  by  the  Dutch  under  Lieutenant-General  J.  van  Swieten, 
but,  above  all,  on  account  of  the  unfavourable  nature  of  the  scene  of  operations  and 
the  unhealthy  climate.  It  was  not  until  1879  that  the  country  could  be  considered 
subjugated,  but  it  still  required  an  unusually  large  garrison,  and  as  recently  as  the 
year  1896  showed  by  a  renewed  insurrection  on  how  uncertain  a  foundation  tlie 
Dutch  rule  in  these  parts  is  reared. 

VOL.  II  —  3G 


5G2  HISTORY    OF    TIU.    WORLD  [r/,„^,^,- / 

Tlie  Dutch  soon  extended  tlieir  intluence  frum  Java  over  the  soutli  of  Sumatra, 
and  also  in  Lanipony,  which  paid  tribute  to  the  Javanese  kingdom  of  Jiantam. 
The  most  important  kingdom,  Palembang,  appears  to  have  enjoyed  a  short  period  of 
independence  after  the  destruction  of  iIt)dyoi>ahit,  hut  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Geding  Souro,  who  originally  came  from  Demak  in  Java  in  tlie  year  1544,  and  thus 
received  a  Javanese  dynasty,  which  reigned  until  1649  ;  after  that  a  new  line  occu- 
pied the  throne  until  1S24.  A  factory  was  set  up  in  tlie  vicinity  of  the  town  of 
Palembang  by  tlie  Dutch  as  early  as  1618,  and  events  then  took  their  usual  course. 
After  the  natives  in  the  year  1662  had  attacked  the  factory  and  had  massacred 
almost  the  entire  garrison,  the  town  of  Palembang  was  destroyed  by  a  Dutch  Heet, 
and  a  favourable  commercial  treaty  was  exacted  from  the  intimidated  sultan,  wliich 
remained  in  force  until  1811.  Palembang  acquired  new  interest  for  tlie  Dutch, 
Avho  meanwhile  had  been  forced  on  one  occasion  to  end  a  civil  war  bj'  their  inter- 
ference, when  in  1710  immensely  rich  tin  mines  were  discovered  on  the  island  of 
Banka,  belonging  to  that  kingdom ;  the  company  immediately  secured  for  itself  a 
share  of  tlie  profits  by  a  separate  treaty.  The  usually  friendly  relations  between 
the  Dutch  and  Palembang  were  immediately  destroyed  when,  after  the  occupation 
of  Java  by  the  English,  the  whole  garrison  of  the  Dutch  factory  at  Palembang  was 
murdered  by  the  sultan's  order  in  a  most  horrible  manner.  Tlie  English  under- 
took a  punitive  expedition,  but  failed  to  restore  order  thoroughly ;  nor  were  the 
Dutch,  after  the  restoration  of  their  East  Indian  possessions  (1816)  more  success- 
ful, until  in  1823  they  summarily  incorporated  Palembang  as  a  province  into  their 
colonial  empire. 

Marco  Polo  mentions  petty  States  on  the  west  coast  in  his  days.  Among  the 
more  modern  kingdoms  may  be  mentioned  Benkulen  (Bangkahulu),  which  was 
subject  to  English  iiifiiience  after  168.5  and  was  not  ceded  to  Holland  until  August 
13,  1814.  Tlie  islands  lying  in  front  of  the  west  coast,  Nias  esiiecially,  contain  in 
parts  a  population  which  has  received  little  of  the  effects  of  foreign  civilization,  and 
by  its  manners  and  customs  recalls  the  old  times  of  the  roving  JIalay  race. 

(c)  Borneo.  —  Borneo,  the  largest  issland  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  has  not 
hitherto  in  the  course  of  history  attained  anything  like  the  importance  to  wliich  its 
size  should  entitle  it.  A  glance  at  tlie  geographical  features  of  this  clumsily  shaped 
island,  which  is  surrounded  on  almost  every  side  by  damp,  unhealthy  lowlands,  will 
satisfactorily  account  for  this  destiny;  indeed  Borneo  would  have  probably  drawn 
the  notice  of  maritime  nations  to  itself  even  less,  had  not  its  wealth  in  gold  and 
diamonds  proved  so  irresistibly  alluring.  If  the  ]ihysical  characteristics  of  the 
huge  island  are  unattractive  to  foreign  visitants,  they  also  ins])ire  its  inhabitants 
with  little  disposition  for  seafaring,  migrations,  and  commerce.  The  Dyaks,  who 
are  the  aborigines  of  Borneo,  are  mainly  a  genuine  inland  people,  whicii  in  the 
course  of  history  has  shown  little  mobility  and  lias  tenaciously  preserved  its  ancient 
customs. 

There  is  no  trace  of  political  societies  on  a  large  scale  in  the  interior  of  the 
island ;  the  coasts  alone,  washed  by  the  waves  of  foreign  peoples,  show  the  begin- 
nings of  national  organisations,  wliich  from  their  position  are  far  more  inthienced 
by  the  other  islands  of  the  Archipelago  and  the  chief  routes  of  maritime  trade  than 
by  the  land  on  which  they  are  established.  It  would,  for  example,  have  been  a  less 
adventurous  journey  for  an  inhabitant  of  the  north  coast  to  visit  the  ports  of  China, 


Indonesia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  563 


than  to  penetrate  a  dozen  miles  into  the  interior  of  his  own  island,  or  even  to 
mif^rate  as  far  as  the  south  coast.  Thus  the  old  tradition,  that  originally  the  island 
was  divided  into  three  large  kingdoms  (Borneo  or  Brunei,  Sukadana,  and  Banjer- 
massing),  is  untrustworthy  in  this  form.  The  south  coa.st  of  the  island  was  inliu- 
enced  in  a  remarkable  degree  by  the  vicinity  of  Java.  We  have  not  only  the 
remaius  of  buildings  and  idols,  but  al^o  literary  evidence  to  prove  that  the  Hindu 
kingdoms  of  Java  affected,  both  by  conquest  and  by  example,  the  adjoining  parts  of 
Borneo.  Modyopahit,  in  particular,  received  tribute  from  the  kingdom  of  Banjer- 
massing,  and  other  States  on  the  south  coast ;  even  after  the  fall  of  the  Brahman 
State  the  Islamitic  princes  of  Java  kept  up  this  relation  for  some  time.  The  legends 
of  Borneo  point  in  the  same  direction  when  they  record  that  Banjermassing  was 
founded  by  Lembong  Mangkurat,  a  native  of  Nearer  India,  who  had  immigrated 
from  Java. 

At  the  time  of  the  fall  of  Modyopahit  Banjermassing  was  the  most  powerful 
State  in  Borneo.  It  certainly  owed  its  prominence  to  the  advanced  civilization 
which,  evoked  by  a  large  Javanese  immigration,  was  naturally  followed  by  the  in- 
troduction of  Hindu  creeds.  According  to  the  legend  a  son  of  the  royal  house  of 
Modyopahit  founded  in  the  fourteenth  century  a  Hindu  dynasty  which  reckoned 
thirteen  princes  down  to  Pangeran  Samatra,  the  first  Islamitic  ruler ;  the  daughter 
of  Pangeran  Samatra  was  married  to  a  Dyak,  who  became  the  founder  of  a  new 
dynasty.  The  circumstance  that  Banjermassing  became  tributary  to  the  Islamitic 
State  of  Demak  on  Java,  wloile  Sukadana  and  Landak,  the  other  capitals  of  the 
south  coast,  were  subject  to  Bantam,  equally  Islamitic,  favoured  the  introduction  of 
the  Mohammedan  faith,  which  first  struck  root  in  1600.  But  all  recollection  of 
Modyopahit  was  not  lost ;  most  of  the  princely  families  of  the  south  coast  traced 
their  descent  from  its  royal  house. 

The  north,  on  the  other  hand,  was  considerably  influenced  in  early  times  by 
China  ;  even  at  the  present  day  pieces  of  Chinese  porcelain,  which  evidently  reached 
the  island  through  ancient  trading  transactions,  are  highly  valued  by  the  Dyaks  of 
the  interior.  The  earliest  mentioned  kingdoms  in  Borneo,  Polo  in  the  north  and 
Puni  on  the  west  coast,  may  have  acquired  power  from  the  trade  with  China  ;  in 
the  fourteenth  centuiy  certainly  Puni  also  was  subject  to  Javanese  influence.  In 
addition  to  the  Javanese  the  Malays,  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  word,  exercised 
great  influence  over  Borneo,  whose  coasts  in  quite  early  times  had  become  the 
favourite  goal  of  their  voyages  and  settlements.  It  was  through  them  that 
Brunei,  the  chief  State  of  the  north  coast,  was  founded,  though  the  date  cannot  be 
accurately  fixed ;  perhaps  it  was  merely  a  continuation  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Polo. 
Malay  immigrants  had  probably  come  to  Brunei,  even  before  their  conversion  to 
Islam,  which  took  place  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Modyopahit  also 
gained  a  temporary  influence  over  Bnmei.  When,  however,  the  first  Europeans 
visited  the  country,  it  was  a  powerful  and  completely  independent  kingdom,  which 
for  a  time  extended  its  sway  over  the  Sulu  Islands  and  as  far  as  the  Philippines. 
In  the  year  1577  the  first  war  with  the  Spaniards  broke  out,  and  further  collisions 
followed  later.  Other  Malay  States  on  the  west  coast  were  Pontianak  (probably  the 
ancient  Puni),Matan,  Mongama,  and  others.  Banjermassing,  Sukadana,  and  Lan- 
dak were  also  originally  founded  by  Malays,  and  only  subsequently  brought  under 
Javanese  rule. 

From  the  east  the  Bugi  of  Celebes  sought  new  homes  on  the  shores  of  Borneo, 


564  HISTORY    OP^    THE    WORLD  [c/.aj.ter  r 

and  also  founiled  a  number  of  small  kiujidonis.wliose  existence  depended  uriginally 
on  trade  and  piracy.  All  these  immigiations  have  naturally  producetl  the  result 
that  the  coast  population  of  Borneo  is  everywhere  an  inextricable  tangle  of  the 
most  various  racial  elements,  and  that  the  aboriginal  Dyaks  have  intermixed  freely 
with  Malays,  Javanese,  Chinese,  Bugi,  and  others.  Which  racial  element  predomi- 
nates depends  on  various  contingencies  from  time  to  time.  In  the  mining  districts 
of  the  kingdom  of  Samba  in  Western  Borneo  Chinese,  for  example,  were  settled 
after  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  such  large  numbers  that  they 
were  far  too  strong  for  the  Malay  sultan,  and  were  only  suppressed  by  the  Dutch 
government  in  1854. 

The  first  Europeans  who  attempted  to  form  connections  with  Borneo  were  the 
Portuguese  (after  1521);  they  met,  however,  with  little  success,  although  they 
renewed  their  attempt  in  1690.  Meanwhile  the  Dutch  East  India  Company 
had  opened,  in  the  year  1606,  a  factory  in  Baiijermassing,  whose  business  was 
to  export  pepper  and  gold-dust,  but,  owing  to  the  vacillating  and  often  hostile 
attitude  of  the  sultan,  it  was  no  more  successful  than  the  Portuguese  settle- 
ment, and  was  finally  abandoned,  in  consequence  of  the  murder  of  Dutch  officials 
and  merchants  at  Banjermassing  in  1638  and  1669.  The  residence  of  the  sultan, 
since  Banjermassing  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Dutch  in  1612,  was  removed  to 
Martapura,  and  remained  there,  although  Banjermassing  soon  rose  from  its  ashes. 
In  1698  the  English  appeared  upon  the  scene,  and  were  at  first  successful,  until 
the  destruction  of  their  factory  in  the  year  1707  thoroughly  discouraged  them 
from  further  undertakings.  The  sultan  of  Banjermassing,  in  spite  of  his  faithless 
behaviour,  was  in  no  way  inclined  to  abandon  the  advantages  of  tiie  European 
trade,  but  once  more  turned  to  the  Dutch  company.  At  length,  in  1733,  the  com- 
pany resolved  on  a  new  attempt.  Since  that  date,  notwithstanding  frequent  mis- 
understandings, the  relations  of  the  Dutch  with  the  island  have  been  practically 
unbroken.  The  interference  of  the  company  in  a  war  about  the  succession  to  the 
throne  turned  the  scale  and  procured  for  it  the  sovereignty  over  Banjermassing  ; 
and  thus  the  greater  part  of  the  south  coast  of  Borneo,  as  well  as  the  coveted 
monopoly  of  the  pepper  trade,  passed  into  its  hands  (1787).  During  the  occupation 
of  Java  by  the  English  the  reigning  sultan  con.sented  to  make  further  concessions, 
which  after  January  1,  1817,  benefited  the  Dutch.  To  this  period  belongs  the 
romantic  attempt  of  an  Englisliman,  William  Hare,  to  fomid  an  independent 
kingdom  in  South  Borneo.  The  Dutch  have  considerably  extended  and  con- 
solidated their  power  by  new  treaties  and  by  the  wars  which  they  fought  from 
1850  to  1854  on  the  west  coast,  and  from  1859  to  1 862  on  the  southeast  coast.  Ban- 
jermassing itself,  after  the  interference  of  the  Dutch  in  tlie  succession  to  the 
throne  in  1852  had  caused  a  rebellion,  was  deprived,  of  its  dynasty  in  1857  and 
completely  annexed  in  1864.  A  fresh  rebellion  in  1882  did  not  alter  the  position  of 
affairs.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  sultanate  of  Brunei  had  lost 
much  of  its  power ;  when  therefore,  in  the  year  1 839,  an  insurrection  was  raging  in 
the  province  of  Sarawak,  the  governor  gladly  accepted  the  offer  of  Brooke,  an 
Englishman,  to  come  to  his  a-ssistance.  James  Brooke,  born  on  A]>ril  29,  1803,  at 
Bandel,  in  Bengal,  had  then  formed  the  plan  of  founding  a  colony  in  Borneo  at  his 
private  cost;  he  apjxiared  in  June,  1839,  with  his  crew  on  the  coast,  .and  actually 
conquered  the  opponents  of  the  sultan,  who  in  gratitude  entrusted  the  governorship 
of  Sarawak  to  him  in  1840,  and  in  1842  formally  invested  him  with  the  province. 


Indonesia]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  565 

Since  Brooke  was  no  ordinary  adventurer,  but  a  man  of  noble  nature  and  strong 
character,  his  administration  proved  a  blessing  to  the  disorganised  country.  When 
the  sultan  showed  signs  of  suspicion,  the  rajah  reHed  upon  England,  and  com- 
pelled the  sultan  in  the  year  1846  to  cede  the  island  of  Labuan  to  the  British,  and 
finally,  after  he  had  suppressed  various  risings  of  the  Malays  and  Chinese,  made 
himself  absolutely  independent  of  Brunei.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  offered 
Sarawak  to  the  English  government.  But  the  offer  was  refused,  and  after  his 
death  (1868)  the  State  of  Sarawak  passed  to  his  nephew,  Sir  Charles  Brooke. 
Subsequently  the  English  government  reconsidered  its  former  decision,  and  in 
1888  both  Brunei  and  Sarawak  were  received  under  British  protection,  on  the 
terms  that  internal  administration  should  be  left  entirely  in  the  hands  of  their 
respective  rulers,  but  that  the  foreign  relations  of  both  States  should  be  controlled 
by  England.  The  declaration  of  this  protectorate  came  as  a  natural  sequel  to  the 
acquisition  of  North  Borneo  (Sandakan).  This  province  was  granted  to  the  British 
North  Borneo  Company  as  its  private  property  in  the  year  1881.  It  passed  under 
the  protection  of  England  at  the  same  time  and  on  the  same  terms  as  the  States  of 
Brunei  and  Sarawak. 

(fZ)  Celebes.  —  The  fourth  large  island  of  the  Archipelago,  Celebes,  is  of  quite 
a  different  character  from  Borneo.  Instead  of  the  clumsy  contour  of  Borneo,  we 
find  here  a  most  diversified  coast  line  ;  immense  plains,  such  as  we  find  in  Borneo, 
are  wanting  in  Celebes,  which  is  a  land  of  mountainous  peninsulas  separated  by 
deeply  indented  gulfs.  If  the  island  has  not  attracted  commerce  to  its  shores  to 
the  extent  which  might  be  expected  from  these  favourable  natural  conditions,  the 
reason,  doubtless,  is,  that  attention  has  been  diverted  from  it  by  the  proximity  of 
the  spice-bearing  Moluccas.  Celebes,  although  fertile  and  not  actually  poor  hi  ore 
and  precious  metals,  and  for  that  reason  a  valuable  possession  at  the  present  day, 
does  not  coTitain  those  tempting  products  which  hold  out  to  the  merchant  the 
prospect  of  rapid  and  splendid  profits.  But  although  the  accessibility  of  the  island 
has  not  been  thoroughly  appreciated  by  foreigners,  it  has  exercised  great  influence 
on  the  fortunes  of  the  native  population,  —  it  has  sent  them  to  the  sea,  and  turned 
them  into  wandering  pirates,  traders,  and  settlers.  Celebes  has  thus  acquired  for 
the  eastern  Malay  Archipelago  a  significance  similar  to  that  of  Malacca  for  the 
western.  Celebes  was  not  regarded  by  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  Archipelago  as  a 
single  united  country.  The  northern  peninsula  with  its  aborigmal  population  of 
Alfur  tribes  had  nothing  in  common  with  the  southern  parts,  which  were  inhab- 
ited by  the  Macassars  and  Bugi ;  and  even  the  Dutch  have  recognised  this  differ- 
ence so  far  as  to  place  the  two  districts  under  different  Eesidencies  (Macassar  or 
Mangkassar  and  Menado).  Celebes,  on  the  whole,  is  a  genuine  Malay  country, 
altliough  there  are  many  indications  among  the  Alfurs  that  there  was  an  admixture 
of  dark-skinned  men;  but  whether  we  must  think  of  these  latter  as  stunted 
negrito-like  aborigines  or  as  immigrant  Papuans,  is  an  insoluble  problem  for  the 
time  lieing.  The  Bugi  and  Macassars  are  pure  Malays,  who  in  their  whole  life  and 
being  probably  most  resemble  those  bold  navigators  of  Malay  race  who  have 
peopled  Polynesia  and  Madagascar. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  bulk  of  the  population  is  still  divided  up  into 
numerous  small  tribes,  which  show  little  inclination  to  amalgamate,  we  cannot 
venture  to  assign  an  earlv  date  for  the  rise  of  large  kingdoms  in  Celebes.     Tradi- 


566  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chaj.ter  r 

tioii  iu  the  south  can  still  tell  how  the  shrines  of  separate  localities,  from  which 
emigrants  went  to  other  parts  of  the  island,  lirst  acted  as  a  rallying  point  for 
small  tribes,  or  hindered  the  disintegration  of  others  which  were  increasing  in 
numbers  and  extent  of  t^>rritory  ;  the  chiefs  of  the  several  localities  recognised  the 
possessor  of  the  most  ancient  and  must  potent  magic  charm  as  their  superior  lord, 
assembled  from  time  to  time  at  council  meetings  iu  his  village,  and  thus  prepared 
the  way  for  the  erection  of  larger  political  communities.  Tliis  process  probably 
was  carried  out  in  Celebes  with  comparatively  little  interruption  and  without  the 
help  of  foreigners ;  even  of  Hinduism  only  faint  traces  can  have  reached  the  island, 
as  is  shown,  among  other  instances,  from  the  absence  of  Sanscrit  words  in  the 
original  dialects  of  the  Bugi.  The  small  tribes  were  engaged  in  constant  feuds 
among  themselves  before  any  States  were  formed,  and  after  that  epoch  these  wars 
were  continued  on  a  larger  scale,  and  alternated  with  sanguinary  conflicts  within 
the  still  incompletely  organised  kingdoms.  The  annals  of  Macassar  relate,  for 
example,  as  a  noteworthy  fact  that  one  of  these  princes  died  a  natural  death.  The 
foremost  power  among  tlie  Macassars  was  Goa,  later  Macassar  ;  among  the  Bugi, 
on  the  contrary,  Boni.  From  this  place  the  Bugi  gradually  spread  far  over  the 
coasts  of  the  eastern  Malay  islands  and  to  some  extent  founded  new  States. 

The  Portuguese  opened  communications  with  Celebes  in  the  year  1512.  The 
kingdoms  into  whifch  the  island  was  then  divided  could  hardlj'  have  been  long 
established ;  for  even  if  the  annals  of  the  Macassars  enumerate  thirty-nine  princes, 
who  occupied  the  throne  in  succession  down  to  the  year  1809,  the  average  dura- 
tion of  a  reign  during  those  early  days  of  barbarism  and  bloodshed  must  have 
been  short.  Assuming,  therefore,  that  the  records  are  fauiy  trustworth}-,  the  State 
of  Macassar  may  have  been  founded  subsequently  to  the- year  1400.  The  Portu- 
guese first  tried  to  secure  a  footing  on  the  island  in  1540,  when  they  set  up  a  fac- 
tory iu  Meuado,  and  later  also  iu  the  south ;  they  obtained,  however,  no  better 
results  than  the  English  and  Danes  at  a  somewhat  later  period.  The  Dutch,  who 
had  turned  their  attention  to  Celebes  after  1607,  alone  met  with  ultimate  success. 
But  meanwhile  Islam  had  reached  the  island  ;  in  1603  the  prince  of  Macassar  with 
his  people  adopted  the  new  faith.  The  great  ideas  of  this  world-religion  were 
here,  as  in  so  many  other  places,  a  stimulus  to  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  so 
that  the  influence  of  the  kingdom  of  Macassar  made  vast  strides  in  the  next  few 
year.s,  until  its  supremac;y  in  Southern  Celebes  was  indisputable.  It  was  engaged 
in  repeated  wars  w*ith  Boni,  the  State  of  the  Bugi,  since  the  people  of  that  demo- 
cratically organised  kingdom  refused  to  accept  Islam,  and  resisted  the  new  creed, 
first  with  their  prince  at  their  head,  and  tlien,  when  he  was  converted  to  the 
Mahomniedan  faith,  in  opposition  to  him.  The  sultan  of  Macassar  interfered  in 
these  quarrels,  and  succeeded  in  the  year  1640  in  subduing  Boni.  The  same  fate 
was  shared  by  numerous  j>etty  States.  ]\Iacassar  with  its  naval  power  partially 
conquered  the  coasts  of  Sumbawa  and  Buton  (Butung) ;  but  it  was  destined  soon  to 
discover  that  the  age  of  large  native  States  was  past. 

The  destruction  of  a  Dutch  factory  on  Buton  compelled  the  East  India  Com- 
pany to  take  active  measures ;  in  doing  so  it  relied  on  the  conquered,  but  still 
disaffected,  Boni,  whose  royal  family  had  found  a  friendly  reception  as  fugitives 
among  the  Dutch.  The  sultan  of  Macassar  was  soon  compelled  to  abandon  his 
conquests,  and  resign  the  throne  of  Boni  to  Rajah  Palaka,  a  protcgi  of  the  Dutch, 
■who  from  the  year   1G72  onward  raised  Boni  to  be   the  ruling  power  iu  South 


j„</«ne«a]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  567 

Celebes.  After  his  death  (1696)  a  part  of  liis  kingdom  became  the  absolute  pos- 
.session  of  the  company.  Although  the  Dutch  always  took  full  advantage  of  the 
inveterate  hatred  between  Macassar  and  Boui,  yet  their  attempts  to  extend  their 
rule  still  farther  led  to  repeated  and  troublesome  wars,  until  the  temporary  English 
occupation  of  the  island  (1814-1816)  and  the  ensuing  disorders  resulted  in 
•drastic  modifications  of  the  political  situation.  A  war  with  the  princes  of  South 
Celebes  ended  in  1825  with  the  victory  of  the  Dutch.  The  independence  of  the 
native  States  would  then  have  ended  for  ever,  had  not  the  rebellion  in  Java  diverted 
attention  to  another  direction.  It  was  only  after  new  struggles  in  1856  and  1859 
that  their  annexation  to  the  colonial  empire  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  was  effected. 
The  history  of  North  Celebes  really  belongs  to  that  of  the  IMoluccau  archi- 
pelago. The  State  of  Menado  may  be  noticed  as  an  important  political  entity. 
When  the  northern  peninsula,  and  especially  the  hilly  district  of  Minahassa,  had 
proved  to  be  suitable  for  coffee  plantations,  European  influence  easily  became  pre- 
dominant there,  and  all  the  more  so  since  Islam  had  not  yet  won  a  footing. 
Elsewhere  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  there  have  been  few  or  no  conversions  to 
■Christianity ;  but  a  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Minahassa  have  been  converted. 
The  eastern  and  smallest  peninsula  of  Celebes  has  also  in  its  external  life  been 
.subject  to  the  influence  of  the  Moluccas. 

(c)  The  Moluccas.  — The  modern  history  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  centres  in 
the  west  round  Java,  but  in  the  east  round  the  Molucca  Islands.  In  the  earlier  period, 
when  the  trade  in  muscat  nuts  and  cloves  had  not  yet  attracted  foreign  shipping 
to  its  shores,  the  group  of  the  Moluccas  may  have  been  less  conspicuous  ;  small 
tribes  and  ^^.llage  communities  probably  fought  against  each  other,  and  may  have 
extended  their  warlike  expeditions  and  raids  to  Celebes  and  New  Guinea,  and  these 
visits  were  probably  returned  in  kind.  The  flourishing  trade  iu  spices  then  raised 
the  wealth  and  power  of  certain  places  to  such  a  pitch  that  they  were  able  to 
bring  under  their  dominion  large  portions  of  the  Archipelago.  Jilolo,  on  the  north- 
ernmost peninsula  of  Halmahera,  is  considered  to  be  the  oldest  kingdom  ;  in  1540 
it  was  absorbed  by  Ternate.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  influence  of  China 
on  the  Moluccas  seems  to  have  been  very  slight,  since  the  islands  are  hardly  men- 
tioned in  the  Chinese  annals  before  the  fifteentli  century. 

The  Portuguese  on  their  arrival  foimd  two  large  kingdoms,  Ternate  and 
Tidor ;  both  originally  rose  in  small  insular  districts,  then-  chief  towns  lay  in 
close  proximity,  and  as  hostUe  rivals  each  was  bent  on  eclipsing  the  other.  The 
population  of  these  two  States  was  even  then,  probably,  much  mixed  ;  in  addition 
to  the  presumably  oldest  population,  the  Alfurs,  who  on  Halmahera  especially  and 
Seram  had  preserved  a  large  share  of  their  independence,  there  were  on  the  coasts 
Malays,  Bugi,  and  the  descendants  of  other  nations  occupied  in  the  spice  trade, 
namely,  the  Javanese,  who  seem  at  first  to  have  been  almost  exclusively  occupied 
in  transporting  spices  to  their  native  island,  and  the  Arabs,  probably  also  the  Chi- 
nese and  the  Hindus.  About  Ternate  we  know  that  the  seventh  ruler  mounted 
the  throne  in  the  year  1322  ;  in  his  time  Javanese  and  Arabs  are  said  to  have 
immigrated  iu  exceptional  numbers.  Ternate  and  Tidor  were  maritime  and  insu- 
lar States;  they  kept  closely  to  the  coast,  and  while  their  fleets  were  powerful 
they  never  possessed  extensive  territory  on  Halmahera  and  Seram.  Since  their 
power  was  entirely  based  on  the  spice  trade,  the  princes  of  the  two  States  courted 


508  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  Ivhaph-r  r 

the  favour  of  the  Portuguese,  who  iuJeed  first  appeared  as  traders.  Wheu  Teriuite 
proved  successful  in  this  respect,  the  monarch  of  Tidor  threw  himself  iuto  the  arms 
of  the  Spaniards,  who  then  came  forward  with  their  idaims  on  the  Moluccas.  The 
outrau'es  of  the  Portuguese  led  to  nianv  rel)eIlions  and  eoidiicts. 

The  Dutch  first  appeared  on  the  scene  in  the  year  1599,  and  planted  a  small 
settlement  on  Banda  ;  another  half-century,  however,  elapsed  hefore  they  felt  them- 
selves strong  enough  to  seize  the  monopoly  of  spice-growing  and  the  spice  trade. 
The  sultanates  of  Ternale  and  Tidor,  whicli  liad  some  power  over  the  coast  dis- 
tricts of  Celebes  and  New  Guinea,  were  allowed  to  remain,  but  the  Spice  Islands 
proper,  Amboina  (after  1605)  and  Banda  especially,  were  ])laced  under  Dutch 
administration.  As  it  seemed  impracticable  to  watch  over  all  tlie  islands,  the 
company  determined  to  allow  the  cultivation  of  cloves  and  muscat  nuts  only 
in  certain  places,  and  everywhere  else  to  effect  a  complete  destruction  of  the 
spice-trees.  The  execution  of  this  purpose  necessitated  a  war,  which  in  1021 
almost  annihilated  the  population  of  the  Banda  Islands,  so  that  henceforth  the 
company  was  able  to  introduce  slaves,  and  thus  exercise  a  stricter  supervision. 
But  since  the  seeds  of  the  spice-trees  were  continually  beiug  carried  by  birds  to 
other  islands,  annual  "  Hongie  expeditions  "  were  undertaken  in  order  to  destroy 
the  young  plantations  on  prohibited  s;)il,  by  force  of  arms  if  necessary,  and  imspeak- 
able  misery  was  in  this  way  spread  over  the  islands.  These  sad  conditions,  wliose 
prime  mover  was  the  governor,  Arnold  de  Vlaming,  lasted  down  to  the  English 
occupation  (1810;  p.  475),  and  were  afterward  renewed,  though  in  a  modified 
form.  In  1824  the  Hongie  expeditions  were  discontinued,  but  the  last  traces  of 
the  spice  monopoly  only  disappeared  in  1873,  wlien  the  plantations  were  sold  to 
private  speculators.  During  the  time  when  the  small  .spice  islands  iiad  so  ehecjuered 
a  history,  the  main  islands  long  remained  neglected.  The  Dutch  gradually  suc- 
ceeded in  acquiring  influence  over  the  semi-civilized  Alfurs,  of  whom  those  who 
live  on  Seram  are  organised  in  peculiar  secret  societies,  which  originated  in  the 
j>eculiar  system  of  male  associations  to  which  we  have  already  referred. 

(/)  The  Small  Sunda  Islamlf;.  —  Of  all  the  districts  of  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
the  "small"  Sunda  Islands  play  the  least  cimspicuous  part  in  history.  Devoid  of 
any  political  unity,  they  stagnated  in  their  isolation  until  foreign  immigration 
introduced  a  higher  type  of  social  life,  and  small  kingdoms  spiung  into  existence 
here  and  there  along  their  coasts.  The  interior  of  the  islands  remained  unsubdued 
and  unaffected  bj-  this  change. 

Bali  aflords  a  solitary  exception  to  the  general  rule.  This  island,  although 
profoundly  influenced  in  ancient  times  by  Java,  frequently  enjoyed  political 
independence.  Wlien  the  Brahman  States  of  East  Java  increased  in  strength 
toward  the  close  of  the  fir.st  millennium  of  tlie  Christian  era,  Bali  also  was  a  State 
with  Hindu  culture  (see  the  accompanying  plate,  "  Two  Illustrations  of  Hindu 
Mytholog)-,"  etc.).  IJgi-asena  ruled  there  in  the  year  923;  in  1103  another  pruice, 
Jayapaugu,  is  mentioned.  Bali  later  formed  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Modyopahit. 
It  was  impossible  for  Islam  to  convert  the  Balinese,  who,  at  the  time  wlien 
they  formed  a  united  people,  actually  assumed  the  aggressive,  oppressed  the 
Mohammedan  Sassaks  on  the  temporarily  conquered  Lombok,  and  menaced  Sum- 
bawa.  Brahmanism  defied  its  rival  in  this  case  at  least,  and  has  lasted  on  I?ali 
down  to  the  present  day.     In  consequence  of   the  prevailing  system  of  small 


» 


o 


indoneiia-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  569 

sovereigns  complete  political  disintegration  gradually  set  in;  there  were  eight 
petty  States  in  Bali  in  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the  Dutch  in  the  years  1846, 
1848, 1849,  and  1868  undertook  campaigns  against  Balinese  princes.  Nevertheless 
the  Dutch,  even  recently,  have  required  a  comparatively  strong  levy  of  troops  to 
crush  the  resistance  of  one  of  the  princes. 

Javanese  influence  also  temporarily  touched  Sumbawa,  tlie  development  of 
which  on  the  whole  was  affected  by  the  seafaring  inhabitants  of  Southern  Celebes, 
the  Macassars  and  Bugis.  It  was  formerly  split  up  into  six  small  and  independent 
States,  Bima,  Sumbawa,  Dompo,  Tambora,  Sangar,  and  P(ap)ekat.  The  population 
of  the  "  kingdoms "  of  Tambora  and  Papekat  suffered  terribly  under  the  devastating 
eruption  of  Tambora  (April  10,  1815),  as,  to  a  somewhat  less  degree,  did  those  of 
Sangar,  Dompo,  and  the  town  of  Sumbawa.  In  the  east  of  Floris  (Flores ;  capital, 
Larantuka)  Malay  and  Buginese  immigrants  predominated;  the  west,  Mangerai, 
was  dependent  on  Bima,  one  of  the  States  on  Sumbawa  and  connected  with  it  by 
a  common  language.  Timor  may  have  been  mostly  influenced  by  the  Moluccas, 
and  saw  small  principalities  formed  on  its  coast  at  a  comparatively  earlj-  date ; 
these  principalities  had  mostly  disappeared  by  1600  in  consequence  of  the  advance 
of  Timorese,  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  word,  who  inhabited  the  east  of  the  island 
and  originally  perhaps  had  their  homes  in  Seram.  The  most  northeasterly  part  of 
Timor  (Deli  or  Dilhi)  is  the  last  remnant  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Indo- 
nesia; in  the  southwest  (Kupang)  the  Dutch  have  had  a  footing  since  1688  (with 
exception  of  the  years  of  the  Englisli  conquest,  1811-1816). 

((j)  The  Philippines.  —  The  large  group  of  the  Philippines,  which  in  a  geological 
as  well  as  ethnological  sense  represents  the  link  connecting  Indonesia  to  the  region 
of  Eastern  Asia,  forms  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  Malay  world  of  islands. 
Malayism  is  alwajs  predominant  in  the  Philippines ;  it  may  indeed  have  prevailed 
in  Formosa  also,  and  from  thence  have  made  further  conquests.  The  Philippines 
were  not  always  in  the  possession  of  the  Malays.  In  the  earliest  historical  age 
we  find  the  islands  inhabited  by  the  Xegritos,  who  were  only  giadually  driven 
back  to  the  mountains  of  the  interior  by  the  immigrating  brown  race ;  it  was  only 
on  the  north  shores  of  Luzon  that  they  kept  their  position  on  the  seacoast.  There 
were  probably  two  invasions  of  Malays ;  the  tribes  of  the  first  intermixed  very 
largely  with  Negritos  and  on  the  second  immigration  shared  their  destiny,  since 
they  too  were  forced  to  retreat  to  the  mountainous  interior  of  the  islands,  while 
the  new-comers  occupied  the  coasts.  The  second  wave  of  immigration,  like  the 
first,  chiefly  flooded  the  south  of  the  Archipelago,  and  ethnically  changed  it,  while 
the  Negritos  on  the  coast  in  the  northeast  of  Luzon  once  more  escaped  extermi- 
nation. The  Malays  of  the  second  migration  brought  to  the  Philippines  an 
advanced  civilization  which  shows  traces  of  the  influence  of  India ;  this  event 
may  have  occurred,  therefore,  some  centuries  after  the  Christian  era.  Many, 
though  not  absolutely  convincing,  arguments  support  the  view  that  the  second 
immigrants  came  from  Sumatra,  the  cradle  of  the  Malay  race ;  other  features  of 
resemblance  point  to  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo.  The  Tagals  on  the  peninsula  of  Luzon 
became  the  representatives  of  the  native  semi-civilization. 

A  third  immigration,  which,  however,  was  not  so  thoroughly  carried  out,  is 
connected  with  the  advance  of  Islam  into  the  Malay  island-world.  The  Malays  of 
Brunei  in  Borneo  undertook  expeditions  of  conquest  and  conversion  to  the  Philip- 


570  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [(%,j.i.r  r 

piues  about  1500.  They  subdued  Palawan  and  tirnily  established  themselves  on 
Luzon.  Almost  simultaneously  imiui<i;nmls  from  the  Moluccas  settled  on  Jlin- 
danao  and  seized  the  Sulu  (Jolo)  Islands.  A  Mohammedan  pirate  State  arose 
there,  while  previously,  as  we  learn  from  Chinese  records  of  1417,  the  group  of 
islands  was  divided  into  three  kingdoms. 

The  rhili]>pines  were  reached  on  March  Ifi,  1521,  from  the  east  by  the  Portu- 
guese, Magalhaes,  who  was  in  the  Spani.sh  ser\'ice,  and  were  called  St.  Lazarus 
Isles ;  later  the  name  Islas  de  Poniente  was  given  them ;  the  name  of  Philippines 
was  not  adopted  until  1565.  The  islands  excited  little  attention  at  first,  while 
an  obstinate  struggle  developed  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Portuguese  for 
the  possession  of  the  Moluccas.  When  Charles  V  abandoned  the  Moluccas  on 
April  22, 1529,  the  Philippines  also  would  probably  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  Portuguese  if  private  Spaniards  had  not  set  foot  on  them,  and  if  Portugal  had 
not  attached  slight  importance  to  tlieir  possession.  It  was  not  until  1543  that  a 
Spanish  fleet  appeared  once  more  in  the  Archipelago  with  the  commission  to  found  a 
Spanish  settlement.  But  this  finally  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese,  who 
theoretically  still  asserted  their  claims  to  the  Philippines.  A  renewed  attempt  in 
the  year  1565  met  at  last  with  success;  the  Spaniards  established  themselves  lirst 
on  Sebu,  then  on  Panay.  In  1570  they  turned  to  Luzon,  and  founded  in  the  ensu- 
ing year  the  town  of  Manila. 

The  Spaniards,  after  Portugal  had  been  united  to  their  kingdom  in  1580,  found 
two  other  rivals  who  endangered  their  existence,  —  the  Mohammedans  or  Moros, 
advancing  from  the  south,  and  the  Chinese,  who  were  largely  represented,  espe- 
cially on  Luzon.  These  latter  had  long  maintained  commercial  intercourse  with 
the  Philippines,  and  seem  sometimes  also  to  have  won  political  influence.  They 
constituted  a  perpetual  menace  to  the  Spanish  rule,  but  required  nevertheless  to  be 
treated  cautiously,  since  the  revenues  of  the  colonies  depended  almost  wholly  on 
the  trade  with  China.  In  the  year  1C)0?>  a  terrible  revolt  of  the  Chinese  broke  out. 
It  was  quelled  with  great  slaughter  of  the  insurgents  by  the  Spaniards  with  help 
of  the  natives  and  the  Japanese,  who  were  also  resident  on  Luzon  for  trading  pur- 
poses. A  few  years  later,  however,  the  number  of  Chinese  settlers  in  Manila  had 
once  more  risen  to  an  alarming  height.  A  new  revolt  was  suppressed  in  161^9,  and 
when  in  1662  the  Chinese  freebooter,  Cheng  Ko  chuang  (Koy  sung,  p.  106),  whose 
father,  Cheng  Cheng  kung  ("  Koxinga  "),  had  conquered  Formosa,  threatened  the 
Philippines,  there  was  once  more  a  massacre,  which,  however,  proved  ineffective  to 
exclude  entirely  the  undesirable  guests. 

The  Spaniards  met  with  more  success  in  their  struggle  against  Islam.  Christi- 
anity, thanks  to  the  active  zeal  of  the  Spanish  monks,  completely  outstripped  it 
on  Luzon,  while  on  Mindanao  and  the  other  southern  islands  the  progress  of  the 
Mohammedan  teaching  was  at  least  checked.  The  task  of  ruling  the  natives  was 
facilitated  through  the  circumstance  that  no  large  kingdoms  appear  to  have  existed 
on  the  Philippines  before  the  conquest.  The  Spanish  government  was  most  anx- 
iously concerned  to  obtain  the  complete  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  the  Pliili])iiines. 
Commerce  was  only  permitted  with  the  American  colonies  of  Spain.  A  port  was 
founded  at  Acapulco  for  the  purpose  of  this  trade,  and  once  a  year  a  great  galleon 
sailed  thither  from  the  Philippines,  bearing  goods  from  China,  Japan,  and  India, 
and  the  spices  of  the  Philippines.  The  price  of  this  cargo  was  usually  paid  in 
.silver  dollars.     A  definite  maximum  in  goods  and  money  was  fixed,  which  might 


Indonesia 


]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  571 


not  be  exceeded.  Direct  trade  with  Europe  was  prohibited,  notwithstanding  fre- 
quent attempts  of  the  merchants  of  Seville.  The  richly  laden  vessels,  which  were 
engaged  in  the  commerce  with  America,  naturally  tempted  all  the  pirates  and 
admirals  of  unfriendly  nations,  and  were  not  unfrequently  plundered,  as,  for 
example,  by  George  Anson  on  the  coast  of  the  island  of  Samar  (1743).  After 
1785  the  trade  lay  iu  the  hands  of  the  Eeal  Conipafiia  de  Filipinas.  The  harbour 
of  Manila  was  first  opened  to  all  maritime  nations  in  1803,  in  1814  free  trade  was 
introduced,  and  in  1834  the  company  was  dissolved.  But  even  then  foreign  com- 
petition was  checked  as  much  as  possible  by  all  kinds  of  vexatious  customs  duties ; 
the  ruinous  tobacco  monopoly  was  not  done  away  with  until  1882. 

Although  these  ridiculous  restrictions  on  trade  and  the  ascendancy  of  the  cler- 
ical party  hindered  all  progress,  still  the  Philippines  during  the  union  of  Portugal 
with  Spain  (1580-1640)  formed  the  centre  of  a  splendid  colonial  empire;  but 
through  the  competition  of  the  Netherlands,  Spain  was  soon  restricted  to  the  Phil- 
ippines proper,  which  now  for  a  long  time  were  anything  but  prosperous.  Neverthe- 
less the  spread  of  Christianity  among  the  natives  helped  to  consolidate  the  colony. 
When  an  English  fleet  appeared  off  Manila  in  the  year  1763,  and  the  Chinese  and 
Indians  rose  against  the  Spaniards,  the  latter  received  the  help  of  the  Christian 
native  population.  These  allies  could  not  save  Manila  from  falling  for  the 
moment  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  but  the  Treaty  of  Paris  restored  to  the 
Spaniards  all  that  had  been  conquered  from  them  in  the  Philippines,  and  left  their 
power  unchallenged,  except  by  such  rebellions  as  the  tyranny  of  the  monastic  and 
mendicant  orders  produced  among  the  native  races,  and  by  the  more  formidable 
discontent  of  the  Malayo-Spanish  half-castes,  who  had  received  a  tinge  of  Euro- 
pean culture,  but  felt  themselves  slighted  and  were  eager  to  play  a  leading  part. 
Unrest  showed  itself  in  1824.  The  mutiny  of  the  troops  in  1872  might  have  been 
most  dangerous  had  it  not  been  smothered  by  prompt  action.  The  political  power 
of  Spain  seemed  on  the  whole  to  have  been  consolidated  in  the  course  of  the  nine- 
teenth century ;  and  Spain  gradually  succeeded  in  annexing  to  her  sovereignty  a 
part,  at  least,  of  the  hitherto  independent  districts,  such  as  Southern  Mindanao 
and  the  Sulu  Islands. 

But  that  ineradicable  tradition  of  treating  the  colonies  as  sources  of  profit 
for  place-hunters  and  ecclesiastical  orders  prevented  any  real  prosperity  ;  it  was 
equally  impossible  to  treat  the  Tagals  for  all  time  as  the  Indians  of  Paraguay  had 
been  treated  at  the  time  of  the  Jesuit  supremacy.  The  thought  of  freedom 
gradually  gained  ground ;  secret  societies,  resembling  freemasonry,  formed  the 
rallying-point  of  discontented  Filipinos,  whose  hatred  was  chiefly  directed 
against  the  priestcraft.  Minor  insurrections  in  1876  and  1882  were  followed  by 
a  great  rising  in  1896,  showing  the  power  of  these  secret  tendencies.  The 
successes  of  Japan  in  Eastern  Asia  seem  to  have  also  roused  the  self-conscious- 
ness of  the  more  enlightened  natives,  since,  with  some  right,  they  regarded  them- 
selves as  kinsmen  of  the  Japanese.  Once  it  seemed  that  the  Spaniards,  who  made 
themselves  hated  and  despised  by  shooting  the  patriotic  poet.  Dr.  Jos6  Rizal 
(December  29,  1896),  had  succeeded  by  great  sacrifices  in  effecting  a  peace  with 
the  Tagals  under  the  leadership  of  Emilio  Aguinaldo  (peace  of  December  14, 1897). 
But  the  war  with  the  United  States  of  America  had  scarcely  broken  out  when  the 
iusm-rection  again  blazed  up.  Since,  however,  the  victorious  United  States  did 
not  show  themselves  inclined  to  recognise  the  independence  of  the  "  Philippine 


572  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter  v 

Kepublic  "  of  Juue  23,  1898,  ihej-  were  obliged  after  the  beginning  of  1899  (Febru- 
uary  5  and  17,  futile  attacks  of  the  Filipinos  on  Manila)  to  take  on  themselves 
the  war  with  the  natives,  in  which  the  American  Major-Generals  Elwell  Stephen 
Otis  (until  May  5,  1900),  and  Arthur  MacArthur  experienced  many  reverses. 
Even  after  the  capture  of  Aguinaldo  (March,  1901)  the  Tagals,  in  their  love  of 
liberty,  under  their  subsequent  dictator,  Sau  Dico,  did  not  abandon  the  struggle, 
especially  on  Samar. 


3.   MADAGASCAR 

Far  away  from  Indonesia  lies  another  couuliy  of  the  Malay  race,  Madagascar. 
This  island  has  had  a  less  glorious  history  than  the  chief  districts  of  Indonesia,  a 
fact  largely  due  to  its  outlying  position  and  the  few  attractions  which  it  offers  to 
the  enterprising  merchant.  Before  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  by  the  Portu- 
guese, Madagascar  lay  off  the  great  trade  route  which  connected  Western  and 
Eastern  Asia,  and  only  the  vessels  which  earned  the  product  of  the  gold  mines 
from  Sofala  to  the  north  directed  the  notice  of  the  Arabs  to  tlie  coasts  of  the  vast 
island,  and  conveyed  indirectly  news  of  it  to  the  civilized  countries  of  Asia  and 
Europe.  It  is  probable  that  the  island  of  Menuthios,  mentioned  by  Ptolemy,  is 
identical  with  Madagascar.  But  all  historical  accounts  in  the  stricter  sense  are  up 
to  the  present  so  vague,  that  we  could  say  little  about  the  early  history  of  the 
peoples  of  Madagascar,  did  not  ethnographical  research,  aided  by  comparative 
philology  and  anthropologj',  allow  us  some  insight  into  remote  periods. 

A.   The  Primitive  History  of  Madagascar 

The  fauna  and  flora  of  Madagascar  are  remarkable  from  the  circumstance  that 
they  have  their  nearest  counterpart,  not  in  the  neighbouring  continent  of  Africa, 
but  in  Malacca  and  Indonesia,  possibly  because  the  island  represents  the  remains 
of  an  old  continent  ("  Lemuria"),  which  once  ])artially  tilled  up  the  Indian  Ocean. 
If  we  see  then  that  a  large  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  earlier  population  of  Mada- 
gascar traces  its  origin  from  the  Malay  island-region,  as  language,  customs,  and 
physique  undoubtedly  prove,  we  are  tempted  to  think  of  the  submerged  Lemuria  and 
to  place  the  immigration  of  Melanesian  and  Malayan  peoples  into  Jladagascar  in 
the  very  earliest  prehistoric  age.  This  supposition,  in  view  of  the  remote  antiquity 
of  the  human  race,  should  not  be  simply  rejected ;  if,  nevertheless,  it  is  generally 
denied,  and  the  affinity  of  the  population  of  Madagascar  to  that  of  Indonesia  is 
regarded  as  an  incidental  counterpart  to  the  geographical  conditions  of  animal  and 
plant  life,  the  cause  of  this  is  found  in  tlie  assumption  that  the  Malay  immigrants 
brought  with  them  to  Madagascar  a  com]iaratively  developed  civilization,  such  as 
was  only  acquired  by  the  Malays  of  Indonesia  in  the  course  of  history.  Eeeeiitly, 
however,  Alfred  Grandidier  has  ad<luced  weighty  reasons  for  tlie  view  that  the 
dark-skinned  inhabitants  of  Madagascar  came  originally  from  IMelanesia,  or  were 
at  any  rate  much  more  closely  related  to  tlie  Melanesians  than  to  the  negroes,  and 
that  Malays  also  found  their  way  to  Madagascar  at  a  very  early  period.  Grandi- 
dier relies  on  the  fact  that  all  the  inhabitants,  the  light-complexioned  as  well  as 
those  of  a  negro  type,  belong  linguistically  to  the  Malay  family  of  nations. 


in^onesi.-]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  573 

It  is  dif&cult  to  determine  whether  the  remnants  of  an  undersized  population 
which  are  said  to  be  found  in  tlie  interior  of  the  island  are  related  to  the  Veddas 
in  Ceylon  (p.  495)  and  the  forest  tribes  of  Malacca,  and  have  occupied  their 
present  home  since  primitive  times,  but  it  is  not  improbable.  They  might  be, 
then,  the  descendants  of  the  oldest  people  of  Lemuria,  or,  since  Africa  also  pos- 
sesses its  dwarf  tribes,  of  some  primitive  and  widely  dispersed  race.  The  half- 
mythical  Wasimba  in  the  highlands  of  the  interior  and  the  Kimos  in  the  south 
of  Madagascar,  who  have  been  visited  by  several  French  travellers,  are  supposed 
to  be  remains  of  such  tribes. 

The  Malays  were  clearly  brought  to  Madagascar  by  more  than  one  of  those 
marvellous  migi-ations  which  have  become  of  paramount  importance  for  the  history 
of  Indonesia  and  Oceania.  Certain  similarities  favour  the  view  that  Sumatra  was 
the  point  from  which  the  colonisation  of  Madagascar  started.  The  date  of  the 
most  important  immigrations  cannot  be  satisfactorily  determined,  but  might  be 
put  anterior  to  the  beginning  of  Hindu  influence  in  Indonesia,  since  Sanscrit 
words  are  almost  entirely»absent  in  the  languages  of  Madagascar.  On  the  other 
hand,  considering  the  comparatively  high  culture  of  the  immigrants,  we  should  not 
venture  to  place  the  beginning  of  the  migration  in  a  very  remote  age.  The  immi- 
grants brought  with  them  the  art  of  iron-working,  but  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
acquainted  with  cattle-breeding,  since  the  Hova  word  for  ox  is  borrowed  from  the 
East  African  Swahili  language.  They  were  not  unfamiliar  with  the  loom,  but 
apparently  employed  it  to  weave  palm  fibre,  not  cotton.  Their  social  divisions 
were  hereditary  nobles  (Andrianes),  free  men,  and  slaves. 

Since  on  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans  the  Mascarenes  (cf.  p.  612)  which  lie  to 
the  east  of  Madagascar  were  found  uninhabited,  these  migrations  could  not  have 
flowed  over  these  fertile  and  attractive  islands,  but  must  have  reached  Madagascar  by 
another  route.  ■  It  is  possible  that  the  seafaring  Malays,  who  by  piracy  and  trade 
commanded  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean  before  the  Cliristian  era  and  until  the 
beginning  of  the  Hindu  trading  expeditious  to  Malacca  and  Java,  may  have 
reached  the  coasts  of  Madagascar  in  this  way  from  the  north,  and  founded  settle- 
ments there  in  course  of  time.  "While  other  Malay  settlements,  of  which  there 
were  many  probably  on  the  coast  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  disappeared  again  later, 
since  their  inhabitants  were  either  massacred,  or  fused  with  the  aborigines,  the 
Malay  race  found  in  the  sparsely  peopled  Sladagascar  the  possibility  of  an  undis- 
turbed expansion  and  of  a  gradual  occupation  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  island. 
All  connection  with  their  Indonesian  home  was  then  abandoned,  and  the  settlers 
on  ^Madagascar  continued  to  develop  independently  of  the  mother  country,  but  not 
without  experiencing  in  a  considerable  degree  the  influence  of  Africa.  Among  the 
Hovas,  who  must  be  regarded  as  the  latest  immigrants,  the  legend  is  still  current 
that  their  forefathers  came  from  a  distant  island  on  a  marvellous  road  of  lotus 
leaves  to  the  coasts  of  Madagascar,  and  that  then,  to  escape  the  malarial  fever, 
they  penetrated  far  into  tlie  hill  country.  The  legend  says  nothing  of  any 
aboriginal  inhabitants. 

The  most  pure-blooded  Malays  are  the  Hovas,  who  live  in  the  central  province 
of  Imerina,  and  number  at  present  a  million  souls.  The  BetsUeo,  some  1,200,000 
strong,  who  inhabit  the  hill  country  south  of  Imerina,  seem  to  be  more  contami- 
nated bv  negro  blood.  The  Betsimisaraka  on  the  east  coast  are  more  nearly  allied 
to  the  negroes  than  to  the  Malays.     Besides  the  light-complexioned   races   of 


574  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  [chaptn-  r 

Mailafmsoar  and  the  remnants  of  an  undersized  primitive  people  there  are  also, 
especially  on  the  coasts  and  in  the  sovith,  dark  inlialiitants  of  a  negro  type, 
although  at  present  no  hard  and  fast  line  can  be  drawn  between  the  races. 
There  are  no  longer  any  economic  contrasts  in  Madagascar  which  might  give  a 
clue  to  earlier  conditions.  In  every  jdace  where  conditions  are  favourable  rice- 
growing  supplies  the  staple  food,  cattle-breeding  comes  next;  even  the  Masca- 
renes  are  almost  exclusively  supplied  with  meat  from  Madagascar.  Pigs  are  only 
bred  by  the  Hovas,  while  the  coast  tribes,  in  consequence,  doubtless,  of  Arabian 
intluence,  hold  all  swine  in  abhorrence.  The  Hova  pig  may  have  been  introduced 
from  Indonesia. 

Curiously  enough  the  questions,  whence  the  Nigritian  inhabitants  have  come, 
and  h.iw  we  are  to  picture  to  ourselves  their  immigiation,  liave  provoked  an  almost 
more  lively  controversy  than  the  question  of. the  origin  of  the  Malay  nations, 
although  the  close  proximity  of  Africa  seems  at  any  rate  to  supply  a  satisfactory 
answer  to  the  first.  Nevertheless,  such  authorities  on  Madagascar  as  James  Sibree 
and  Grandidier  prefer  to  consider  the  dark  inhabitants  of  the  island  as  a  race 
related  to  the  Papuans  rather  than  as  true  negroes.  Even  if  we  provisionally  reject 
this  view  and  admit  the  negro  nature  of  the  dark  Malagasies,  still  the  other  ques- 
tion, whether  the  negroes  came  into  the  island  earlier  or  later  than  the  Malays,  is 
harder  to  decide.  The  Nigritian  portion  of  the  ^lalagasy  population  speak  Malay 
dialects,  and  must  have  been  long  subject  to  a  distinct  ilalay  influence.  The  main 
body  of  the  dark  population,  whose  most  important  branch  are  the  Sakalavas, 
inhabit  the  west  coast  of  the  island  opposite  Africa.  The  Africans  of  the  main- 
land are  inferior  seamen  and  would,  now  at  least,  be  unable  to  reach  Madagascar 
unaided.  These  facts  perhaps  support  the  view  that  negroes  oidy  came  to  the 
island  after  the  Malay  immigration  by  the  aid,  or  perhaps  at  the  instigation,  of  the 
:Mal:iys  themselves.  The  race  of  the  Nigritian  Malagasies  was  perliaps  carried  off 
from  the  East  African  coast  by  slave  raids;  perhaps  tiie  Malays  enlisted  black  troops 
during  their  inter-tribal  feuds,  or  possibly  both  these  causes  have  co-operated  to 
produce  the  existing  state  of  affairs.  It  is  conceivable,  also,  that  coast  tribes  of  East 
Africa,  after  the  example  of  the  Malays  or  led  by  Malay  adventurers,  may  have 
acquired  greater  skill  in  navigation  and  finally  settled  on  Madagascar.  The  Saka- 
lavas long  enjoyed  notoriety  as  audacious  pirates.  The  Nigritian  population  has 
been  increased  dowxi  to  most  recent  times  by  the  importation  of  African  slaves. 

B.  The  Authenticated  History  of  Madagascar 

(a)  The  Arabian  Period.  —  The  people  of  the  Arabs,  which  was  destined  to 
effect  such  great  revolutions  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  made  its  influence  felt  (m 
the  coasts  of  Madagascar  at  a  comparatively  early  period,  possibly  long  before  the 
growth  of  Islam,  and  evidently  owing  to  the  vicinity  of  the  gold  mines  of  Sofala. 
A  clear  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  tlie  islands  was  espei'ially  possessed  by 
Edrisi  (1153),  one  of  the  Arabian  geographers,  who  alludes  to  it  by  the  name 
Chezbezat;  other  Arabian  writers  call  it  Serendah,  or  El  Komr.  The  name  Mada- 
gascar is  first  mentioned  by  ilarco  Polo,  who  derived  exact  information  about  the 
island  from  the  Arabian  navigators,  and  heard  in  this  connection  of  a  gigantic  bird, 
the  roc.  The  fabidously  exaggerated  account  may  refer  to  those  gigantic  ostrich- 
like birds  {jEpyornis  maximus   and  ^pyornis  ingens)  which    clearly  inhabited 


Indonesia 


]  PilSTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  575 


Madagascar  do%vn  to  historical  times.  The  oklest  Arab  settlements  of  which  we 
have  accounts  lay  on  the  island  Nossi  Braha  (Sainte  Marie)  on  the  northeast  coast 
of  Madagascar  and  on  the  east  coast  itself ;  probably  the  colonies  also  in  the  uortli- 
west  of  the  island  were  formed  at  a  quite  early  jjeriod.  In  view  of  the  traditional 
history  of  Solomon,  it  is  very  remarkable  that  various  quite  noteworthy  pieces  of 
evidence  argue  an  early  immigration  of  Jews.  The  religious  controversies  after 
Mahomet  led  to  further  Arabian  immigrations,  principally  of  sectaries,  such  as 
the  Zeidites,  a  branch  of  the  Alides,  who  may  have  partly  come  to  Madagascar  at 
the  close  of  the  eighth  century  ;  also  about  the  same  time  a  number  of  Ismaelites 
immigrated.  "We  know  in  any  case  that  the  Sunnite  and  Shiite  Persians  emi- 
grated to  East  Africa.  Grandidier  maintains  that  descendants  of  all  these  immi- 
grants can  still  be  identified  in  Madagascar.  The  Arabs  did  not  fail  to  influence 
the  adjoining  settlements ;  families  of  chieftains  of  Arabian  blood  were  often  at 
the  head  of  native  communities,  altliough  it  cannot  be  said  that  Islam  for  that 
reason  made  appreciable  progress. 

The  Portuguese,  after  the  circumnavigation  of  South  Africa,  reached  Madagas- 
car also.  The  first  of  them  to  do  so  was  Fernando  Soarez,  on  February  1,  150f!, 
St.  Laurence's  day,  from  which  circumstance  the  island  received  the  name  of  San 
LourenQO.  It  was  repeatedly  visited  by  Portuguese  afterward,  but  no  permanent 
settlements  were  founded.  The  Dutch  also  soon  abandoned  their  attempts  at  colo- 
nisation, which  were  made  in  the  years  1595-1598. 

(b)  Political  Orrjanisation.  —  At  the  earliest  time  of  which  some  fairly  credible 
accounts  have  come  down  to  us,  the  dark-skinned  Sakalavas  on  the  west  coast 
were  the  most  powerful  people  of  Madagascar,  while  the  greater  part  of  the  island 
was  inhabited  by  independent  tribes.  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  an 
indirect  consequence  of  Arabian  influence,  the  great  Sakalavan  kingdom  of  Menabe 
arose,  which,  in  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  planted 
many  offshoots,  especially  Iboina.  The  real  foimder  of  the  power  of  Menabe  was 
Andriandahifotch,  who  died  in  1680. 

These  conditions  were  first  changed  by  the  appearance  of  the  Hovas,  a  genuine 
Malay  people,  in  the  heart  of  the  island.  The  Hovas,  whose  homes  lay,  in  his- 
torical times,  in  tlie  central  hill  country,  especially  the  province  of  Imerina, 
immigrated,  as  their  own  tradition  relates,  into  their  country  from  the  east  coast 
many  ages  before.  A  historical  work,  which  appeared  in  1873,  gives  a  list  of 
thirty-six  kings  who  have  filled  the  throne  since.  According  to  this,  Sibree  places 
the  immigration  into  the  highlands  in  the  second  half  of  the  eleventh  century. 
After  aU,  the  list  of  kings  can  only  refer  to  a  fragment  of  the  people,  since  the 
Hovas  in  their  new  home  soon  split  up  into  numerous  small  and  independent 
tribes,  some  of  which  even  paid  tribute  to  the  Sakalavas.  Grandidier,  in  contrast 
to  Sibree,  assumes  a  very  late  immigration  of  the  Hovas,  or,  more  correctly,  the 
Andrianas  (feudal  lords),  in  Imerina.  The  Hovas  in  the  narrower  sense,  the  free 
agricultural  people  of  Imerina,  are  according  to  his  view  descendants  of  the  old 
Indonesian  colonists,  while  the  Andrianas,  who  are  Javanese  or  at  least  genuine 
Malays,  are  supposed  not  to  have  reached  Madagascar  until  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  that  is  to  say,  after  the  time  of  the  Portuguese  voyages  of  discovery. 
The  prosperity  of  the  Hovas  woidd  thus  be  due  to  the  stimulus  given  b}'  these 
comparatively  civilized  invaders.  In  1780  there  still  existed  in  Imerina  various 
independent  kingdoms,  of  which  the  most  powerful  was  Tananarive. 


570  HISTORY    OP^    THE    WORLD  [chapter  v 

The  iMi,'lueeatli  oeiiluiy  saw  the  conniletion  of  the  natioual  union  of  the  Hovas, 
who  gradually  realised  their  own  strengtli  and  became  a  ineuace  to  the  surrounding 
tribes.  King  Audriauiniptiina  began  the  Krst  campaigns  against  the  Betsileo  who 
lived  in  the  south.  His  son  Kadama  I  (1810-1828)  continued  the  operations  with 
still  more  success,  became  master  of  the  greater  part  of  the  northern  highlands,  and 
pressed  on  to  the  east  coast,  where  he  made  a  treaty  with  the  English.  Provided 
with  firearms  by  the  latter,  he  then  commenced  war  on  the  Sakalavas,  compelled 
tliem  to  recognise  his  suzerainty,  nominally  at  least,  and  proceeded  to  assert  his 
claim  to  the  dominion  over  the  whole  of  Madagascar,  a  claim  which  was  still  abso- 
lutely opposed  to  the  actual  state  of  aflfairs.  The  sovereignty  of  the  Hovas  was 
never  really  acknowledged  in  the  south  and  southwest. 

On  the  accession  of  a  king  the  people  took  the  oath  of  allegiance ;  laws  and 
enactments  were  promulgated  in  large  popular  assemblies,  which  no  longer,  how- 
ever, possessed  any  deliberative  or  decisive  voice.  The  first  minister  was  an 
important  officer  of  state.  If  a  princess  or  queen-widow  came  to  the  throne,  he 
had  to  marry  her,  according  to  the  settled  custom,  and  then  in  most  cases  actually 
took  the  reins  of  government. 

Radiima  soon  quarrelled  with  the  European  power  which  had  long  cast  en\ious 
eyes  on  Madagascar,  —  with  France,  that  is  to  say.  The  early  French  settlement, 
Fort  Dauphin,  had  been  founded  in  the  year  1642,  on  the  southeast  coast  of  the 
island.  A  trading  company,  organised  by  a  naval  officer,  Captain  Eicault,  of 
Dieppe,  and  encouraged  by  Cardinal  Kichelieu  (who  died  on  December  4,  1642), 
commenced  operations,  but  after  some  decades  went  bankrupt.  The  hopeless  con- 
ditions of  this  "  colonisation  "  are  illustrated  by  the  fact  tiiat  the  governor,  Etienne 
de  Flacourt  (the  first  liLstorian  of  the  island,  f  June  10,  1660),  preferred  to  return 
to  France  after  si.\  years  of  fruitless  struggle.  The  comiiany  transferred  its  rights 
to  the  French  government,  whicli  even  then  regarded  ]\Iadagascar  as  its  property, 
but  without  taking  much  pleasure  in  the  acquisition.  An  attempt  of  Colbert  to 
form  an  immense  colonial  empire  out  of  Madagascar  and  the  surrounding  islands, 
and  to  raise  the  necessary  funds  by  founding  an  P2ast  India  Ct)mpany  (1664), 
seemed  to  promise  success  at  first,  but  in  consequence  of  the  arrogant  behaviour 
of  the  governor,  La  Have,  it  ended  with  the  massacre  of  all  the  I'rench  settlers 
and  the  destruction  of  Fort  Dauphin  in  the  year  1672.  All  plans  for  the  time 
being  were  thus  stopped.  The  only  Europeans  who  were  left  to  inHuence  the 
Malagasies  were  adventurers  and  numerous  pirates  of  various  nationalities. 

The  Mascarenes,  where,  as  a  result  of  the  movements  on  Madagascar,  pros- 
perous French  settlements  had  grown  up,  lay,  however,  so  near  to  ^laiiagascar  that 
attention  was  constantly  turned  to  that  attractive  and  immense  island.  In  the 
year  1750  the  island  of  Sainte  Marie  was  acquired,  and  the  ruined  I'ort  Dauphin 
regarrisoned  in  1768.  Soon  afterward  Count  Moritz  August  Benjowski  appeared 
as  French  governor  of  the  possessions  in  JIadagascar.  He  was  an  enterprising  but 
untrustworthy  character,  who  obtained  from  some  chiefs  on  the  coast  the  conces- 
sion of  the  entire  island,  founded  new  settlements,  and  when  he  laid  down  his 
office  regarded  himself  as  owner  of  Madagascar,  which  he  repeatedly  but  vainly 
offered  to  the  IVench  government.  His  adventurous  life  ended  on  June  4,  1786, 
and  with  it  his  dream  of  an  em})ire  of  Madagascar. 

After  these  unsuccessful  efforts  attempts  were  made  to  establish  direct  rela- 
tions with  the  Hovas,  who  had  meantime  become  powerful.    In  the  course  of  these 


Indonesia]  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  577 

negotiations  the  competition  of  the  English,  who  had  occupied  (1810)  Tamatave 
on  the  east  coast,  ah-eady  made  itself  felt.  The  French  claims  outlasted  the  dis- 
orders of  the  Napoleonic  era.  England  restored  the  possessions  in  Madagascar,  so 
far  as  any  existed,  to  France  at  the  same  time  as  the  island  of  E^union  (1814),  and 
it  really  seemed  as  if  France  was  destined  to  find  compensation  in  Madagascar  for 
the  numerous  losses  it  had  sustained.  The  wish  to  occupy  the  island  could  not 
fail  to  clash  unpleasantly  with  the  budding  hopes  of  the  Hovas  for  the  over- 
lordship.  AVlien,  therefore,  a  settlement  was  once  more  founded  on  Sainte  Marie 
in  the  year  1821,  the  Hova  king,  Radama  (f  Julj^  27, 1828),  assumed  a  threatening 
attitude.  The  French  governor  replied  with  a  vigorous  protest  against  the  assump- 
tion of  the  title  of  King  of  Madagascar  by  Eadama.  Through  the  energy  of  the 
English  governor  of  Mauritius,  Sir  Eobert  Farquhar,  the  influence  of  England 
entirely  won  the  day  in  Madagascar.  The  Hovas,  whose  army  was  organised  on 
an  European  model,  took  Fort  Dauphin  from  the  French,  while  numerous  trading 
advantages  were  granted  to  the  English  (1S25). 

Under  the  reign  of  Queen  Eanavalona  matters  came  once  more  to  open  hos- 
tilities, which  did  not  end  gloriously  for  the  French.  Fortunately  for  France,  the 
queen,  who  conquered  parts  of  the  southeast  of  the  island,  roused  Great  Britain 
also  against  her  by  her  passionate  hatred  of  foreigners  and  by  her  expulsion  of 
the  English  missionaries  (1835).  In  the  years  1838-1841  the  French,  who 
had  been  called  in  by  the  princess  Tsiumeik  of  Bueni  (1839)  and  the  prince 
Tsimiar  of  Ankara  (1840),  occupied  some  more  points  on  the  northwest  coast,  par- 
ticularly the  island  Nossi  B^,  and  in  this  way  consolidated  their  influence  among 
the  Sakalavas.  But  for  the  time  being  there  was  no  idea  of  a  decisive  and  con- 
sistent policy. 

The  intolerable  misgovernment  of  Queen  Eanavalona  finally  forced  the  Hovas 
themselves  to  seek  help  from  without.  Once  more  the  French  and  English  began 
to  intrigue  one  against  the  other,  and  dangerous  complications  had  already  been 
caused  when  the  sudden  death  of  the  queen  in  1861  and  the  accession  of  Ea- 
diima  II,  who  was  friendly  to  France,  completely  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs. 
An  age  of  reforms  then  set  in,  which  formed  a  feeble  counterpart  to  the  similar 
and  almost  contemporary  process  in  Japan  (p.  45).  Even  when  Eadama  had  been 
murdered,  on  May  12,  by  the  reactionary  party,  which  was  supported  by  England, 
reforms  were  continued  by  his  widow  and  successor,  Easoah^rina.  The  real  jjower 
lay,  however,  in  the  hands  of  her  husband,  Eainitaiarivoy,  the  tir.st  minister,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Hova  family  Eainiharo,  which,  with  English  support,  founded  a  sort  of 
palace  government.  The  "reforms"  gradually  assumed  a  character  which  was 
very  serious  for  France  (June  27, 1865,  treaty  with  England).  When  Easoah^rina 
died,  on  April  1, 1868,  Ednavdlona  II  Mayonka  mounted  the  throne.  On  February 
21,  1869,  she,  together  with  her  husband,  again  of  course  the  first  minister,  adopted 
Christianity,  and  joined  the  Anglican  Church,  which  had  been  in  the  meanwhile 
extending  its  influence  among  the  Hovas,  and  now  acquired  complete  ascendancy. 
The  news  of  the  French  defeats  in  the  war  of  1870-1871  naturally  caused  a 
further  diminution  of  French  influence. 

(c)  TJie  French  Period. — The  pretensions  of  the  Hovas  and  the  intrigues  of 
the  English  finally  compelled  the  French  government,  after  long  and  unprofitable 
negotiations,  to  assert  by  force  of  arms  their  claims  to  Madagascar,  which  was 

VOL.    11—37 


578  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter  v 

more  and  more  iuclining  to  the  side  of  Great  Britain.  On  June  13,  18S3,  Tania- 
tavc,  on  the  east  coast,  was  occupied.  The  death  of  the  reigning  (lueeu  (July  13) 
and  the  accession  of  IMnavJllona  III  Manyuake  were  foUowed  by  an  abortive  French 
exiiedition  into  the  interior.  But  a  treaty  favourable  to  the  French  was  concluded 
on  December  17,  1885.  By  this  treaty  Madagascar  became  a  French  protectorate; 
a  resident-general  was  placed  in  the  capital,  Antananarivo,  to  control  the  foreign 
relations  of  the  State.  This  treaty  was  not,  however,  regarded  very  seriously  by 
the  Hovas,  until  in  1895  a  new  expedition,  startuig  frt)m  the  northwest  coast,  under 
Lieutenant-General  Duchesne,  took  the  capital  on  September  30,  after  a  singularly 
feeble  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  Hovas,  and  then  asserted  the  French  protecto- 
rate by  force  of  arms  (treaty  of  January  IS,  1896).  Madagascar  was  declared  a 
French  colony  on  August  6^  1896.  Rainilairivouy,  the  luisband  of  the  queen, 
was  banished  to  Algiers ;  she  herself  was  left  for  a  time  in  possession  of  her  title, 
but  in  1897  she  too  was  deposed  and  brought  to  Reunion.  In  this  way  the  king- 
dom of  the  Hovas  has  been  brought  under  French  influence ;  but  the  island  as  a 
whole  has  yet  to  be  subdued.  Under  the  ride  of  France  the  trade  of  Madagascar 
has  greatly  improved,  and  a  preferential  tariff  has  succeeded  in  checking  the 
English  imports  in  favour  of  the  French  ;  the  exports,  of  which  the  most  important 
articles  are  gold,  vanilla,  and  india-rubber,  are  now  chiefly  sent  to  France.  The 
construction  of  railways  has  begun,  roads  are  being  made,  and  the  harbours,  of 
which  Tamatave  is  still  the  most  important,  are  the  scene  of  busy  life.  For 
administrative  purposes  the  island  is  divided  into  two  military  territories,  two 
civil  provinces,  and  a  mixed  territory.  A  small  French  army,  partly  consisting  of 
Senegalese  troops,  and  a  native  guaid  are  under  the  orders  of  the  governor-general 
(since  1896  General  Jos.  Simon  Gallicni).  The  immigration  from  Europe  is  small, 
while  in  the  coast  towns  Chinese  and  Indians  are  already  settled  in  considerable 
numbers.  The  plan  has  lately  been  suggested  of  settling  in  the  highlands  of 
Madagascar  Boers  fiom  South  Africa,  who  are  unwilling  to  remain  in  their  coun- 
try now  that  it  has  become  English. 

One  of  the  Comoro  islands,  Mayotta,  has  been  under  French  rule  since  1841, 
and  in  1886  the  rest  of  the  Comoro  group  was  annexed.' 

C.   The  Mascarenes 

The  history  of  the  French  claims  on  Madagascar  is  closely  connected  with  the 
fact  that  on  the  Mascarenes,  in  Mauritius  and  Edunion,  French  colonies  were 
founded  and  plantations  opened,  with  considerable  succe.ss.  The  islands,  wlien 
discovered  by  the  Portuguese  Pero  Mascarenhas  (1505),  were  totally  uninhabited. 
Mauritius  was  for  some  time  in  possession  of  the  Dutch  (1640-1712),  and  was  colo- 
nised by  the  French  in  171  o,  who  had  held  settlements  since  1646  on  Reunion.* 
In  the  interval  between  1734  and  1746  Bertrand-Fran^ois  Mah^  de  la  Bourdon- 
nais,  whom  we  have  already  met  in  India  (p.  460),  was  French  governor  here. 
The  introduction  of  the  remunerative  industry  of  coffee-planting  increased  the 
prosperity  and  the  population  of  the  Mascarenes  during  the  course  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  ;  afterward  sugar-growing  was  extensively  introduced. 

'   Viilf.  the  map  of  Africa  in  Vol.  III. 

*  "  Mascircigne  "  to  1649 ;  "  Islc-de-Bourbon"  to  the  French  Bcvolution,  and  again  from  1814  to 
1848;  "  lale-de-Bonapartc,"  1809-1814. 


in,,on.sia]  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  579 

During  the  Napoleonic  wars  England,  in  spite  of  the  resistance  of  the  Creoles, 
took  possession  of  both  islands,  and  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  retained  Mau- 
ritius, together  with  the  Seychelles  ^  and  Rodriguez  (of.  above,  p.  475).  The 
necessity  of  obtaining  cheap  labour  for  the  plantations  on  Reunion  continually 
directed  the  attention  of  the  French  to  Madagascar,  and  accounts  in  some  measure 
for  the  ultimate  reduction  of  that  great  island  beneath  French  rule.  The  abolition 
of  slavery  on  Reunion  in  the  years  1846  and  1848  produced  no  serious  conse- 
quences. The  French  creole  is  as  predominant  in  Mauritius  now  as  before  the 
English  occupation.  At  the  same  time  the  immigration  from  India  has  assumed 
large  proportions. 

1  Called  after  the  Frenchman  Moreau  de  Sechelles ;  more  correctly  written,  therefore,  Sechelles. 


580 


HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD 


[_C/iapter  VI 


VI 

THE    HISTORICAL  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  INDIAN 

OCEAN 

Br    PROFESSOR    DR.    KARL    WEULE 


1.   THE   POSITION   AND   SHAPE   OF   THE   INDIAN   OCEAN 

"The  history  of  trade  is  the  history  of  international  commerce  and  of  geography,  and  both 
combined  form  the  history  of  the  civilization  of  our  race."  —  0.  Pkschei,. 

OF  aU  parts  of  the  mighty  ocean  wliich  encircles  the  earth  none,  next  to 
the  Mediterranean,  seems  hj  its  position  and  shape  more  adapted  to  play 
a  part  in  the  history  of  the  world  than  the  Indian  Ocean.  Just  as  the 
Mediterranean  basin,  so  important  for  the  course  of  the  history  of  the 
human  race,  parts  the  immense  mass  of  the  Old  AVorld  on  the  west  and  breaks  it 
up  into  numerous  sections,  so  the  Indian  Ocean  penetrates  the  same  land  mass 
from  the  south  in  the  shape  of  an  incomparably  vaster  and  crescent-like  gulf, 
having  the  continents  of  Africa  and  Australia  on  either  side,  while  directly 
opposite  its  northern  extremity  lies  the  giant  Asia.  In  the  number,  therefore,  of 
the  continents  surrounding  it,  the  Indian  Ocean  is  inferior  to  none  of  the  larger 
sea-basins,  —  neither  to  its  two  great  companion  oceans  in  the  east  and  west,  nor 
to  the  diminutive  Mediterranean  in  the  north ;  each  of  them  is  bounded  by 
three  continents. 

It  is,  however,  less  the  number  than  the  relative  position  of  the  countries  which 
border  it  that,  apart  from  many  other  causes,  determines  the  historical  role  of  an 
ocean.  In  this  respect  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic  are  wonderfully  alike.  The 
elongated  continent  of  America  on  the  one  side  is  common  to  both ;  while  Asia  and 
Australia  frame  the  Pacific,  Europe  and  Africa  frame  the  Atlantic  on  the  other 
side.  In  the  case  of  the  former  the  three  continents  enclose  a  wedge  of  enormous 
size,  whose  historical  importance  is  not  inconsiderable.  Tiie  most  remarkable 
characteristic  of  this  historical  role  lies,  however,  in  the  fact  that  its  centre  of 
gravity  has  hitherto  rested  on  the  west  side,  the  side  that  is  bordered  by  two 
continents.  Corresponding  to  this,  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  case  of  the 
Atiantic  has  up  to  the  present  moment  always  lain  on  the  east  side  of  that  long 
and  tortuous  channel  which  was  peculiarly  adapted  to  lead  the  human  race  out 
from  the  enclosed  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  into  the  ocean,  and  by  so  doing  to 
enlarge  the  narrowly  defined  sphere  of  ancient  history  into  one  coextensive  with 
the  world. 

In  the  Mediterranean  the  political  centre  of  gravity  has  rarely  or  never  lain  at 
the  geometrical  centre ;  but  it  has  always  moved  along  the  longitudinal  axis  of 
this  basin.  Sometimes  it  has  moved  from  east  to  west.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
have  been  epochs  when  the  movement  was  unmistakably  in  tiie  reverse  direc- 
tion.    Apart  from  those  powers  of  antiquity  which  lay  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the 


THE  ixnr  \\'  OCEWN„, 


/tmlmfs         miUst  rd^vof^'. 


J-ondon   WV  lleuianojut 


PruiUd  by  Oie  Bilihoffapluitkt,  1^,0^,, 


Xor  York  Bodd.. Voids  i'- 


"t/tld7ore':r'\     history  of  the  world  58i 

Mediterranean  —  Egypt  and  the  Greco-Macedonian  world  —  all  the  others,  from 
the  time  of  ancient  Rome  to  that  of  the  Normans  and  the  Crusades,  from  Venice 
and  Genoa  to  the  modern  great  powers  of  the  Western  Mediterranean,  have  often 
turned  tlieir  faces  toward  the  east.  An  apparent  exception  is  only  found  in  the 
Punic  power  of  Carthage,  which  persistently  remained  in  the  West ;  yet  the  Phoe- 
nician mother  country  looked  to  the  Far  East  for  at  least  some  portion  of  her  work. 

This  repeated  trend  of  the  Mediterranean  nations  toward  the  East  is  nothing 
accidental  or  mysterious.  Just  as  the  most  important  events  in  the  history  of  the 
Pacific  have  centred  roimd  the  coast  of  Eastern  Asia,  so  in  the  history  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, a  considerable,  and  sometimes  the  leading,  role  has  been  played  by  the 
coast  of  Western  Asia.  So  long  has  Asia  been  tlie  nurse  of  civilization,  so  potent 
has  been  the  attraction  of  her  mysterious  recesses  and  boundless  treasures,  that 
this  continent  could  not  fail  to  engross  the  attention  of  its  neighbours.  And  there 
is  no  reason  to  be  surprised  if  the  spell  of  Asia  has  exercised  an  equal  influence  on 
the  peoples  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  This  would  be  quite  explicable,  even  if  we 
thought  of  this  sea  in  no  coimection  with  any  other  seas,  and  the  fact  is  irresist- 
ibly forced  upon  us  if  we  consider  how  the  Mediterranean  is  linked  to  India,  India 
to  Eastern  Asia,  and  Eastern  Asia  to  the  West,  by  ties  of  reciprocal  intercourse. 
For  the  intercourse  of  the  West  with  the  Far  East  no  more  convenient  or  natural 
way  can  be  offered  than  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  especially  its  northern  part. 
Eound  this  northern  track  the  history  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  so  far  as  it  has  been 
affected  by  foreign  incursions,  has  chiefly  centred. 

The  frame  in  which  the  Indian  Ocean  is  set  shows  a  rich  variety  of  configura- 
tion. Only  the  west  side,  the  east  coast,  that  is,  of  Africa,  is  massy  and  unbroken, 
except  for  the  huge  island  of  Madagascar  and  some  groups  of  coastal  islands.  By 
contrast  the  eastern  and  northern  coasts  appear  all  the  more  indented ;  and  yet 
they  are  absolutely  different  in  their  kind.  The  east  side  terminates  to  the  south 
in  the  Australian  continent,  which  for  long  ages  was  able  to  pass  in  lonely  tran- 
quillity an  existence  unknown  to  history,  until  modern  times  finally  brought  it 
within  the  range  of  politics.  But  Australia  is  directly  connected  on  the  north 
with  a  region  that  has  no  parallel  on  the  face  of  the  globe  for  the  rich  variety  of  its 
configuration,  —  the  island  world,  that  is,  of  Indonesia.  This  has  been  the  natural 
"  bridge  of  nations  "  toward  the  east  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day. 

The  northern  shore  also,  from  its  bulk,  is  unique  in  its  conformation.  Southern 
Asia,  as  indeed  the  whole  continent,  is  a  land  of  vast  distances.  Three  immense 
peninsulas,  on  a  scale  of  size  that  recurs  nowhere  else,  jut  out  into  the  sea,  and  the 
ocean  penetrates  the  laud  in  gulfs  of  corresponding  breadth  and  length  which  attain 
the  dimensions  of  fair-sized  seas.  The  formation  seems  at  first  sight  almost  too 
colossal  to  guarantee  to  the  adjoining  part  of  the  sea  an  active  role.  But  on  this 
point  we  must  always  bear  in  mind  that  the  two  most  important  offshoots  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Red  Sea,  approach  within  a  short  distance 
of  the  Mediterranean,  the  centre  of  Western  civilization.  It  stretches  out  to  it,  as 
it  were,  two  feelers ;  it  virtually  becomes  the  eastern  continuation  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

The  geometrical  axis  of  the  Indian  Ocean  runs,  like  that  of  the  other  two  gi-eat 
oceans,  from  north  to  south ;  it  thus  follows  a  direction  which  at  no  time  and  in 
no  place  has  been  strongly  marked  in  the  history  of  mankind.  It  was  by  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf  that  the  Mediterranean  peoples  approached  the  Indian 


582  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [a.aptn-  vr 

Ocean.  Thence  their  path  lay  southeast  to  Indonesia,  or  southwest  to  the  coast 
of  Africa.  Similarly,  then,  the  historical  axis  of  the  Indian  Ocean  runs  in  the 
direction  of  the  circles  of  latitude.  It  is  therefore  parallel  to  the  great  routes  by 
which  communications  have  been  maintained  between  Central  Asia  and  Europe  on 
the  one  hand,  between  Oceania  and  the  Malay  Archipelago  on  the  other. 

The  Indian  Ocean  is,  as  Friedrich  Ratzel  justly  argues,  physicalhj  not  a  true 
ocean.  The  PaciHc  and  the  Atlantic  are  bounded  by  a  continent  only  in  the  east 
and  the  west ;  toward  the  north  and  south  they  stretch  away  without  any  bound- 
aries to  the  polar  latitudes,  so  that  all  hydrospheric  and  atmospheric  phenomena 
can  be  developed  on  their  immense  areas.  The  case  of  the  Indian  Ocean  is 
dififerent.  It  is  unbounded  only  in  the  direction  toward  the  Antarctic,  to  which 
it  exposes  its  full  breadth.  On  the  north  it  is  enclosed  like  an  inland  sea.  The 
development,  therefore,  of  oceanic  phenomena  is  one-sided  and  incomplete ;  and 
thus  the  farther  one  goes  to  the  north  the  more  apparent  is  the  transition  to  the 
character  of  an  inland  sea. 

From  the  historicil  standpoint  the  Indian  Ocean  takes  a  far  higher  place.  It 
is  true  that  its  historical  importance  is  in  no  way  equal  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean, 
though  the  latter  is  tiny  in  comparison,  and  it  certainly  does  not  attain  to  that  of  the 
Atlantic,  perhaps  not  even  to  that  of  the  Pacific ;  but  it  far  exceeds  that  of  the  seas 
of  the  second  magnitude,  such  as  those  which  border  on  Western  Europe  and 
Eastern  Asia.  It  lies,  indeed,  exactly  in  the  latitude  where  on  the  whole  globe 
the  "  zone  of  greatest  historical  density  "  begins,  being  closed  toward  the  north  by 
the  mighty  barrier  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  and  therefore  taking  no  share  in  that 
vast  transoceanic  international  commerce  which  is  so  characteristic  of  its  two 
more  powerful  neighbours.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  this  ocean,  lying  as  it 
does  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  Old  World,  penetrating  at  so  many  points  the 
lands  of  ancient  history,  and  offering  such  facilities  for  international  intercourse, 
has  been  the  theatre  of  events  which  may  indeed  be  disconnected  and  wanting  in 
grandeur,  but  for  all  that  are  eminently  suggestive.  Even  in  tlie  case  of  the  other 
two  large  oceans,  the  scenes  of  historical  events  are  not  uniformly  distributed 
over  the  area ;  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  they  are  unusually  numerous  over  its  north- 
ern half,  but  trifling  in  the  south;  so,  tt)o,  in  the  Pacific  the  historical  centre  of 
gravity  lies  on  the  northern  hemisphere.  But  wliat  there  spreads  over  a  space  of 
gigantic  breadth  is  C9ntracted  in  the  case  of  the  Indian  Ocean  to  a  narrow  border, 
which,  both  by  sea  and  land,  seldom  de\-iates  from  the  coast  line. 

The  unbridged  and  unbroken  expanse  of  the  Pacific,  and  still  more  so  that  of 
the  Atlantic,  have  made  them  both  until  a  quite  late  epoch  insuperable  barriers  to 
mankind.  It  is  only  when  the  means  of  communication  have  been  highly  per- 
fected that,  by  connecting  the  nations,  they  have,  to  a  degree  unsuspected  before, 
encouraged  llie  impulse  of  the  human  race  to  expand.  Tlie  Indian  Ocean,  from 
its  shape,  which  is  closed  on  the  one  side,  has  never  proved  a  barrier.  Its  two 
corner  pillars  on  the  south,  Australia  and  South  Africa,  have  never  felt  the  need 
to  form  relations  one  with  the  other,  and  for  the  countries  lying  to  the  north  it 
has  always  been  easier  to  avoid  it,  or  to  cross  it,  by  hugging  the  coast  or  cautiously 
creeping  from  cape  to  cape.  In  this  way  the  thoroughfares  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
are  strangely  unlike  those  of  other  seas. 

These  thoroughfares,  so  far  as  they  are  confined  to  the  sea,  resemble  chords 
drawn  from  point  to  point  of  a  great  semicircle.     They  cut   the   circumference 


i/5r/,^iXtr]        HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  583 

of  the  ocean  at  the  points  where  the  population  clusters  most  densely  on  the  coasts. 
A  regular  sheaf  of  rays  issues  from  Eastern  Africa ;  one  line  to  Arabia  and  the 
Red  Sea,  a  second  to  India,  a  third  diagonally  through  the  semicircle  from  Mada- 
gascar to  the  Malay  Archipelago.  A  fourth  line  connects  Ceylon  with  Indonesia ; 
another,  the  Indonesian  medley  of  islands  with  Australia.  But  far  more  important 
than  all  these  is  that  great  chord  which  intersects  the  semicircle,  almost  parallel 
to  the  base,  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Suada  Sea,  and  thus  cuts  all  other  lines. 
It  is  chiefly  on  this  route  that  the  history  of  the  Indian  Ocean  has  been  made. 
Both  the  ancient  and  the  modern  world  have  used  this  path. 

The  land  routes  also  which  border  upon  this  ocean  form  a  comparatively  simple 
system,  although  tliey  are  naturally  less  subject  to  general  laws  than  the  maritime 
routes.  In  Eastern  Africa,  in  Arabia,  and  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  the  chief  land 
routes  have  followed  the  coasts ;  it  is  only  in  India  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  that 
they  strike  inland.  But  there  are  many  routes  of  minor  importance,  and  these  run 
in  the  most  diverse  duections.  This  is  only  what  must  be  expected  in  countries  of 
such  widely  different  character  as  those  which  enclose  the  Indian  Ocean. 

It  might  be  expected  that  the  two  deep  indentations  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Persian 
Gulf  would  make  coast  routes  inconvenient.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  Both  have 
entrances  so  narrow  as  to  be  crossed  with  ease  by  entire  nations  and  races,  and  it 
is  easy  for  the  land  traveller  to  pass  round  the  head  of  either.  But  in  the  south 
the  conformation  of  the  land  masses  is  such  as  ta  make  many  parts  of  them  in- 
accessible. Both  Africa  and  Australia  possess  a  comparatively  small  coast  line, 
and  there  are  no  natural  highways  to  connect  the  interior  of  either  continent  with 
the  sea.  The  north,  however,  with  exception  of  the  Arabian  peninsula,  is  some- 
what more  favourably  situated.  It  is  true  that  the  vast  peninsula  of  the  Deccan 
lacks  any  access  to  the  sea ;  but  to  its  base,  where  India  proper  lies  in  its  full 
breadth,  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges  and  their  enormous  river  basins  form  the  best 
international  highways  in  the  world.  If  fortune  had  ever  smiled  on  these  river 
basins  sufficiently  to  allow  them  to  be  inhabited  by  energetic  peoples,  skilled  in 
seamanship,  nothing  could  have  hindered  these  from  making  India  predominant  in 
the  politics  of  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Pacific,  and  impressing  Indian  civilization 
upon  the  whole  of  that  vast  area.  This  brings  us  to  the  salient  point  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Indian  Ocean  generally  ;  the  preliminary  conditions  to  historical  great- 
ness are  already  existent,  but  the  adjacent  peoples  have  only  shown  local  and 
spasmodic  inclinations  to  make  full  use  of  them.  The  native  races  of  this  area 
have  contributed  little  to  history  in  comparison  with  the  foreigners  who  at  one 
time  and  another  have  invaded  it.  From  millennium  to  millennium  this  condition 
has  become  worse.  The  importance  of  the  Indian  Ocean  has  declined,  while  that 
of  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  has  increased.  In  these  the  white  race  has 
triumphed  over  nature  and  the  inferiors  of  its  own  species  ;  but  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  white  men  have  met,  at  the  best  of  times,  with  only  a  qualified  success. 
They  have  found  the  peoples  by  which  this  ocean  is  bordered  too  immense  and  too 
inert  for  conquest. 

2.   THE   DAWN   OF   HISTORY 

The  remote  past  of  the  Indian  Ocean  is  wrapped  in  the  same  obscurity  as  that 
of  most  parts  of  the  earth's  surface.  We  are  tempted  to  dwell  on  the  enigma  in 
this  case  because  more  than  one  investigator  has  been  inclined  to  look  for  the 


o>4  HISTORY    OF    THK    WORLD         [chapter  vi 

earliest  home  of  piimitive  iiiau  in  oue  part  or  aiunher  of  this  ocean.  But  it  is 
idle  to  speculate  when  we  have  no  materials  for  a  conclusion.  We  must  ratlier 
take  as  our  starting-point  the  moment  when  pressure  exerted  from  the  heart  of 
Asia  drove  out  the  inhabitants  of  its  southern  coasts  to  find  a  refuge  and  a  new 
home  in  this  ocean.  Supposing  this  expelled  people  not  to  have  already  inhabited 
Ceylon,  it  could  only  diverge  from  the  direction  iu  which  it  was  piislied  as  far  as 
this  easily  accessible  island;  any  further  advance  over  the  surface  of  the  ocean  was 
barred  at  once  by  the  want  of  a  bridge  of  islands  leading  out  to  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  this  people  might  roam  for  vast  distances  toward  the  southwest  or  the  south- 
east without  let  or  hindrance;  for  neither  the  road  to  the  southwestern  part  of 
the  Old  World  nor  the  bridge  of  islands  to  the  Pacific  offered  any  appreciable 
obstacles,  even  for  migrating  peoples  who  possessed  little  knowledge  of  seaman- 
ship. Both  paths,  indeed,  had  been  trodilen  by  that  dark  race  on  its  retreat 
before  the  wave  of  Asiatic  nations  rolling  from  north  to  south.  Even  at  the 
present  day  we  find  scanty  remnants  of  it  on  Ceylon,  as  in  Soutiiern  India  itself. 
We  find  additional  traces  in  Farther  India  or  Malacca,  indeed  with  some  certainty 
even  in  Southern  Arabia.  But  it  is  far  more  strongly  represented  in  the  Indian 
Archipelago  as  far  as  the  Philippines  and  Melanesia,  and  even  still  farther  in  the 
east.  We  find  it  on  the  largest  scale,  however,  on  the  continent  of  Africa,  where 
it  forms  the  chief  component  element  of  tiie  population. 

These  migrations  gave  the  .dark-skinned  peoples  hardly  any  occasion  for  great 
achievements  in  seamanship.  The  passage  to  Ceylon  was  simple  enough  ;  nor  did 
the  easterly  path  with  its  thickly  sown  clusters  of  islands  require  any  pre- 
tensions to  navigation.  It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  whetiier  the  early  ancestors 
of  the  present  negroes  crossed  the  ocean  on  its  lateral  arms,  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
the  Red  Sea,  or  whether  they  went  round  them.  Even  if  the  negroes  on  their 
march  to  the  new  home  chose  the  sea  route,  the  few  miles  of  tlie  passage'  over 
those  narrow  arms  of  the  sea  were  no  more  able  to  turn  them  into  a  nation  of 
seafarers,  than  their  old  homes  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  had  served  to  lure  them  out 
on  to  the  open  sea.  Even  in  their  new  home  they  remained  aloof  from  the  ocean 
and  averse  to  it.  Was  it  the  vastness  of  the  spaces  in  Africa,  in  which  they  lost 
themselves,  or  were  nautical  skill  and  love  of  the  sea  foreign  to  the  race  ?  The 
last  alternative  would  seem  to  be  the  true  oue ;  for  at  no  time  and  in  no  place  have 
members  of  the  negro  race  performed  noteworthy  feats  at  sea.  In  Africa  their 
efforts  were  exhausted  by  the  occupation  of  Madagascar,  which  was  close  at  hand, 
and  of  the  coast  islands  from  the  mainland.  In  the  island  world  of  Indonesia 
and  Melanesia  even  the  admixture  of  JIalay  blood  did  not  raise  the  dark-skinned 
man  above  the  level  of  coasting  navigation.  We  have  therefore  little  to  do  with 
him  in  what  follows;  in  the  sphere  of  the  Indian  Ocean  he  is  as  unimportant  a 
factor  in  the  history  of  the  world,  as  we  shall  afterward  find  him  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  (Vol.  VIII).  The  lauds  which  he  inhabits  may  still  play  a  part  in  history ; 
but  he  has  shown  little  or  no  ambition  to  .share  iu  the  life  of  the  outer  world. 
The  negro  struggles  toward  the  coast,  and  is  contented  when  he  has  reached  it. 

In  si)ite  of  the  small  historical  importance  of  the  black  race,  its  diffusion  over 
the  countries  r(jund  the  Indian  Ocean  is  an  event  of  great  significance  ;  it  creates 
in  the  island  realm  of  Southeast  Asia  the  preliminary  conditions  for  those  intricate 
mixtures  and  blendings  the  result  of  which  we  see  in  the  motley  conditions  of 
the  population  of  Indonesia  and  the  Pacific  world  at  the  present  day.     Tiie  dark- 


^/iZlnJaTocilT^       HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  585 

coloured  races  have  never  been  numerous  enough  there  to  constitute  any  noticeable 
check  on  a  wave  of  nations  as  it  presses  on.  That  island  world  is  not  an  uninter- 
rupted stretch  of  shore  on  which  a  surging  wave  of  peoples  may  burst ;  it  rather 
resembles  a  reef  pierced  and  perforated,  through  which  the  tide  rushes  without 
finding  any  great  resistance,  but  which  it  does  not  pass  without  leaving  behind 
on  it  many  objects  brought  with  it.  Thus  when  the  Malay  stream  of  nations, 
giving  way  before  a  pressure  from  north  to  south,  was  forced  out  to  the  sea  from 
the  southeast  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  it  did  not  touch  the  zone  of  Indonesia- 
Melanesia,  without  influencing  the  negroid  race  which  it  found  there  ;  nor  did  it 
leave  the  country  without  carrying  with  it  the  traces  of  this  probably  prolonged 
contact  over  the  entire  breadth  of  the  Pacific  to  the  east.  The  results  of  this 
contact  vary  according  to  the  respective  locality  and  the  duration  of  the  reciprocal 
action.  Melanesians  and  Polynesians  are  the  two  ends  of  the  scale :  the  former  is 
the  product  of  a  complete  fusion  of  the  two  races,  the  latter  seems  only  to  have 
a  negroid  tinge.  The  intermediute  steps  are  numerous  and  varied,  —  Micronesians, 
Alfurs,  and  Negritos  only  mark  sharply  outlined  groups  in  this  medley.  Indi- 
rectly the  Australian  may  be  reckoned  in  ;  for,  in  addition  to  Polynesian  influences, 
Melanesian  are  not  to  be  rejected. 

The  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic  have  each  in  their  turn  contributed  to  develop 
these  ethnic  types.  If  we  retain  the  customary  division  of  the  Malay  race  into  an 
eastern  and  a  western  branch,  this  classification  coincides  more  or  less  with  the 
region  of  the  two  oceans.  But  while  the  eastern  branch  saw  its  historical  ta.sk 
discharged  by  the  occupation  of  the  vast  Pacific  world,  and  made  hardly  any  per- 
ceptible advances  into  the  turmoil  of  the  history  of  mankind,  notwithstanding  a 
skill  in  seamanship  which  approached  the  miraculous,  the  Western  Malays,  firmly 
planted  on  their  native  soil  of  Indonesia,  and  from  the  very  first  efiicient  and  able 
seamen,  presented  Ji  different  picture.  Not  only  did  tliey  advance  over  the  Indian 
Ocean  to  Ceylon  and  Madagascar,  but  in  the  majority  of  the  homes  which  they  per- 
manently occupied  played  a  part  whose  significance  is  far  greater  than  that  of 
their  eastern  kinsmen  and  of  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
They  set  foot  nowhere  on  the  mainland  except  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  aud 
are  the  true  children  of  the  ocean ;  if  they  did  not  succeed  in  raising  themselves 
to  be  its  acknowledged  masters,  that  is  perhaps  less  due  to  deficiencies  of  character 
and  natural  ability  than  to  the  division  and  subdivision  of  their  homes  over  so 
many  islands,  aud  to  the  position  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  at  the  meeting  point 
of  two  such  mighty  civilizations  as  the  Chinese  and  the  Indian.  It  is  true  that 
the  influence  of  Cliina  was  mainly  confined  to  the  field  of  commercial  politics ; 
but  this  only  made  the  influence  of  India  the  wider  in  its  day.  This  latter 
reacted  with  quite  unprecedented  vigour  upon  the  culture  and  the  spiritual 
life  of  the  Western  Archipelago  ;  and  althougli  it  could  not  bring  the  Malay,  who 
was  by  temperament  far  keener,  under  the  yoke  of  religious  ideas,  and  thus  bind 
him  to  the  native  soil  in  the  way  in  which  the  Hindus  were  bound,  still  under 
the  burning  rays  of  Indian  philosophy  the  political  energy  of  the  insular  nation 
was  more  prejudicially  influenced  than  we  are  ordinarily  accustomed  to  suppose. 

To  fix  the  era  of  the  migrations  of  the  negroid  and  Malay  peoples,  and  thus  the 
beginning  of  the  historical  role  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  is  as  impossible  as  it  is  unim- 
poitant.  The  problem  of  the  causes  of  those  ethnic  movements  is  far  weightier. 
The  immediate  causes  of  both  may  be  assumed  to  be  the  efforts  of  Central  Asiatic 


5S6  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter  vi 

nations  to  reach  the  south.  It  is  very  probable  that  Mongoloid  peoples,  always 
tlie  disturbing  element  in  Asia,  were  the  prime  factoi-s  ;  for  Further  Inilia  indeed, 
this  assumptiou  is  certain,  since  in  the  modern  Indo-Chinese  with  their  countless 
groups  we  may  see  the  descendants,  much  crossed  in  race,  of  that  wave  which, 
as  it  broke  on  the  littoral  of  South  Asia,  drove  the  Malays  to  retreat  to  the  sea 
that  lay  before  them.  Tlie  new  population  followed  tliem  down  to  tlie  sea,  but 
did  not  launch  out  on  the  sea  in  order  to  command  it  any  more  than  any  other 
branches  of  the  great  family,  and  thus  never  attained  any  place  in  the  history 
either  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  the  east,  or  of  the  Indian  Ocean  in  the  south  and  west. 
Even  the  local  infusion  of  Malay  blood  never  raised  tlie  inhabitants  of  Further 
India  beyond  the  stage  of  piracy. 

Difficult  as  it  is  in  the  northeast,  it  is  still  more  difficult  in  the  northwest  of 
the  ocean  to  gain  even  an  imperfect  idea  of  the  conditions  in  remotest  antiquity. 
If  we  are  correct  in  assuming  an  immigration  of  African  negroes  from  tlie  northern 
edge  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  if  the  most  natural' explanation  of  this  lies  in  the 
theory  of  pressure  from  the  north,  we  stQl  know  nothing  accurately  of  the  period  or 
the  causes  of  that  pressure,  nor  of  the  ipiarler  whence  these  movements  started.  The 
only  certain  fact  is  that  long  ages  have  elapsed  since  the  last  negroid  wave  of  nations 
crossed  the  axis  of  the  Red  Sea  in  the  direction  from  northeast  to  southwest ;  for 
after  it  the  whole  Ilamitic  throng  moved  along  the  same  road,  and  its  last  detach- 
ment, the  ancient  Egyptians,  were  a  highly  civilized  people  thousands  of  years 
before  our  chronology  begins.  The  modest  share  of  the  Indian  Ocean  in  this 
section  of  the  history  of  mankind  goes  back  to  distant  epochs,  about  which  we 
shall  probably  never  be  able  to  express  a  definite  opinion.  It  is  in  ^its  length 
and  breadth  prehistoric.  Long  ages  must  have  passed  before  the  historically 
authenticated  relations  of  the  West  and  the  East  were  formed  through  the 
instrumentality  of  those  same  Hamitic  peoples,  who  formerly  had  barred  the 
movement  from  the  East  to  the  West. 


3.   THE  HISTORIC  PERIOD   DOWN    TO   THE   APPEARANCE 

OF   ISLAM 

There  is  as  great  a  difference  between  the  histories  as  there  is  between  the 
shapes  of  the  three  great  oceans.  In  the  case  of  the  Pacific  the  chief  interest  at- 
taching to  its  past  history  is  ethnological ;  we  wish  to  know  how  within  this  area 
new  races  have  been  evolved  by  the  blending  and  intermixture  of  the  old.  Until 
comparatively  recent  times  there  has  been  little  to  interest  the  historian  of  eco- 
nomic or  political  developments.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  Atlantic  we  have  to 
deal  with  a  sea  which  was  primarily  a  liigh  road  of  emigration  from  the  Old 
World  to  the  New;  and  though  the  political  and  commercial  importance  of 
America  has  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds  in  the  course  of  the  last  two  or  three 
centuries,  the  importance  of  the  Atlantic  as  an  emigrant's  pathway  still  e((nals  its 
importance  as  a  theatre  of  international  relations.  The  Indian  Ocean  shows  no 
such  peculiarity.  It  too  has  sent  out  mighty  armies  of  peoples  eastward  and 
westward ;  but  those  which  went  westward  have  mostly  remained  strangers  to 
it  and  kept  aloof ;  the  others,  in  the  east,  passed  rapidly  from  its  dominion.  It 
has  certainly  created  nations;  where  this  task  faced  it  on  a  large  scale,  as  in  the 


^ir?»li:'«rl     history  of  the  world  587 

Archipelago  and  in  Australia,  it  has  had  to  share  it  with  its  larger  neighbours ; 
while  where  the  task  appealed  to  it  on  a  small  scale,  as  on  the  coasts  of  East 
Africa  and  on  Madagascar,  there  the  result  is  not  commensurate  with  the  dignity 
and  size  of  the  ocean.  Again,  the  political  activity  of  the  Indian  Ocean  has  never 
been  prominent.  Where  growing  nations  live,  as  in  the  western  archipelago,  on 
Madagascar,  and  on  the  coasts  of  South  and  East  Arabia,  there  the  great  far- 
reaching  empires  are  wanting ;  and.  where  these  exist,  as  in  the  whole  of  Southern 
Asia  from  the  Euphrates  on  the  west  to  the  Brahmaputra  in  the  east,  there  is  no 
nautical  efficiency  or  liking  for  the  open  sea. 

"What  life  and  movement  there  has  been  on  the  highways  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
is  mainly  due  to  commerce.  The  history  of  this  ocean  is  predominantly  economic, 
and  there  is  no  reason  to  think  that  if  we  could  penetrate  the  darkness  of  the  pre- 
historic period  we  should  find  a  radically  different  state  of  things.  Its  activity  in 
this  sphere  is  the  characteristic  feature  of  its  historical  aspect ;  many  features  of 
it  may  have  been  changed  as  millennia  rolled  on,  but  the  general  expression 
remains  the  same.  All  the  nations  which  ventured  out  on  to  the  Indian  Ocean  in 
times  known  to  history  were  chiefly  induced  by  commercial  objects  to  make  such 
voyages.  The  historical  role  of  the  Indian  Ocean  must  therefore  be  regarded  pre- 
dominantly from  the  standpoint  of  the  history  of  trade.  The  range  of  view  is 
only  apparently  limited ;  in  reality  it  discloses  prospects  of  remarkable  depth  and 
reveals  glimpses  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  nations,  such  as  we  never  find  on  an  equal 
scale  in  the  far  wider  and  more  richly  diversiiied  fields  of  view  presented  by  the 
two  other  great  oceans.  Here  the  history  of  trade  is  in  fact  the  history  of 
the  civilization  of  our  race. 

It  is  impossible  to  picture  to  oneself  the  historical  significance  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  without  primarily  thinking  of  the  weighty  part  which  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  have  been  called  on  to  play  within  this  area.  These  two  northwest- 
erly lateral  arms  of  the  ocean  are  the  natural  canals  and  the  obvious  connecting 
links  between  east  and  west.  But  even  more  than  the  southern  approach  to  the 
great  Mesopotamian  plain,  whose  value  would  be  more  clearly  realised  by  us  if  we 
possessed  greater  details  about  the  trade  of  the  Elamites,  the  ditch-like  Red  Sea, 
which  reaches  close  up  to  the  Mediterranean  world,  has  facilitated  and  maintained 
this  connection.  Not  only  was  it  quite  early  the  scene  of  commercial  inter- 
course in  general,  but  it  was  also  the  pathway  of  international  communications 
at  an  era  when  the  Pacific,  like  the  Atlantic,  was  an  unuavigated  waste  of  waters. 
And  although  in  the  course  of  human  history  there  was  a  long  period  during 
which  the  Red  Sea  relapsed  into  a  profound  tranquillity,  yet  no  proof  of  its 
historical  value  is  clearer  than  the  fact  that  an  occurrence  so  simple  as  its  union 
with  the  Mediterranean,  which  was  accomplished  between  1859  and  1869, 
restored  to  it  at  one  blow  its  old  role.  It  is  not  indeed  any  longer  the  only  avenue 
of  international  trade,  but  its  busy  waters  even  now,  when  the  East  has  been 
opened  up  to  the  widest  extent,  are  the  great  link  of  connection  between  East 
and  West. 

A.  The  Period  down  to  the  Appearance  of  the  Chinese 

(a)  The  Ancient  Egj/ptians.  —  The  commerce  in  the  northwest  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  goes  back  far  into  remote  antiquity.     Although  the  ancient  Egyptians,  with 


588  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter  vi 

their  invincible  predilection  for  seclusion,  never  maintained  a  permanent  fleet  on 
tlui  Red  Sea,  yet  they  rejieatedly  tried  at  the  most  dilferent  periods  to  bring  tliem- 
selves  into  diivct  cominuuication  wilii  the  countries  producing  the  spices  which 
they  used  so  much  and  valued  so  liiglily, —  that  is  to  say,  with  Southern  Arabia 
and  the  eastern  lioru  of  Africa.  The  last  king  of  the  eleventh  dynasty,  Seauch- 
kara,  commissioned  Ileiui  to  til  out  an  expedition  from  C'optos  to  "  Puut  ";  a  siniQar 
task  was  entrusted  to  the  fleet  of  Queen  Hathepfut  (c.  1490  B.  c.)  on  its  voyage 
south.  We  must  certainly  regard  the  Egyptians  as  tlie  earliest  authenticated 
navigators  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  adjoining  i)arts  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Alllmugli 
those  isolated  expeditious  and  even  the  fleet  maintained  by  Ivam.ses  III  (1200- 
11 68)  can  hardlj-  have  served  to  point  out  the  way  to  their  Punic  successors,  they 
are,  however,  noteworthy  as  evidence  of  a  nautical  spirit  in  a  people  which  other- 
wise was  so  firmly  rooted  to  its  own  soil. 

(/))  Luliu.  —  The  magnet,  however,  which  chiefl}'  attracted  navigators  into  this 
ocean  was  the  peninsula  of  India.  India  and  the  Indian  Ocean  are  two  inseparable 
ideas,  as  is  shown  by  the  two  names.  And  yet  this  close  relationsliip  oul}-  holds 
good  in  a  limited  sense.  The  peninsula  to  the  south  of  the  Himalayas  is  by  its 
geographical  jiosition  fitted  to  rule  the  surrounding  seas  more  thsin  any  other  coun- 
try which  bounds  tlie  Indian  Ocean.  Nevertheless  during  the  course  of  its  history 
it  has  never  attained  a  commanding  position,  from  its  own  unaided  strength  at  any 
rate.  Yet  the  peninsula  is  not  so  vast  'as  to  hinder  the  thorough  development 
of  its  latent  strength,  represented  by  an  excessively  dense  population ;  nor  is  the 
unfavourable  configuration  of  its  coast  line  the  cause  of  the  amazing  dearth  of 
historical  influence.  The  fault  lies  simply  and  solely  in  the  ethnogiaphical 
conditi(ms  of  India. 

The  Aryans  on  their  descent  from  the  highlands  of  Iran  into  the  sultry 
plains  of  India  were  forced  to  take  over  anotiier  nature,  and  fell  victims  to  it. 
While  adapting  tliemselves  in  the  course  of  time  to  the  new  conditions,  they  paid 
the  natural  tribute  to  sub-tropical  and  tropical  climates;  they  underwent  an 
inner  development  which  culminated  in  a  religious  expansion,  and  never  felt  the 
necessity  of  emphiying  against  the  outside  world  the  power  of  their  overwhelming 
numbers  and  their  superior  intellectual  endowments.  The  fact  tliat  the  Vedic 
hymns  and  Manu's  code  mention  Aryan  voyages,  for  whose  extent  toward  the  West 
the  ancient  island  Dioscorides  (Socotra)  is  again  and  again  brouglit  forward  as  a 
proof,  or  the  fact  that  from  the  use  of  camphor  at  the  luxurious  courts  of  Indian 
princes  in  the  time  of  Buddha  we  may  infer  trade  communications  between  India 
anil  China,  go  for  very  little.  The  Indian  Aryans  never  made  a  jiermanent  habit  of 
navigation.  India  never  felt  the  need  of  seeking  the  outside  world;  but  it  always 
was  destined  to  be  the  goal  for  the  other  nations,  by  land  as  well  as  by  sea.  Its 
relatirms  to  the  sea  are  close,  but  one-sided ;  the  numerous  routes  which  emanate 
from  it  in  every  direction  are  not  its  own  ])ossession,  tliev  merely  prove  that  the 
attention  of  all  the  peoples  to  west  and  south  and  east  was  riveted  upon  this 
country.  From  its  vast  treasures  it  has  given  to  the  world  more  than  any  other 
country  of  the  earth,  but  the  world  has  had  to  fetch  these  treasures  for  itself. 

(c)  Tfie  Phmnicians,  the  Hebrews,  and  Nccho  II  of  Eijupt. —  The  first  attempts 
at  direct  maritime  communication  with  India  from  the  west  were  certainly  made  by 


^i/reXi«;;'Ca"r]     history  of  the  world  589 

the  Phoeuiciaus.  Eveu  if  we  put  aside  the  accounts  given  Ity  Strabo  of  their  early 
settlements  on  the  Persian  Gulf  and  of  their  emporia  on  Tylos  and  Arados,  yet  theii- 
trading  voyages  on  the  northwestern  Indian  Ocean  go  back  to  the  second  millen- 
nium B.  c,  since  at  the  time  of  the  expedition  sent  by  Hiram  and  Solomon  to 
Ophir  from  Eziongeber  and  JLlatli,  the  route  to  that  mysterious  land  of  gold  was 
well  known  and  regularly  frequented.  The  ease  with  which  they  had  acquired 
the  monopoly  for  the  Mediterranean  must  have  encouraged  the  Phoenicians  to 
gain  a  firm  footing  on  the  other  expanse  of  sea  l}ing  within  their  sphere  of  power, 
especially  since  this  new  field  for  action,  with  its  outlandish  treasures,  which 
then  were  so  eagerly  coveted  by  the  civilized  world  of  that  time,  promised  advan- 
tages such  as  the  Mediterranean,  long  since  navigated  by  them,  could  hardly 
afiford.  It  is  certain  that  they  strove  to  obtain  the  sole  power  on  the  Erythnean 
Sea,  but  they  did  not  gain  their  object.  Separated  both  from  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  Eed  Sea  by  broad  strips  of  land,  they  were  always  driven  to  make  treaties 
with  the  inhabitants  of  the  respective  coimtries ;  and  if,  as  in  the  case  of  Solomon 
and  his  successors,  these  treaties  included  the  participation  of  the  sovereigns,  tliey 
were  forced  to  comprise  these  latter  in  the  bargain.  They  could  acquiesce  in  this 
condition  with  more  equanimity,  since  their  great  superiority  at  sea  could  not  fail 
to  secure  to  them  the  victory  in  the  competition. 

The  advance  of  the  Hebrews  toward  the  Indian  Ocean  is,  however,  more  note- 
worthy from  the  historical  standpoint.  Though  at  that  early  period  and  down  to 
the  Babylonian  capti\'ity  they  were  far  from  being  a  commercial  nation,  and  though 
their  political  fabric  was  barely  consolidated  by  the  end  of  that  millennium,  yet 
imder  their  keen-sighted  king  David  the}-  already  secured  with  set  purpose  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Red  Sea  (Edom).  The  brilliant  success  which  attended 
the  friendly  alliance  of  his  son  Solomon  with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  owing  to 
the  above-mentioned  expeditions,  was  only  the  natural  consequences  of  David's 
policy.  There  is  no  better  proof  of  the  value  which  the  Hebrews  placed  on  the 
access  to  the  Indian  Ocean  than  the  eagerness  with  which  a  whole  series  of  sub- 
sequent sovereigns  attempted  to  keep  it  open.  As  often  as  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  was  hard  pressed  and  cut  off  from  the  sea,  it  was  always  one  of  the  first 
tasks  of  its  princes  to  subdue  afresh  the  insubordinate  Edomites  (Idumteans),  to 
rebuild  the  repeatedly  destroyed  town  of  Elath,  and  thus  to  command  the  gulf  of 
Akabah.  Judah,  humiliated  and  hemmed  in  by  Sheshonk  I  (Shishak)  of  Egypt 
during  the  reign  of  Eehoboam,  showed  once  more  a  vigorous  expansion  under 
Jehoshaphat  (860),  who  restored  Elath  and  fitted  out  a  new  fleet.  Then  imder 
Jehoram  the  Idumsans  regained  their  independence,  until  Uzziah  (Azariah),  in 
the  first  half  of  the  eighth  century,  subjugated  them  for  the  thii'd  time,  and  rebuilt 
Elath.  Under  Ahaz  (c.  730)  the  star  of  Judah  on  the  Indian  Ocean  paled  for  ever ; 
the  Idumseans  henceforth  permanently  occupied  their  ancestral  homes. 

The  loss  by  the  Hebrew  nation  of  its  position  on  the  Indian  Ocean  marks  an 
important  epoch  in  the  history  of  both.  In  the  history  of  the  development  of  the 
policy  and  civilization  of  Judah  it  signifies  the  close  of  the  first  and  only  age  of 
united,  conscious,  and  willing  efforts  at  expansion  in  the  direction  of  the  ocean. 
Being  driven  back  into  the  interior,  Judah  was  deprived  for  all  succeeding  time  of 
the  possibility  of  winning  a  position  in  the  world  as  a  political  unity.  For  the 
Indian  Ocean,  however,  that  forced  retreat  of  the  Jewish  people  meant  the  conclu- 
sion of  a  period  when  for  the  first  time  a  nation,  to  which  no  seamanlike  qualities 


590  HISTORY    OF    TIIK    WORLD  Ichapter  ri 

could  be  iittributcil,  learnt  anil  recognised  with  full  consciousness  its  own  value 
to  the  history  of  the  world.  This  view  was  the  more  weighty  since  that  nation 
could  not  reach  the  coasts  of  tlie  Indian  Ocean  except  under  the  most  laborious 
conditions,  and  could  only  hold  them  by  displaying  an  energy  wliicli  had  a 
beueticeut  effect  in  the  midst  of  the  historical  supineness  of  the  majority  of 
nations  inhabiting  those  parts. 

The  PluLMiicians  cannot  be  compared  with  the  Hebrews  in  this  respect.  This 
people,  wliich  always  aimed  at  commerci;d  protii  without  political  power,  was 
deterred  by  no  obstacles  from  opening  up  new  spheres.  Never  trusting  to  force  for 
success,  they  were  past  masters  of  the  art  of  reaching  their  goal,  not  liy  opptjsing 
an  enemy  or  a  rival,  but  by  utilising  him.  They  had  made  full  use  of  the  Hebrews 
for  this  end  so  long  as  these  latter  held  a  position  on  the  gulf  of  Akabah,  and  they 
did  not  hesitate  then  for  a  moment,  although  from  a  purely  political  aspect  they 
were  not  entirely  free  agents,  to  lend  the  Egyptians  the  support  of  their  com- 
mercial policy.  The  results  of  tliis  alliance  culminated  in  the  celebrated  cir- 
cumnavigation of  Africa  under  Necho  II  in  608  b.  c,  a  feat  which  throws  the 
most  vivid  light  on  the  boldness  and  skill  of  the  Phoenician  mariners;  these 
qualities  are  exhibited  also  in  the  squadron  which  the  Egyptian  king,  dou])tless  at 
the  suggestion  of  the  Phceniciaus,  maintained  on  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Arabian  Seas. 

(d)  The  Transit  Trade  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  600-30  B.C. — The  trade  which 
in  the  last  six  centuries  before  the  beginning  of  our  present  era  never  completely 
ceased,  either  on  the  Eed  Sea  or  the  Persian  Gulf  or  in  the  adjacent  parts  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  at  no  time  went  beyond  the  stage  of  transit  trade  wliieli  it  had 
reached  at  an  early  time.  Transmitted  by  the  most  varied  nationalities,  it  re- 
mained for  that  reason  insignificant,  being  carried  on  from  one  intermediate  station 
to  another.  No  change  was  effected  in  this  respect  when  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes, 
completed  the  canal  begun  by  Kamses  II,  from  the  Delta  to  the  l!ed  Sea, 
and  when  Ptolemy  II  Philadelplios  (284-247)  restored  the  work  which  had  mean- 
time fallen  into  ruin.  What  difference  did  it  make  that  Nebuchadnezzar  II 
founded  Teredon  at  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates,  primarily  for  trading  pur- 
poses, and  improved  the  channels  of  tlie  Euphrates  and  Tigris  for  navigation 
by  the  construction  of  numerous  windings  ?  The  improvements  which  he  had 
made  were  ruined  by  the  rulers  of  the  family  of  the  Ach;cmeuids.  llesides  this, 
since  one  world  empire  after  another  enslaved  Western  Asia  as  far  as  the  Nile, 
the  Phoenicians  had  disappeared  from  the  Indian  Ocean,  thus  inflicting  a  loss  to 
the  wholesale  commerce  which  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Arabia  (Hadramaut, 
etc.),  with  their  still  very  deficient  means  of  navigation,  were,  in  spile  of  all  their 
efforts,  quite  unable  to  replace. 

Even  the  Indian  campaign  of  iUexander  the  Great  (p.  405),  vast  as  is  its  his- 
torical importance,  did  not  immediately  bear  the  fruits,  so  far  as  maritime  trade 
went,  which  the  conqueror  had  endeavoured  to  obtain.  Egyptian  Alexandria  itself 
only  developed  .some  centuries  after  his  death  into  that  which  it  ought  to  have 
become  immediately  after  its  foundation, —  the  focus,  that  is  to  say,  for  the  trade 
between  India  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  consequently  the  emporium  for  the 
combined  trade  of  the  ancient  world.  But  Alexander's  own  short  maritime  ex- 
cursion  into   the   region   of   the   mouths  of   the    Indus,   which   symbolised  his 


fJ1re1n,LTociZ''\       HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  591 

annexation  of  the  ocean ;  further,  the  celebrated  expedition  of  Nearchus  from 
the  Indus  to  the  mouths  of  the  Euphrates ;  then  the  attempt  of  the  king  to  open 
once  more  the  long-neglected  route  from  the  Persian  Gulf  round  Arabia ;  his  plan 
for  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  ;  finally,  the  improvement  which  he  made  in 
the  navigation  up  to  Babylon,  and  the  founding  of  the  port  of  Charax  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tigris,  —  all  this  bears  eloquent  testimony  to  the  importance  which 
Alexander  attributed  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  to  the  part  which  the  newly  opened- 
up  sea  was  intended  to  play  in  the  future  schemes  of  the  conqueror.  The  early 
death  of  the  monarch  brought  these  plans  to  an  abrupt  end. 

Nevertheless  the  magnificently  displayed  activity  of  the  Macedonian  ruler  was 
not  altogether  barren  of  the  results  which  had  been  expected  from  it ;  on  the  con- 
trary, its  subsequent  effects  drew  India  and  the  Indian  Ocean  out  from  the  gloom 
of  Oriental  seclusion  into  the  full  light  of  Hellenistic  culture.  Babylon,  indeed, 
which,  after  the  removal  of  the  Seleucid  capital  to  Antiochia  rapidly  succumbed 
to  the  newly  founded  rival,  Seleuceia  (Ctesiphon),  became  neither  the  political 
nor  the  intellectual  nor  the  commercial  centre  of  the  civilized  world  at  that  time. 
But  while,  before  Alexander,  India  was  known  to  the  Greeks  from  the  meagre 
accounts  of  a  few  travellers,  after  that  brilliant  epoch  the  maritime  communication 
with  the  East  continued  uninterruptedly  for  nearly  a  thousand  years.  Favoured 
b}'  the  farseeing  policy  of  the  Ptolemies,  which  culminated  in  the  construction  of 
the  canal  to  the  Pelusiac  arm  of  the  Nile,  in  the  founding  of  ports  on  the  Eed 
Sea,  and  in  securing  the  old  route  to  Coptos,  the  intercourse  of  the  West  with 
India  now  rose  above  the  stage  of  transit  trade  practised  for  so  many  centuries : 
it  became  direct,  and  in  its  still  modest  dimensions  formed  the  intermediate 
step  to  international  commerce  on  a  larger  scale. 

(e)  Tlie  Beginnings  of  an  International  Commerce  in  the  Imperial  Days  of 
Rome.  —  The  year  30  B.  c,  when  Egypt  was  proclaimed  a  Roman  pro\ance,  intro- 
duced quite  new  conditions  of  commimication  over  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  way 
to  India,  so  rich  in  treasures,  now  lay  open  and  free  to  a  nation  whose  material 
requirements  in  spite  of  all  politic  self-restraint  had  enormously  increased.  The 
Romans  therefore  made  full  and  comprehensive  use  of  the  newly  opened  road. 
Yet  even  under  these  altered  cu-cumstances  their  intercourse  with  the  East  would 
not  have  gone  far  beyond  the  earlier  stage,  had  not  the  new  rulers  by  the  utilisa- 
tion of  the  monsoons  profitably  employed  a  new  power  whicli  at  once  enabled 
them  to  renounce  for  ever  the  hitherto  traditional  coasting  na\dgation.  The  dis- 
covery of  this  phenomenon,  peculiar  to  the  northern  Indian  Ocean,  which  was  made 
about  the  middle  of  the  first  century  a.  d.,  is  ascribed  to  the  Greek  navigator  Hip- 
palus,  after  whom,  indeed,  the  southwest  monsoon  has  been  called.  On  the  one 
hand,  this  for  the  first  time  rendered  real  voyages  on  the  high  seas  possible,  and 
on  the  other  hand,  the  regular  alternation  of  the  two  opposite  winds  compelled  the 
traders  to  adopt  a  regulated  system  of  navigation,  which,  besides,  was  too  convenient 
to  be  abandoned,  in  the  succeeding  period  Indian  embassies  are  no  longer  a 
rarity  in  Rome,  and  the  Arabian  Sea  was  traversed  to  a  degree  hitherto  unknown. 
Alexandria  also  now  realised  the  intentions  of  its  founder.  One  fact  alone  fiUed 
the  hearts  of  the  Roman  economists  with  deep  concern,  —  that  this  brisk  trade  did 
not  swell  the  national  revenue.  Even  then  the  Indian  trade  displayed  the  character- 
istic peculiarity  that  the  exports  were  not  balanced  by  any  imports.     Pliny,  besides 


592  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [Chapter  ri 

Strabo,  makes  the  observation,  and  under  Tiberius  the  Senate  seriously  considered 
b}'  what  measures  it  could  stem  the  constant  outflow  of  lloman  gold  to  tlie  East. 

B.  From  the  Appearance  of  the  Chinese  on  the  Scene  to  Mahomet 

From  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  any  authentic  information  the  Indian 
Ocean  has  never  served  any  other  purpose  than  that  of  being  the  road  to  India,  the 
eagerly  sought  for  goal  of  the  West.  As  might  be  expected  from  the  scanty 
resources  the  results  were  meagre,  nor  did  they  become  important  until  coasting 
navigation  was  abandoned.  From  that  moment  the  aspect  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
immediately  changed.  India  ceased  to  be  the  alternate  goal  of  navigators  and 
explorers.  Ceylon  and  the  Golden  Chersonese  (Malacca)  were  now  reached  from 
the  West,  and  after  the  second  half  of  the  first  century  a.  d.  the  merchants  of  the 
Roman  Empire  penetrated  as  far  as  Kattigara.  Whether  we  are  to  identify  this 
place,  as  Von  Eichthofen  supposes,  with  Tongkiug,  or,  as  otliers  maintain,  with 
Canton,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Romans  who  reached  Kattigara  came  into  con- 
tact with  the  Chinese.  So  for  the  tirst  time  in  tlie  period  of  authenticated  history 
this  people  is  drawn  into  the  affairs  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  where  it  was  afterward 
to  play  so  prominent  a  role.  The  emperor  'Antuu  (=  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus),  from 
the  empire  of  Ta  tsin  (cf. pp.  79  and  153), sent  in  166  an  embassy  to  the  Far  East; 
and  besides  other  Roman  expeditious,  an  Indian  mission  tried  to  form  closer  ties 
with  China  than  mere  commercial  intercourse  could  obtain. 

(a)  T/ie  Chinese. — The  efforts  of  the  Chinese  people  at  sea  have  already  been 
shortly  illustrated  in  Vol.  I  (pp.  576,  577).  Chinese  navigation,  .so  far  as  it 
touched  the  Indian  Ocean,  presents  the  peculiar  feature  of  alwaj-s  advancing  toward 
the  west,  until  it  came  into  contact  witli  that  of  the  western  peoples.  This  contact 
is  what  it  required,  but  it  avoided  any  further  progress  or  overlapping.  Accord- 
ingly, in  the  fourteen  to  eighteen  centuries  during  which  we  have  to  consider  the 
Chinese  intercourse  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  this  latter  has  witnessed  a  drama  such 
as  no  other  sea  can  show.  In  all  other  cases  where  a  new  sphere  for  trade  and  in- 
tercourse has  been  obtained,  the  zone  of  contact  always  moves  only  in  the  direction 
of  that  new  sphere.  In  complete  contrast  to  this  rule  the  sphere  of  contact  of  the 
intercourse  between  China  and  the  West  undergoes  variations,  which  extend  over 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  from  tlie  coasts  of  Malacca  on  tlie  east 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  probably  indeed  to  Aden  on  the  west.  If  the  western  nations 
limit  the  domain  of  their  voyages,  the  Chinese,  in  conformity  with  their  undeniable 
commercial  spirit,  follow  them  with  their  merchantmen  into  more  western  regions  ; 
but  if  enterprising  captains  of  Western  Asia  or  Europe  push  further  toward  the 
east,  the  son  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  gives  way  without  demur.  This  was  the 
case  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  relations  between  West  and  East,  and  the  dawn  of 
modern  times  has  seen  the  .same  course  of  events.  These  movements  take  place 
almost  rhythmically.  They  follow  one  another  with  a  regularity  which  tempts  one 
to  arrange  in  harmony  ^vith  them  the  relations  of  tlie  Chinese  toward  tlie  Indian 
Ocean.  The  whole  character  of  the  Chinese  deterred  them  from  navigating  it  on 
their  own  initiative.  They  required  the  stimulus  given  by  the  circumstance  that 
the  mariners  of  Western  Asia,  about  the  year  250  A.  D.  at  the  latest,  gradually  dis- 
continued voyages  to  Kattigara,  and  contented  themselves  with  seeking  nearer 


^JI^inATSlT'^        HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  593 

ports.  The  threatened  loss  of  trade  compelled  the  Chinese  to  follow  the  barbarians 
to  the  West.  In  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  A.  D.  we  find  them  at  Penang 
in  the  Malacca  Straits.  Toward  the  end  of  that  century  they  reached  for  the 
first  time  Ceylon,  the  only  point  outside  'the  region  of  their  native  ocean  which 
had  any  great  attraction  for  them.  In  Ceylon,  however,  they  saw  the  germs  of 
that  Buddhist  doctrine  which  exercised  the  most  powerful  formative  influence  on 
their  own  civilization.  Not  content  with  this  goal,  which  they  again  and  again 
strove  to  reach,  they  came  by  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  as  far  as  the  Pereian 
Gulf  and  the  town  of  Hira  on  the  Euphrates ;  later  we  find  them,  if  we  may 
believe  Edrisi,  even  at  Aden  and  otlier  ports  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  expeditions  of 
the  Chinese  to  Persia  and  Mesopotamia  ended  about  the  year  700,  while  their 
ships  did  not  withdraw  from  Ceylon,  which  in  this  interval  had  developed  into  a 
flourishing  emporium  between  East  and  "West,  until  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
centmy. 

{h)  Jlie  Western  Nations.  —  The  seven  centuries  in  which  we  first  notice  the 
pendulum-lDie  oscillations  of  Chinese  maritime  enterprise  saw  considerable  clianges 
in  the  powers  of  Western  Asia,  by  whom  the  trade  with  China  was  con(hicted. 
Here  too,  as  always  in  history,  the  Chinese  were  the  permanent  factor.  Apart  from 
the  people  known  in  later  times  under  the  name  of  the  Malays,  who,  by  sharing  in 
the  voyages  to  Ceylon,  became  important  competitors  vnth  them  in  the  second 
period,  the  Chinese  were  for  the  whole  time  the  undisputed  bearers  of  the  trade 
dii'ected  toward  the  West.  But  in  the  West  there  were  far-reaching  revolutions. 
There  the  Greco-Roman  trader  was  being  ousted  more  and  more  by  nations  which, 
although  long  settled  on  the  borders  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  had  only  just  turned 
their  attention  to  sea  traffic. 

In  the  first  place  we  must  here  mention  the  Indians  themselves,  who  then, 
j)erhaps  for  the  first  time  in  the  course  of  their  history,  so  uneventful  in  foreign 
policy,  ventured  to  any  large  extent  upon  the  sea.  We  may  form  our  own  opinions 
as  to  their  share  in  the  expeditions  to  Malacca  and  the  Archipelago,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  they  did  not  passively  look  on  at  the  splendid  development  of  Western 
trade  which  was  taking  place  at  their  own  gates. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  this  trade  passed  into  the  hands  of  Persia,  after  the 
powerful  dynasty  of  the  Sassanids  (227-651)  had  raised  that  kingdom  to  the 
rank  of  a  great  power.  The  ruling  dynasty,  with  the  insight  of  true  statesmen, 
had  seen  that  in  no  way  could  more  damage  be  inflicted  upon  the  East  Roman 
Empire  than  by  cutting  off  its  direct  trade  with  tlie  Far  East.  In  fact  the  Persian 
nation,  which  we  are  apt  to  regard  as  ignorant  of  maritime  matters,  conceived  the 
magnificent  plan  of  concentrating  in  its  own  hands  the  entire  trade  of  West  and 
East.  In  spite  of  all  its  efforts  it  failed  to  carry  out  this  purpose  completely.  It 
only  commanded  one  of  the  two  sea  routes  leading  from  India  to  the  West,  that 
across  the  Persian  Gulf.  Of  this  it  soon  gained  absolute  possession ;  and  the 
monopoly  remained  for  a  long  time  in  its  hands,  for  neither  the  Indians  nor  the 
vigorous  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  of  Hira  (210-614),  which,  though  small,  was 
highly  important  for  the  trade  of  that  time,  had  any  other  route  available.  Like 
the  Persian  ships  themselves,  the  Indian  and  Arabian  merchantmen  sailed  to 
Ceylon,  where  they  received  the  wares  brought  thither  by  Chinese  junks,  more 
especially  silk,  cloves,  aloes-wood,  and  sandal-wood,  in  order  to  carry  them  directly 

VOL  il  —  38 


594  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [Chapter  vi 

across  the  Persian  GulL  On  the  other  hand,  the  Persian  dominion  did  not 
extfiul,  either  at  the  time  of  the  Sassanids  or  later,  over  the  second  route  to 
the  West,  that  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  trapes,  therefore,  of  Rome's  former  command 
of  the  seas  were  preserved  here  the  longest.  The  far-famed  city  of  Berenice 
Troglodytice  flourished  down  to  the  fourth  century ;  and  even  in  the  days  of 
Justinian  the  ships  of  the  East  Roman  Empire  sailed  yearly  from  Klisma  and 
the  ancient  Elath  to  India.  On  economic  grounds  it  had  been  the  oljject  of  that 
shrewd  emperor  from  the  beginning  of  his  reign  to  make  himself  commercially 
independent  of  the  Persians.  He  succeeded  in  doing  so  by  land  (although  not 
until  557  and  after  many  failures),  in  so  far  that  he  was  alile  to  introduce  into 
his  own  empue,  by  the  assistance  of  monastic  cunning,  the  silk-growing  which 
was  the  most  important  matter  of  all  (p.  149).  Owing  to  the  unusually  firm  posi- 
tion of  the  Persians  in  the  Euphrates  valley  all  attempts  to  break  through  their 
monopoly  of  the  maritime  trade  on  this,  the  shortest,  route  were  always  futile. 
The  Red  Sea  presented  itself  as  the  only  avenue  of  approach  to  the  Far  East. 
The  small  shipping  industry  of  Klisma  and  Elath  was  quite  unable  Xa  meet 
the  immense  requirements  of  the  luxurious  Byzantine  court  as  well  as  those 
of  the  civilized  world  of  the  Mediterranean.  Justinian  lookeil  for  and  found 
geographically  more  favoured  allies  in  the  Ethiopians  of  the  friendly  Axumitic 
kingdom,  whose  position  at  the  entrance  of  the  Indian  Ocean  as  well  as  at  that 
of  the  Red  Sea  naturally  suggested  the  Imnsit  trade.  The  attempt  nevertheless 
failed.  Many  Greek  merchants  indeed  went  down  to  Adulis,  and  actually  crossed 
over  to  India  in  Ethiopian  ships ;  and  the  dusky  merchants  certainly  knew  how 
to  set  a  due  vahie  on  their  rule  of  agents,  yet  they  did  not  succeed  in  impairing 
the  Persian  monopoly  to  any  appreciable  extent.  The  Persians  in  the  course  of 
centuries  had  established  themselves  too  firmly  in  the  Indian  ports  to  be  ousted  by 
the  competition  of  an  unadventurous  and  uninfluential  people  from  the  position 
which  they  had  laboriously  accjuired.  Even  storms  of  such  violence  as  that  which 
the  Islamitic  movement  of  the  seventh  century  brought  with  it  were  unable  to 
shake  the  Persian  trade  with  India.  So  far  as  the  Indian  Ocean  is  concerned,  the 
Persians  seem  rather  to  have  derived  fresh  strength  for  further  advances  from  every 
new  attack  and  shock. 


4.  FROM   MAHOMET   TO   VASCO   PA   GAMA 

In  history  there  is  no  such  thing  as  continuous  and  unbroken  progress  ;  periods 
of  stagnation  alternate  with  others  in  which  every  pulse  beats  faster  under  the 
influence  of  some  great  movement  or  event.  The  effect  of  such  alternations  is  not 
confined  to  the  continental  peojiles.  Physical  siiocks  and  disturbances  spread  more 
rapidly  through  a  liquid  than  a  solid  medium ;  and  one  might  almost  say  that 
the  ocean  is  more  favourable  than  adverse  to  the  difTusion  of  the  ideas  and  move- 
ments which  the  great  crises  of  history  call  into  being. 

Wliat  the  western  voyage  of  Columbus  was  for  the  Atlantic,  or  the  descent  of 
Balboa  (p.  610)  and  the  expedition  of  Magalhaes  for  the  Pacific,  the  eastern  voyage 
of  Vasco  da  Gama  was  for  the  Ocean,  —  an  event,  that  is,  of  the  most  telling 
importance  for  all  succeeding  time.  But  while  those  events  in  the  history  of  the 
first  two  oceans  are  unmatched  for  their  far-reaching  influence,  the  discovery  of 


^^r?l^:«:r]     history  of  the  world  595 

the  way  round  the  Cape  does  not  stand  alone  in  its  importance  for  the  Indian 
Ocean.  The  pioneers  of  Europe  found  that  they  had  been  anticipated  by  Islam, 
which  in  its  whole  life  and  being  belongs  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  On  a  victorious 
march  of  incomparable  swiftness  it  bore  the  flag  of  the  prophet  to  the  shores  of 
the  Atlantic,  and  it  touched  the  Pacific  with  its  most  eastern  offshoots ;  but  only 
in  the  region  of  the  Indian  Ocean  did  it  attain  a  vigorous  and  unhindered  develop- 
ment of  its  strength,  and,  more  important  still,  only  there  was  it  able  to  spread 
over  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  It  is  not  to  be  assumed  that  the  Arabs  set  foot 
upon  the  sea  for  the  first  time  after  the  Hegira.  Such  a  view  is  contradicted  not 
only  by  the  migration  by  sea  of  the  Ge'ez  nations  of  South  Arabia  to  the  highlands 
of  Abyssinia  but  by  the  navigation  of  the  peoples  of  Hira  and  Aden  and  by 
many  other  facts.  But  at  no  period  before  Mahomet  do  we  find  in  them  even  an 
inclination  to  that  deliberate  oversea  policy  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  Ara- 
bian world  during  the  whole  age  of  the  caliphs  and  later.  It  seems  as  if  it  was 
only  through  Islam  that  the  hitherto  almost  unknown  people,  when  it  became 
a  world  conqueror  on  land,  attained  also  the  consciousness  of  its  own  powers 
on  the  sea. 

Four  years  after  the  prophet's  death  the  Neo-Persian  kingdom  lay  shattered  on 
the  groimd,  struck  down  by  the  powerful  hand  of  Omar.  It  almost  seemed  as 
if,  under  the  new  conditions  and  in  the  warlike  turmoil  of  that  time,  the  Indian 
Ocean  would  relapse  into  that  state  of  insignificance  from  which  it  had  only  slowly 
emerged  in  the  course  of  the  last  few  centuries  ;  for  at  this  same  time  the  rest  of 
Nearer  Asia  and  even  Egypt  (641)  fell  a  victim  to  the  onslaught  of  the  Moham- 
medans. The  Indian  Ocean  thus  had  become  an  Arabian  sea ;  from  Suez  and  Mas- 
sowah  in  the  west  as  far  as  the  Indus  delta  in  the  east  its  waves,  at  the  time  of  the 
Ommeiads  and  the  Abbassids,  beat  on  shores  over  which  the  caliphs  ruled.  In  this 
way  the  whole  commerce  of  West  with  East,  the  world  commerce  of  that  day,  lay 
in  the  hands  of  the  Arabs  alone. 

For  the  first  time  since  the  Indian  Ocean  has  played  a  part  in  the  authenticated 
history  of  mankind  the  appearance  of  the  Arabs  on  the  scene  compels  the  observer 
to  divide  his  field  of  view.  In  addition  to  the  route  from  west  to  east,  which 
hitherto  has  been  exclusively  treated,  one  of  the  routes  which  passes  thi-ough  the 
northern  part  of  the  ocean  from  north  to  south  now  claims  serious  consideration. 
We  have,  in  fact,  to  deal  with  the  encroachment  of  the  Arabs  on  the  coast  of  East 
Africa.  It  is  on  this  particular  region  that  the  Arab  people  has  longest  asserted 
its  capacity  of  resistance  against  the  world  powers  of  modern  days.  Here,  strange 
to  say,  it  has  had  to  fight  out  its  last  conflict  against  the  youngest  colonial  power 
of  the  Old  World,  the  newly  united  German  Empire. 

A.   The  East 

The  expansion  of  the  Arabs  toward  the  East  during  the  age  of  the  Caliphate 
must  still  be  regarded  entirely  from  the  standpoint  of  the  reciprocal  relations 
between  Eastern  and  Western  Asia.  Possessing  a  large  number  of  the  best  har- 
bours of  the  Indian  Ocean,  among  them  those  which  commanded  the  East  Indian 
trade,  the  Arabs  saw  themselves  compelled  to  turn  their  attention  more  and  more 
to  the  sea,  and  primarily  to  the  eastern  ocean.  At  one  time  the  invasion  of 
India  was  most  practicable  by  this  route.     We  find  Arab  fleets  on  the  west  coast  of 


596  HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD         lci,aj.t,r  vi 

India  as  early  as  637 ;  but  then  it  was  imperatively  necessary  to  deprive  the  Per- 
sians, who  even  after  the  fall  of  tlie  Sassanids  were  a  formidable  naval  power,  of 
the  supremacy  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Arabs  did  not  conc^uer  India  by  the  sea 
route,  nor  did  they  succeed  in  driN-ing  out  of  the  field  the  competition  of  the  Per- 
sians, in  spite  of  the  foiniding  of  Basra  (Bassora,  636)  and  Bagdad  (754),  which 
testifies  to  their  political  foresight  and  their  knowledge  oi  the  geographical  rcijuire- 
ments  of  commerce.  For  more  than  two  centuries  their  fleets  plougheil  the  waters 
of  the  Indian  Ocean  in  peaceful  harmony  with  the  Persian  merchantmen.  During 
the  first  decades  of  the  Caliphate  era  this  navigation  followed  the  paths  which  had 
been  handed  down  to  them  from  the  Sassanid  age.  It  did  not  go  beyond  Ceylon  ; 
at  that  time,  indeed,  the  voyages  of  the  Chinese  still  extended  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Al)out  the  year  700  Arabs  and  Persians,  encouraged  by  improvements  in  ship- 
building and  the  knowledge  of  the  compass  which  they  then  probalily  acquired, 
advanced  boldly  over  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  reached  tlie  shores  of  China.  In 
correspondence  to  this  foi-ward  movement  and  true  to  their  custom  of  penetrating 
onlv  so  far  as  was  requisite  for  the  maintenance  of  commercial  intercourse,  the 
Chinese  at  once  proceeded  to  narrow  the  extent  of  theii-  voyages  more  and  more. 
In  the  first  place  they  made  Ceylon  theii*  terminus ;  but  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighth  century  they  abandoned  that  island,  and  by  so  doing  disappeared  completely 
from  the  Indian  Ocean  for  more  tlian  five  hundred  years.  It  was  not  given  either 
to  the  Persians  or  the  Arabs  dming  this  long  period  to  foUow  the  Chinese  over 
the  confines  of  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  great  ocean  adjoinmg  ilasteru  Asia.  After 
one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  ^luhammedaus,  Jews,  Nestorians,  and  Magians 
had  been  massacred  at  Khausu  in  878,  all  further  voyages  beyond  Malacca  toward 
the  northwest  were  brought  for  ever  to  an  abrupt  termination.  This  concludes  the 
period  of  the  most  busy  traffic  which,  with  the  one  exception  of  the  Mediterranean, 
any  considerable  sea  ever  bore  on  its  surface  imtil  the  beghming  of  modern  times. 
The  nature  and  extent  of  this  traffic  is  best  exemplified  by  the  fact  that  an  Arabian 
writer  of  those  days  could  speak  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  which  was  the  terminus  and 
starting-point  of  all  the  commerce  at  that  day  with  the  East,  as  the  "  Chinese  sea." 
One  single  large  region  of  civilization  presents  itself  to  us  here  in  the  East.  If 
we  compare  with  this  the  darkness  whicli  even  in  the  Carolingian  time  rested  over 
the  half-Christian,  half-pagan  lauds  of  Europe,  we  miderstand  what  Oskar  Peschel 
meant  when  he  asserted  that  the  foci  of  the  intellectual  and  material  ci\Tlization 
i)f  that  age  lay  south  of  latitude  40°,  and  farther  to  the  east  than  any  meridian  of 
the  Mediterranean. 

Although  the  Chmese  held  aloof,  the-  Indian  Ocean  by  no  means  became  de- 
serted. For  even  if  the  Pacific  was  closed  to  the  Persians  and  Aral)s  in  the 
ensuing  period,  yet  they  found  in  Kalah,  on  the  strait  of  Malacca,  a  place  where 
the  trade  with  the  Chinese  could  be  transacted  until  these  latter  once  more  sought 
out  the  old  route  to  Ceylon  and  the  ports  of  ^Malabar.  This  renewed  advance  of 
the  Chinese  is  the  last  of  their  rhythmic  movements  on  the  surface  of  the  Indian 
Ocean.  It  began  in  the  second  half  of  the  tliirteenth  century,  when  Kubla  Khan 
gave  a  great  stimulus  to  navigation.  The  ponderous  junks  of  the  Chinese,  just  as 
in  the  second  age,  whose  beginnings  lay  some  nine  hundred  years  back,  once  more 
sailed  in  large  fleets  toward  the  west.  Ceylon  remained  their  terminus,  as  of  old, 
but  the  powerful  and  flourishing  ports  of  Calicut  and  Ormuz  became  al.so  the  ob- 
jects of  their  voyages.     These  were  primarily  intended  for  trade,  without,  however. 


^^^rS^iXtrJ        HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  597 

excluding  other  enterprises.  The  Chinese  then  attempted  what  they  had  never 
previously  done  on  the  waters  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  —  they  actually  undertook  one 
voyage  of  discovery  as  far  as  Makdishu  (East  Africa),  and  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century  the  monarch's  of  the  Ming  dynasty  subjugated  Ceylon.  This  was 
the  culminating  point  of  Chinese  activity  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 

By  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  China  disappeared  again  from  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and,  this  time,  for  ever.  The  attempts  repeatedly  made  by  the  Chinese 
during  a  period  of  more  than  one  thousand  years  to  remain  in  touch  with  the 
nations  of  the  West  bore  but  little  fruit,  either  for  the  East  or  West.  But  the 
cause  of  this  did  not  lie  in  the  onesidedness  of  this  purely  commercial  intercourse, 
which,  on  the  contrary,  bore  abundant  fruit  in  the  exchange  of  material  as  well  as 
intellectual  culture,  but  rather  in  the  excessive  physical  and  psycliical  difference 
between  the  races  and  peoples  concerned,  which  inevitably  hindered  any  real 
fusion  or  assimilation  of  the  two  civilizations.  During  the  whole  of  this  period 
the  Australian  continent  remained  the  sUeut,  inert  boundary  pUlar  which  it  had 
been  in  remote  antiquity.  Even  its  north  and  northwest  coasts,  which  were  in 
sufficiently  close  proximity  to  Indonesia  to  favour  colonisation  and  the  opening  of 
commerce,  remained  completely  out  of  touch  with  the  Indian  Ocean. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Malay  people,  which  is  characterised  more  than  any 
other  in  the  eastern  hemisphere  by  nautical  spirit  and  capabilities,  began  at  this 
time  to  emerge  from  its  previous  obscurity.  The  voyages  which  the  Malays 
had  undertaken  at  that  early  period,  when  the  Chinese  for  the  first  time  advanced 
far  beyond  the  straits  of  Malacca  toward  the  west,  were  certainly  not  the  first 
in  their  history;  but  we  possess  no  exact  information  on  the  subject.  We  can, 
however,  trace  with  tolerable  clearness  how  the  Western  Archipelago,  and  Java 
in  particular,  early  came  into  certain  relations  with  India.  Brahmanism  and 
Buddhism  had  both  found  their  way  there.  However  momentous  were  the  con- 
sequences of  the  introduction  of  these  two  religions  for  the  spiritual  development 
of  this  part  of  the  Indonesian  island-world,  it  was  from  reasons  connected  with 
the  nature  of  those  doctrines  that  their  influence  had  not  the  effect  of  inducing  the 
population  of  Indonesia  to  take  in  hand  the  tasks  for  the  performance  of  which 
it  must  have  long  felt  itself  qualified  by  skill  in  seamanship.  It  was  only  at  the 
moment  when  tlie  Malays,  from  a  correct  appreciation  of  the  narrowness  of  their 
political  and  economic  basis,  withdrew  from  the  island-world  to  the  long  since 
abandoned  mainland,  that  they  acquired  strength  and  opportunity  to  affect  the 
destinies  of  their  seas.  The  founding  of  Singapore  from  the  old  empire  of  Men- 
angkabau  in  1160  is  in  fact  the  starting-point  of  their  power,  which  in  the  course 
of  the  next  centuries  extended  to  a  large  part  of  Indonesia,  and  found  its  most 
conspicuous  expression  in  the  prosperity  of  Malacca,  founded  in  1252,  through 
which  for  many  centuries  the  whole  commerce  from  west  to  east  passed. 

An  unkind  dispensation  ordained  that  the  JIalays  should  not  succeed  in 
developing  on  a  larger  scale  their  hereditary  nautical  abilities.  They  had  missed 
the  favourable  moment.  Hardly  were  they  prepared  for  a  more  comprehensive 
oversea  policy,  when  the  era  dawned  which  revolutionised  all  the  existing  con- 
ditions on  the  Indian  Ocean,  —  the  era  of  its  opening  up  by  the  Europeans  from 
west  to  east.  The  ilalays,  it  is  true,  were  not,  like  the  Persians  and  Arabs,  com- 
pletely banished  from  the  eastern  Indian  Ocean ;  they  were  too  closely  connected 
with  it  for  that ;  but  as  the  white  conquerors  encroached  upon  the  Archipelago, 


598  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [nu,/.i,r  vi 

the  Malays  ceased  to  be  the  pioneers  of  navigation,  and  were  degraded  into  pirates. 
Even  before  this,  piracy  had  been  greatly  esteemed  by  the  Malays,  and  it  became 
henceforth  their  almost  exclusive  occupation  ;  by  this  involuntary  step  the  Malays 
relinquished  any  historical  rOle  in  the  higher  sense. 

Onlv  one  feat  on  a  larger  scale  was  performed  by  the  Malays  witliin  the  limits 
of  the  Indian  Ocean ;  this  was  tlieir  settlement  of  the  large  island  of  Madagascar. 
This  migration  from  their  original  homes  in  the  Indian  Archipelago  is  mainly 
"prehistoric;"  the  dates  assigned  to  it  vary  between  the  first  and  the  twelfth 
century  A.  d.  The  prehistoric  darkness  which  then  rested  on  the  western  Indian 
Ocean  can  hardly  have  been  absolutely  uniUumiiied.  But  the  achievements  of  the 
ancients  in  this  sphere  have  been  lost ;  all  that  had  been  explored  and  discovered 
in  the  long  period  from  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  under  King  Necho  to  the 
periplus  of  the  Erythrtean  Sea,  had  fallen  into  oblivion  during  the  later  disturb- 
ances, and  had  proved  barren  of  results  for  the  political  and  social  development  of 
the  human  race. 

B.   The  West 

(a)  Tlu  Arabs.  —  The  western  coasts  of  the  ocean  even  at  this  gloomy  period 
did  not  share  the  fate  of  the  east  side,  which  continued  to  be  a  complete  blank,  so 
far  as  history  is  concerned.  Although  the  Greek  traders  finally  kept  aloof,  yet  the 
Arabs,  who  had  early  sailed  from  their  emporivims  in  Yemen  to  the  south,  did  not 
cease,  until  past  the  second  century  a.  d.,  to  navigate  energetically  the  east  coast 
of  Africa,  even  far  below  the  equator.  Before  the  advent  of  tlie  Prophet  their 
voyages  were  directed  exclusively  by  commercial  objects.  Bui  fully  a  century 
after  the  Hegira  the  connection  with  the  south,  which  was  formerly  only  loose, 
was  drawn  tighter;  where  previously  simple  factories  had  existed,  one  fortified 
town  after  another  now  sprang  up.  Round  these  towns  were  grouped  kingdoms 
of  small  size,  it  is  true,  but  nevertheless  able  largely  to  influence  and  change 
the  nationality  and  customs,  the  religiou  and  type,  of  the  settled  pojiulation. 
Makdiehu  and  Barawa,  Malindi  and  Mombasa,  but  especially  Kilwa-Kisiwani, 
which  flourished  for  many  years,  were  the  centres  of  these  States,  by  whose  main- 
tenance for  fully  nine  hundred  years  the  Arab  nation  has  given  the  most  brilliant 
proof  of  historical  strength  and  permanence. 

If  we  examine  the  causes  which  directed  the  attention  of  the  Arabs  to  East 
Africa,  when  their  purpose  was  to  change  their  oversea  relations,  which  hitherto 
had  merely  rested  upon  trade,  into  a  deliberate  policy  of  aggrandisement,  we  find 
on  the  whole  the  same  circumstances  which,  many  centuries  before,  had  induced 
their  ancestors  to  engage  in  that  commercial  intercourse.  The  naturally  trifling 
distance  of  the  two  countries  from  each  other  is  shortened  in  an  extraordinary 
degree  by  the  periodical  monsoons,  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  northwest  Indian 
Ocean  certainly  utilised  far  earlier  than  their  discovery  and  employment  in  the 
Roman  age.  An  additional  and  perhaps  decisive  inducement  to  adopt  a  policy  of 
aggrandisement  was  given  further  by  the  character  of  the  inliabitants  of  the 
coast  of  Africa,  who  were  incapable  of  competing  with  tlie  intruders  either  on  sea 
or  land.  As  a  last  motive  we  must  take  into  consideration  the  fanciful  views 
entertained  by  the  Arabs  as  to  the  position  of  Africa  with  respect  to  their  own 
country,  and  their  ideas  of  the  shape  of  the  Indian  Ocean  as  a  whole. 


fnZ'ua^.'^Z"'\        HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  599 

(5)  Tlie  Results  of  the  Errors  of  the  Ptolemaic  Cosmocjrcqjhy. —  Neither  of  the 
other  oceans  was  so  early  traversed  by  ships  as  the  Indian  Ocean ;  but  neither  of 
them  has,  strangely  enough,  waited  so  long  before  its  shape  and  size  were  rightly 
understood  by  mankind.  The  Pacific  was  only  brought  into  the  sphere  of  history 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  but  in  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  its  whole  gigantic  triangular  shape  has  been  thoroughly  explored.  Even 
the  Atlantic  until  the  voyage  of  Columbus,  or,  if  preferred,  until  the  landing  of 
the  Norsemen  on  the  coasts  of  Finland,  was  a  waste  of  water  stretching  indefi- 
nitely toward  the  west,  of  which  only  the  northerly  east  coast  had  become 
part  and  parcel  of  history.  But  the  process  which  lasted  for  centuries  in  the 
case  of  the  Pacific,  continued  only  for  decades  in  that  of  the  Atlantic ;  by  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  its  channel-like  form  was  known  in  its  main 
outlines.  The  case  was  otherwise  with  the  ludiau  Ocean.  The  seafaring  nations 
of  antiquity  had  already  traversed  it  extensively ;  Persians  and  Arabs  had  become 
acquainted  with  it  throughout  its  whole  breadth  from  west  to  east ;  yet  down  to 
modern  times  its  shape  was  completely  misrepresented.  The  history  of  geography 
has  no  more  striking  example  of  blind  and  mistaken  guesswork  to  record.  The 
Indian  Ocean  was  imagined  to  be  an  inland  sea,  a  long,  narrow  channel,  which 
joining  the  Eed  Sea,  formed,  as  it  were,  a  prolongation  of  the  Mediterranean  turned 
toward  the  south.  While  the  north  shore  of  this  marvellous  basin  is  represented 
by  the  south  coast  of  Asia,  it  was  supposed  that  the  boundary  on  the  south  was 
supplied  by  the  continent  of  Africa.  The  east  coast  of  Africa  was  twisted  round 
in  early  maps  and  made  to  run  due  east  and  west  at  its  southern  extremity,  and  to 
join  the  south  of  Asia  somewhere  in  the  Far  East. 

This  erroneous  conception  in  its  beginnings  goes  back  to  Eratosthenes  and  Hip- 
parchus,  indeed  to  Aristotle.  It  did  not,  however,  become  momentous  for  the  his- 
tory of  mankind  until  it  was  perpetuated  by  Ptolemy,  whose  cosmographic  system 
was  the  main  source  of  the  geogiaphical  knowledge  of  the  early  Middle  Ages.  The 
Arabs,  the  direct  heirs  of  the  great  geographer,  adopted  without  criticism  his  facts 
and  his  blunders,  and  thus  accepted  the  tradition  that  the  Indian  Ocean  was  an 
inland  sea,  although  the  direction  of  the  Somali  and  Zanzibar  coast  must  have 
been  familiar  to  them.  Their  persistent  belief  in  this  shape  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
can  only  be  explained  by  a  combination  of  various  circumstances.  For  one  thing, 
Ptolemy  was  in  high  repute  with  them,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  theii'  lack  of 
cartographic  talent.  In  the  next  place,  as  followers  of  the  Ptolemaic  system, 
they  supposed  that  the  temperatures  in  the  southern  hemisphere  at  the  season  of 
the  northern  winter,  when  the  sun  is  nearest  the  earth,  reached  a  height  which 
could  not  but  be  fatal  to  all  living  creatures.  They  therefore  considered  all  laud 
south  of  the  equator  to  be  uninhabitable,  and  the  sea  to  be  impracticable  for  navi- 
gation. Consequently  they  were  confirmed  in  the  delusion  that  the  coast,  which 
they  had  traversed  as  far  down  as  Sofala,  trended  from  west  to  east,  and  lay 
directly  opposite  South  Asia. 

The  Indian  Ocean  in  this  Ptolemaic  shape  became  important  for  the  history  of 
the  human  race  in  two  ways.  The  one  part  of  its  role  ended  in  the  political  achieve- 
ments of  the  Arabs  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  of  which  the  extent  was  perhaps 
conditioned  not  only  by  the  causes  already  mentioned,  but  also  by  the  verj'  natural 
desire  of  the  conquerors  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  mother  country.  Apart  from 
these  settlements  the  Indian  Ocean  is  important  for  the  fable  of  the  Terra  Australis, 


600  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter  Vf 

the  imknowu  southern  land  (cf.  p.  253),  with  which  it  was  associated.  The  idea 
of  this  coutiuent,  inainly  derived  from  Ptolemy,  who  gave  the  name  of  the  Ethi- 
opian Australia  to  the  supposed  southern  shore  of  his  land-girdled  Indian  Ocean,  was 
taken  up  by  the  Arabs,  who  gave  the  unknown  land  the  name  of  the  Sendsh  coast. 
Then,  partly  through  the  agency  of  the  Arabs,  partly  directly,  the  myth  was 
adopted  into  the  geography  of  the  scholastics,  and  at  the  close  of  a  troublous,  but 
in  many  respects  sterile,  })eriod  remained  as  a  problem  which  the  Middle  Ages  had 
acquired  no  claim  to  solve. 

During  the  two  millenniums  and  a  half  thi"ough  which  the  Indian  Ocean  has 
hitherto  occupied  our  attention,  it  appears  in  fact  merely  as  a  prolongation  of  the 
Ked  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  as  a  narrow  inland  sea,  whose  southern  coast,  exist- 
ing only  in  the  imagination  of  the  men  of  tiiat  time,  formed  an  insuperable  barrier 
to  any  southward  expansion.  In  reality  the  Indian  Ocean  of  this  whole  period 
almost  always  coincides  with  the  sea  of  Ptolemy.  If  it  ever  goes  beyond  those 
limits,  that  occurs  only  to  a  restricted  degree  and  in  a  (piite  definite  direction,  as, 
for  example,  in  the  southern  vo3-ages  of  the  Arabs.  The  opening  up  of  larger  por- 
tions either  remains  reserved  for  the  civilized  world,  as  happened  in  the  southwest 
expeditions  of  the  Chinese,  or  it  lies  from  the  first  outside  tlie  field  of  authenticated 
histoiy,  as  is  the  case  with  the  migration  of  the  Malays  to  Madagascar. 

Although  it  was  a  mere  fancy  to  think  of  the  Indian  Ocean  as  an  inland  sea, 
still  its  influence  in  history  has  practically  corresponded  to  its  inuigined  character. 
It  did  prove  an  insuperable  barrier  between  the  imperfectly  developed  civilizations 
which  bordered  on  it.  In  early  times,  when  the  history  of  mankind  even  in  this 
region  was  nothing  more  than  a  series  of  race  migrations,  it  was  simjdy  avoided  by 
a  detour;  later,  men  sailed  along  the  coasts  from  harbour  to  harbour,  or  let  them- 
selves be  driven  by  the  monsoon  eastward  or  westward.  Tlie  direction  of  the 
circles  of  latitude  is  almost  the  only  historical  axis  of  the  ancient  Indian  Ocean 
which  comes  before  us.  With  the  exception  of  the  voyages  to  Sendsh  and  Sofala  the 
whole  intercourse  takes  this  direction,  from  the  enterprises  of  the  Ph(rnicians  in 
the  second  mUleunium  B.  c,  down  past  the  Greeks  and  Eomans,  the  Persians  and 
Arabs,  to  the  last  expeditions  of  the  Chinese,  whose  aim  was  Ceylon,  in  the  piiddle 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  One-sided  as  was  this  intercourse,  —  except  for  a  few 
journeys  undertaken  by  the  Chinese  from  religious  motives  and  the  warlike  expe- 
ditions of  the  Arabs  against  India,  which  stand  bj'  themselves,  it  was  invariably 
devoted  to  purposes  of  trade,  —  it  showed  itself  important  for  the  development 
of  the  civilization  of  mankind. 

In  this  exchange  of  the  products  of  civilization  between  the  East  and  the  West, 
the  latter  was  always  the  recipient,  the  former  the  giver.  And  for  the  last  third  of 
the  period  which  we  have  surveyed  the  exchange  was  effected  merely  by  the 
agency  of  West  Asiatic  peoples,  by  the  Persians,  and  more  jiarticularly  by  the 
Arabs.  At  the  moment  when  these  latter  swept  forward  from  insignificance  into 
the  position  of  a  political  and  intellectual  world-power,  the  old  direct  connection 
between  the  sphere  of  Mediterranean  culture  and  that  of  South  and  East  Asia  was 
snapped.  Wliether  it  is  a  question  of  obtaining  rare  spices,  dyes,  or  luxuries,  or  of 
the  introduction  of  the  Indian  system  of  numerals,  or  of  the  widening  of  the 
knowledge  of  medicine  and  mathematics,  of  geography  and  astronomy,  the  result 
is  always  the  same  ;  the  nations  that  command  the  Ked  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf 
are  inevitably  the  agents.     As  a  matter  of  fact  the  Indian  Ocean  after  the  seventh 


^'r/7i,«,"'Ca"r]        HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  601 

or  eigliUi  century  bears  the  stamp  of  a  purely  Asiatic  sea,  with  possibly  a  faint 
African  admixture. 

While  the  Arabs  held  the  key  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  it  stood  to  the  white  races 
in  the  same  relation  as  did  the  Pacific  before  the  commencement  of  European 
exploration.  Like  the  Pacific,  the  Indian  Ocean  was  entirely  removed  from  the  field 
of  vision  of  the  western  civilized  nations ;  it  required  to  be  rediscovered  and  opened 
up  no  less  than  its  great  and  virgin  neighbours.  That  the  opening  up  of  the  two 
oceans  took  place  about  the  same  time,  simultaneously  also  with  the  lifting  of  the 
gloom  which  rested  on  the  Atlantic,  was  partly  the  result  of  accidents,  but  much 
more  due  to  the  internal  development  of  the  western  nations.  But  in  each  of  the 
oceans  the  work  of  exploration  ran  a  different  course ;  for  this  diversity  the  facts 
of  physical  geography  are  responsible. 

5.   MODEEN   TIMES 

The  same  seismic  or  tidal  wave  whicli  crosses  the  Pacific  Ocean  may  cause 
the  waters  of  the  Indian  and  even  of  the  Atlantic  oceans  to  surge  and  swell ; 
the  same  molecule  of  water  which,  in  consequence  of  differences  in  gravity,  changes 
its  position  and  to-day  moves  from  the  Antarctic  to  the  Pacific,  can  through  similar 
causes  traverse  at  a  subsequent  time  the  Indian  Ocean  or  the  Atlantic.  Physi- 
cally, therefore,  the  ocean  that  encircles  the  earth  is  a  unity ;  but  to  the  view 
of  history  it  appears  divided,  for  it  is  a  "  function  of  its  shores."  If  many  of  the 
small  inland  seas,  round  which  few  nations  dwell,  have  their  own  peculiar  his- 
torical expression,  how  much  more  must  large  but  sharply  defined  features  stand 
out  in  the  case  of  the  mighty  oceans,  surrounded  by  whole  races .'  Each  of  the 
three  oceans  appears  in  fact  as  a  personality,  an  individual,  in  the  frame  of  the 
history  of  mankind.  This  peculiarity  is  subject  to  one  Kmitation  common  to 
them  all :  it  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  To  the  men  of  to-day  the  difference  between 
the  physical  and  the  historical  ocean  is  no  longer  famUiar.  As  the  waves  of  the 
one  ocean  mingle  freely  with  those  of  the  other,  so  the  currents  of  world  com- 
merce,- and  also  of  world  history,  flow  unchecked  from  one  to  the  other.  Both 
indeed  move  on  specially  favoured  paths,  but  these  paths  encircle  the  whole  globe  ; 
they  cross  the  seas  in  the  direction  which  each  man  chooses,  the  essential  feature 
of  true  international  commerce. 

A.  From  Vasco  da  Gama  to  the  Beginning  of  the  British  Eule 

IN  India  (1498-1757) 

Four  hundred  years  have  sped  past  since  this  change  in  the  character  of  the 
oceans  —  not  in  men's  ideas  about  them  —  was  completed,  a  short  span  of  time 
compared  with  the  millenniums  that  preceded.  They  have  brought  infinitely 
much  to  the  Atlantic  as  well  as  to  the  Pacific,  to  each  certainly  more  than  to  the 
Indian  Ocean ;  nevertheless,  the  sum  total  of  the  historical  importance  of  the  two 
former  is  not  greater  than  that  of  the  latter.  In  their  case  also  a  new  era  begins 
with  the  European  voyages  of  discovery ;  but  they  had  no  great  memories  from 
the  past  to  revive.  All  the  maritime  life  of  its  own  which  the  Pacific  Ocean  pre- 
viously possessed  either  played  its  part  on  the  northwestern  margin,  a  minute  field 
in  comparison  with  the  entire  surface,  or,  as  the  influence  of  the  Polynesians, 


C02  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [c/n.pter  vi 

it  fell  outside  the  limits  of  the  rest  of  man's  liistory.  The  greater  part  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  other  hand,  was  not-  yet  roused  to  historical  life ;  only 
the  northeast,  with  its  splendid  contiguration  and  tlie  incomj)aralile  lateral  basins, 
the  Mediterranean,  the  Baltic,  and  the  North  Sea,  had  long  been  active,  and  lay 
waiting  for  the  appointed  moment  to  flood  the  globe  with  its  teeming  population, 
which  centuries  and  tens  of  centuries  of  civilization  had  steeled  for  the  work  of 
discovery  and  contpiest.  Even  the  Indian  Ocean  before  the  dawning  ot  the  new 
age  had  long  ceased  to  be  historically  important  throughout  its  whole  expanse ; 
the  great  south  lay  indeed  quite  fallow.  Nevertlieless  the  narrow  northern  mar- 
gin, willi  which  alone  we  are  concerned,  must  be  regarded  from  other  aspects  than 
the  corresponding  parts  of  the  two  neighbouring  seas.  The  sphere  of  tlie  Mediter- 
ranean civilization  is  as  much  a  world  by  itself  as  the  East  Asiatic  sphere.  Sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  a  full  third  of  tlie  earth's  circumference,  they  are  two 
powers  which  are  in  spirit  absolutely  different,  but  which,  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously, perpetually  tend  to  approach  and  come  in  close  contact  one  with  the 
other.  The  gigantic  continent  gf  Asia,  from  its  size,  was  not  adapted  to  help  this 
process ;  a  promising  attempt,  wlieu  Rome  established  connections  willi  China  in 
the  year  95  a.  d.,  produced  no  results.  The  needetl  pathway  was  supplied  by 
the  waters  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  their  function  has  been  to  link  the  East  and 
West  together. 

(a)  The  Importance  of  the  Independent  Advance  of  the  White  Race  into  the 
Indian  Ocean.  —  Further  than  this,  the  Indian  Ocean  produced  a  civilization  of 
its  own,  which,  though  not  so  unyielding  and  vast  as  that  of  Eastern  Asia  nor  so 
varied  as  that  of  the  Mediterranean,  possesses  the  peculiarity  of  comprising  the 
entire  ocean  so  far  as  it  concerns  the  history  of  mankind  at  all.  Spread  by  the 
teaching  of  the  Prophet,  it  reaches  almost  without  a  gap  from  shore  to  shore, 
from  the  east  coast  of  Africa  in  tlie  west  to  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago  in 
the  Far  East.  Accordingly  the  inroad  of  tlie  white  race,  on  the  development  of 
whose  culture  it  had  so  long  exercised  a  successful  influence,  bears  here  a  quite 
diff'erent  significance  from  that  which  the  dissemination  of  the  Europeans  had  for 
the  virgin  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific.  These  latter  could  in  the  end 
only  win  by  it;  the  Indian  Ocean,  on  the  contrary,  had  much  to  lose.  This  is  the 
standpoint  from  which  the  Indian  Ocean  must  be  regarded  after  the  voyage  of 
Vasco  da  Gama.  To  the  superficial  observer  the  destinies  of  the  three  oceans  are 
completely  similar.  No  one  of  them  was  able  permanently  to  escape  the  influence 
of  the  white  man.  Even  the  Indian  Ocean  shared  this  fate,  to  a  greater  extent 
indeed  than  its  eastern  neighbour.  Yet  a  great  difi'erence  exists  between  the  final 
results.  The  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  just  as  the  Indian  Ocean,  lost  at  first  some 
part  of  their  own  civilization ;  in  America  and  Australia  the  spark  of  indigenous 
culture  was  completely  extinguished.  Everywheie,  however,  this  temporary  set- 
back was  only  the  prelude  to  an  era  of  vigorous  development  in  new  directions. 
The  value  of  the  history  wliich  the  iminigranls  in  the  United  States  and  in  Aus- 
tralia had  made  in  an  astonishingly  brief  period  far  outweighs  the  former  losses. 

With  the  Indian  Ocean  the  matter  from  the  very  first  lay  distinctly  otherwise. 
If  we  exclude  extra-tropical  South  Africa,  its  surface  washes  no  country  which  has 
ever  served  as  the  goal  for  a  mass  emigration  of  ]*]uropeans.  Even  at  the  present 
day  the  white  man,  according  to  numbers,  is  a  completely  insignificant  factor  com- 


„^*;r^«1/aro«2r]     history  of  the  world  eos 

pared  with  the  mass  of  natives,  whether  in  the  Archipelago,  in  India,  or  on  the 
shores  of  East  Africa.  Three  or  four  hundred  years  ago,  in  the  early  days  of  colo- 
nial activity,  this  disparity  of  numbers  was  certainly  still  more  marked.  Under 
these  circumstances  there  could  naturally  be  no  idea  of  a  complete  destruction  of 
the  native  civilizations,  such  as  America  experienced  in  those  days,  and  of  substi- 
tuting in  their  place  a  constitution  taken  from  the  mother  country  in  Europe. 
Such  an  idea  lay  as  much  outside  the  range  of  possibility  as,  for  example,  the 
eradication  of  the  East  Asiatic  culture.  The  question  could  at  most  be  that  of 
destro}ing  the  economical  and  political  strength  of  all  opponents ;  and,  unfortu- 
nately, the  white  man  down  to  the  present  day  has  to  regard  every  inhabitant  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  as  such.  The  European  was  successful  in  both  methods;  for 
the  opposition  which  Bali  and  Acheh,  Madagascar  and  Arabian  East  Africa,  had 
offered,  even  in  our  days,  is  like  the  last  con-vulsions  of  a  dying  man.  As  might 
be  expected  from  the  dissimilarities  of  the  nations,  the  struggle  has  assumed  various 
shapes  in  different  places  and  times;  a  handful  of  traders  was  able  to  crush  a 
giant  of  clay  like  India,  whde  the  above-named  branches  of  the  Malays  still  defy 
the  foreign  yoke. 

One  is  tempted  at  first  sight  to  say  that  the  opposition  of  the  maritime  nations 
to  the  white  invader  has  been  more  determined  than  that  of  nations  living  inland 
or  neglecting  to  use  the  sea.  But  such  a  generalisation  must  be  qualified  by  ex- 
ceptions so  important  as  to  rob  it  of  nearly  all  its  value.  It  is  true  that  the  Aztecs 
and  Peruvians  succumbed  to  the  onslaught  of  the  whites  stiU  more  feebly  than  the 
Indians  ;  but  China,  in  spite  of  many  storms,  still  stands  unshaken  in  any  respect. 
On  the  other  side,  the  opposition  was  nowhere  slighter  than  from  the  Polynesians ; 
the  distribution  of  a  sparse  population  over  an  immense  area  from  the  very  first 
prevented  any  war  being  waged.  Again,  the  geographical  conditions  of  India  and 
Indonesia  are  similar  on  both  the  east  and  west;  yet  their  dealings  with  the 
white  races  have  been  of  the  most  different  description.  So  far  as  the  Indies  are 
concerned,  we  must  abandon  the  idea  of  treating  the  ocean  as  an  important  influence 
on  the  course  of  history.  It  is  in  the  facts  of  religious  and  political  development 
that  we  must  seek  for  the  reason  why,  in  India  proper,  native  civilisation  succumbed 
to  the  slightest  shock  from  without,  while  in  Indonesia  it  found  a  safe  refuge. 

The  Indian  Ocean  at  that  critical  period  of  transition  was  not,  however,  quite 
unimportant  for  India.  The  States  of  the  Malabar  coast,  under  the  influence  of 
the  brisk  Arabian-Eg3'ptian  trade  with  the  Red  Sea,  had  aspired,  toward  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  to  create  fleets  of  their  own.  These,  with  the  constant  help 
of  Arabian  warships,  played  an  important  part  in  the  desperate  struggle  against 
the  Portuguese  invaders.  It  was  not  untU  the  last  ship  of  their  own  was  destroyed 
that  the  resistance  of  the  Indians  began  to  flag.  The  Arabs  alone  of  all  the  natu- 
ral defenders  of  the  Indian  Ocean  made  some  attempt  to  meet  their  responsi- 
bilities ;  for  the  Malays,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  were  not 
sufficiently  identified  with  the  soil  which  they  had  only  occupied  a  few  generations 
earlier.  They  were  also  too  few  in  numbers,  and  were  scattered  over  so  wide  an 
area  of  islands  that  their  resistance  could  not  have  proved  permanently  successful 
against  the  flood  of  Europeans  which  swept  on  simultaneously  from  east  and  west 
against  their  homes.  It  was  due  simply  and  solely  to  their  seamanship,  which 
enabled  them  to  inflict  great  damage,  especially  by  piracy,  on  the  white  intruders, 
that  they  could  continue  the  war  within  certain  limits  for  centuries.    . . 


604  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  [chapter  vi 

The  case  of  the  Arabs  was  ditleieiit  at  the  time  when  Vasco  da  Gaina,  after 
his  lui'inonible  voyage  to  Calicut,  set  foot  ou  the  soil  of  India;  they  represented 
the  lUnuinant  religion  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  possessed  the  monopoly  of  com- 
mercial intercourse  so  far  as  it  comiecled  the  Indian  world  with  the  West.  Not 
merely  did  the  fabulous  prosperity  of  Cairo  aud  Alexandria,  the  power  of  Venice, 
Genoa,  and  Pisa,  of  Barcelona  and  Florence,  the  splendour,  in  short,  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean world  of  those  times,  rise  and  fall  wiili  lliis  trade,  but  the  economic  life  of 
Northern  Europe  as  far  as  Germany  and  Flanders  was  materially  affected  by  it. 
The  whole  West  indeed  between  1200  and  1500  lay  under  the  spell  of  the  trade 
with  India.  The  assured  prosjiect  of  enormous  prolits  therefrom  had  once  led  the 
citizens  of  the  Italian  republics  to  vigorous  co-operation  in  the  crusades,  and,  long 
after  that  remarkable  period,  the  prizes  of  the  Indian  trade  exercised  a  magnetic 
fascination  both  on  indi\'iduals  and  on  peoples  in  the  West.  The  face  of  Europe 
was  then  turned  to  the  East  far  more  markedly  than  it  was  from  the  .sixteenth  cen- 
tury onward  to  the  West.  Hence  came  the  excitement,  almost  incomprehensible 
to  us,  which  mastered  all  the  western  peoples,  whenever  there  was  a  prospect  that 
the  narrow  entrances  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  commercial  routes  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  or  the  Red  Sea,  would  be  closed  or  hedged  about  with  new  obstacles. 

(h)  The  Stmggle  for  the  Supremacy  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  —  At  the  moment  of 
the  landing  of  Vasco  da  Gama  tlie  Arabs  recognised  the  desperate  danger  which 
threatened  their  supremacy.  In  the  succeeding  period  their  resistance  to  the  in- 
truders was  more  obstinate  and  lasting  than  that  offered  by  the  natives  of  India, 
who  were  unfamiliar  with  the  sea.  Even  the  Osmans,  who  in  1.517  by  the  con- 
quest of  Egypt  had  entered  upon  the  heritage  of  the  Mamelukes,  knew  perfectly 
well  that  Egypt  was  wortliless  to  them  unless  they  possessed  complete  liberty  of 
movement  on  the  Indian  Ocean.  This  truth  was,  however,  first  brought  home  to 
them  by  the  Venetians  and  Genoese,  who  lost  their  main  source  of  prosperity  with 
the  interruption  of  the  Levantine  trade.  The  attempts,  accordingly,  of  the  Turks 
to  regain  that  liberty  of  movement  were  less  persistent  than  woujd  have  been 
desirable  in  the  interests  of  all  the  Mediterranean  States.  Far  from  overthrowing 
the  power  of  the  Portuguese,  they  were  not  even  al)le  to  break  througli  the  block- 
ade of  the  Red  Sea,  which  the  new-comers  maintained  for  some  decades.  The 
Red  Sea  therefore  relapsed  temporarily  into  the  condition  of  a  backwater  ;  at  the 
same  time  the  heavy  hand  of  the  Turk,  spreailing  death  everywhere,  fell  on  its 
northern  exit. 

Politically  speaking,  the  Indian  Ocean  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, and  for  the  greater  part  of  the  nineteenth,  was  no  thoroughfare.  The  Dutch, 
it  is  true,  followed  the  tracks  of  the  Portuguese  as  far  as  Japan ;  but  the  east  coast 
of  Asia  was  still  too  closely  guarded  against  intruders  to  allow  that  vigorous  com- 
petition of  the  European  colonising  nations  which  characterises  the  northwest  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean  at  the  present  day.  Such  competition  was  to  be  found  at  that 
day  more  on  the  coasts  and  on  the  surface  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Tlie  Portuguese 
had  accustomed  themselves  for  more  than  a  century  to  regard  it  as  their  own 
sea.  For  while  the  famous  bull  of  Alexander  VI,  limiting  Spanish  enterprise 
to  the  lands  and  seas  west  of  the  Azores,  had  been  withdrawn  in  the  very  year 
when  it  was  issued,  stiU  Portugal  and  Spain  had,  within  a  few  years  of  this 
abortive  attempt  at  demarcation,  come  to  an  agreement  in  which   the  principle 


!/';;n„1irs;'rl     history  of  the  world  605 

of  the  papal  judgment  was  recognised,  and  the  New  World  was  partitioned 
between  these,  the  two  greatest  maritime  and  colonising  powers  of  the  age,  by 
the  tracing  of  an  imaginary  frontier  to  the  west  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  (cf. 
p.  451).  The  post-Columbian  age  did  away  with  this,  as  with  so  many  other  ideas. 
Just  as  the  Spaniards  could  not  hold  the  Pacific,  so  the  Portuguese  were  still 
less  able  to  close  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  pushing  new  colonial  powers,  since 
these  latter,  now  realising  their  importance,  advanced  almost  simultaneously  and 
in  dense  masses.  We  now  come  to  the  age  of  the  "  mare  liherum"  the  freedom 
of  the  oceans  (Vol.  VII,  p.  92).  In  colonial  history  between  1600  and  1850 
we  hear  of  no  considerable  region,  except  the  sea  of  Central  America,  which  was 
more  obstinately  contested  than  the  border  lands  and  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
And  as  if  it  were  not  enough  that  the  European  nations  should  rush  forward  to 
secure  for  themselves  the  heritage  of  Portugal,  the  Arabs  from  Muscat  stepped 
vigorously  on  the  scene  after  1660,  and  after  eighty  years  of  war  wrested  once 
more  the  central  coast  of  East  Africa  from  the  detested  European. 

The  place  of  the  Indian  Ocean  in  the  history  of  the  world  is  variously  illus- 
trated in  the  numerous  stages  of  this  competition.  Until  past  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  trading  nations  were  intent,  with  equal  zeal  but  unequal 
success,  on  securing  their  small  settlements  on  its  shores  and  islands.  National 
interests  were  represented  in  the  struggle  by  a  series  of  small  trading  companies, 
among  which  we  even  find  one,  the  Ostend  company,  of  German  origin.  In  the 
reign  of  the  empress  Maria  Theresa  there  was  an  attempt  to  found  a  German 
colony  in  Delagoa  Bay. 

This  international  competition  ends  at  the  moment  when  the  political  equi- 
librium was  disturbed  in  favour  of  England,  under  whose  dominion  it  was  now  des- 
tined to  pass  for  the  whole  succeeding  period.  This  disturbance  was  produced  by 
an  occurrence,  in  itself  unimportant,  which  in  its  later  developments  has  marked 
the  whole  subsequent  history  of  the  ocean  and  the  surrounding  countries,  —  the 
first  acquisition  of  territory  in  India  by  Britain.  If  we  bear  in  mind  that  from 
1498  to  past  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  political  activity  of  the 
European  powers  was  spent  on  the  founding  of  mere  factory  colonies,  which  could 
not  secure  to  any  of  the  participating  nations  a  broad  economic  basis  or  any  su- 
premacy, we  may  see  in  Robert  dive's  decisive  victory  at  Plassey,  on  June  23, 1757 
(p.  463),  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  both  for  India  and  for  the  Indian  Ocean. 

(c)  The  Indian  Ocean  as  Part  of  the  Universal  Ocean.  —  With  the  discover}-  of 
the  two  sea  routes  to  India  the  historical  centre  of  gravity  in  the  Indian  Ocean  also 
had  been  considerably  displaced,  but  in  an  easterly  direction,  unlike  that  of  the 
Atlantic,  which  moved  steadHj'  toward  the  west.  We  have  here  the  beginning  of 
the  modern  system  of  trade  routes,  and  of  the  process,  now  slowly  ripening  to  com- 
pletion, by  which  the  centre  of  gravity  of  international  relations  has  moved  toward 
the  Pacific.  Henceforth  we  have  hardly  to  reckon  with  the  northwest  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean,  which  had  been  for  more  than  two  thousand  years  the  scene  of  so 
much  political  activity  (Vol.  I,  p.  598).  It  was  too  remote  for  a  commerce  which, 
shifting  its  roads  to  the  high  sea,  quickly  forgot  the  narrow  corners  in  which  it 
had  hitherto  moved. 

Now  at  length  we  reach  the  period  when  it  is  possible  to  speak  of  the  ocean  as 
an  undivided  whole,  of  which  the  several  oceans  are  no  more  than  segments  artifi- 


606  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chaptc-  n 

cially  distinguished  by  geographers,  and  of  which  every  part  lies  open  to  all  the 
naval  jxjwers.  Henceforth  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  7nare  clausum  ;  and  if  in 
some  waters  the  balance  of  power  is  always  shifting,  it  is  never  uudisputcci.  One 
competitor  for  maritime  ascendancy  gains  ground,  another  drops  out  of  the  race,  but 
there  is  no  part  of  the  oceau  which  one  power  can  treat  as  its  monopoly.  The 
change  is  one  which  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century.  lu  the  early  part  of  that 
centurv  the  Portuguese  monopolised  tlie  Tiuli;in  Ocean,  the  Sjiiiniards  the  I'acilic. 
But  the  heritage  of  Spain  has  now  been  divided  between  England,  Holland,  France, 
Russia,  Germany,  Japan,  and  the  United  States.  The  first  three  of  these  nations 
have  also  invaded  the  Indian  Ocean ;  and  here  they  have  had  as  imitatoi-s  or  as 
rivals  the  Arabs,  the  Germans,  the  Italians.  The  colonial  empire  of  Portugal  in 
the  East  has  virtually  disappeared ;  and  no  one  power  has  inherited  the  Portuguese 
ascendancy  in  its  fuU  extent. 

So  far  there  is  uoiliiug  singular  in  tlie  liistory  of  the  Indian  as  distinct  from 
other  oceans.  What  is  singular  is  llie  dej)endence  of  the  Indian  uj^ou  the  Pacific 
Ocean, —  a  dependence  which  was  felt  long  before  the  civilized  world  learnt  of  the 
existence  of  the  Pacific.  The  Pacific  was  an  mikuown  sea  to  the  white  races  until 
IJalboa  in  the  second  decade  of  the  sixteenth  century  descended  from  the  heights 
of  Darien  to  the  southern  sea  (Vol.  I,  pp.  362,  585).  Then  first  amazed  Europe 
learnt  that  the  newly  discovered  country  was  not  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  but 
that  between  it  and  tlie  long-sought-for  Catliay  and  Zipangu  a  new  waste  of  waters 
lay,  on  whose  extent  the  lliird  decade  was  first  to  throw  light  by  the  exjiedition  of 
Magelhaes.  Before,  however,  the  Spaniards  approached  the  solution  of  the  Pacific 
question  from  the  east,  the  Portuguese  had  taken  the  first  steps  toward  it  by  the 
expeditions  which  they  had  sent  for  the  last  hundred  years  in  order  to  find  out  the 
route  to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Good  lIo]ie.  Neither  India  itself  nor  any  other 
definite  district  of  the  Western  Indian  Ocean  was  the  real  goal  of  the  Portuguese 
mariners.  Just  as  the  discoveries  of  the  Spaniards  were  bound  up  with  tlie  search 
for  the  presence  of  the  precious  metals,  so  the  Portuguese  expeditions  were  guided 
by  the  wish  to  reach  the  lands  which  produced  spices  and  drugs.  From  this 
point  of  view  the  Portuguese  colonies,  both  in  Nearer  and  Further  India,  as  well 
as  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  were  notliing  more  than  stations  on  the  dangerous 
route  to  the  Spice  Islands. 

These  efforts  to  reach  the  East  across  the  Indian  Ocean  did  not  cease  with  the 
Portuguese.  It  is  true,  as  we  have  seen,  that  their  successors,  the  Dutch,  British, 
French,  and  Danes,  in  the  two  centuries  following  the  fall  of  tlie  Portuguese  colo- 
nial empire,  attached  primary  importance  to  the  maintenance  of  their  possessions 
acquired  in  the  Indian  Ocean ;  but,  besides  this,  the  entire  civilized  world  of  Europe 
was  occupied  with  the  solution  of  a  problem  which,  beginning  on  the  surface  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  drifted  immediately  eastward.  This  task  is  the  search  for  the  un- 
known southern  land,  the  Terra  Australis  incognita.  Although  this  creation  of 
the  fancy  was  exorcised  from  the  south  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  Indian  Ocean 
through  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa,  only  a  few  decades  elapsed  before  it  again 
appeared.  In  the  Indian  Ocean  the  Terra  Australis  was  then  supposed  to  lie  in 
latitudes  not  far  removed  fi-om  those  to  which  it  had  been  referred  by  Hipparchus, 
who  imagined  Ceylon  to  be  the  northernmost  point  of  this  fabidmis  land.  Accord- 
ingly, the  efforts  to  reveal  the  position,  situation,  shape,  and  size  of  the  southern 
land  —  efforts  which  belong  to  all  three  oceans  —  were  most  vigorously  prosecuted 


o/ir/^i^7o«a"r]        HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  607 

there.  They  commence  with  the  voyages  of  Abel  Tasman  (1642-1643  and  1644), 
and  end  with  James  Cook's  famous  circumpolar  voyage,  1772-1775.  The  former 
removed  the  phantom,  at  least  for  the  Indian  and  Western  Pacific,  beyond  the  forty- 
fifth  degree  of  southern  latitude ;  but  the  latter  absolutely  destroyed  it  after  it  had 
disfigured  the  map  of  the  world  for  two  thousand  years.  Then  for  the  first  time 
some  complete  idea  of  the  hydrography  of  the  earth  could  be  entertained,  since  an 
approximately  correct  notion  of  the  distribution  of  land  and  water  had  been  formed. 
The  scientific  establishment  of  these  conditions  exercised  an  important  effect  on 
the  course  of  the  world's  history.  The  Southern  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Australian 
seas  then  for  the  first  time  became  serviceable  to  men,  and  New  Holland  was 
roused  into  historic  life.  Australia,  opened  to  colonisation,  began  a  new  career, 
which  may  end  by  securing  to  the  youngest  continent  the  political  and  economic 
headship  in  the  whole  southern  hemisphere. 

B.  From  the  Beginning  of  the  British  Sovereignty  in  India  to  the 
Cutting  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  (1757-1859) 

The  beginning  of  the  age  which  started  with  the  victory  of  Plassey  was  inaug- 
urated, first  by  the  Peace  of  Paris  of  February  10,  1763,  when  that  very  France, 
to  which  a  Dupleix  had  opened  out  such  glittering  prospects,  renounced  for  ever 
the  possession  of  India  and  consequently  the  supremacy  in  the  Indian  Ocean ; 
and  next  by  the  dissolution  of  the  French  East  India  Company  in  1770.  In  this 
way  the  only  European  rival  whom  England  had  then  to  consider  was  finally 
driven  from  the  field.  England  could  now  look  to  the  realisation  of  her  aim, 
which  was  to  impress  on  the  Indian  Ocean  the  stamp  of  a  British  sea,  —  of  a  cen- 
tral sea,  that  is,  round  which  the  Asiatic,  African,  and  Australian  branches  of  the 
British  world-empire  might  cluster.  Gigantic  as  this  beginning  must  have  appeared 
to  the  eighteenth  century,  yet  it  was  actually  realised  a  hundred  years  after  the 
withdrawal  of  the  French  from  India.  Immediately  before  the  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal  England  did  not,  it  is  true,  possess  all  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean  ; 
but  there  was  no  power  which  could  dispute  her  supremacy  single-handed. 

The  historical  importance  of  the  Indian  Ocean  during  those  hundred  years 
culminates  in  the  fact  that  it  then  was  mainly  sought  and  won  for  its  own  sake ; 
it  was  only  after  the  opening  up  of  East  Asia  that  it  sank  more  and  more  into  the 
position  of  a  thoroughfare.  The  activity  of  its  indigenous  population,  although 
it  was  not  less  vigorous  than  in  the  foregoing  age,  recedes  into  the  backgi-ound 
as  compared  with  that  of  the  invaders  from  outside.  The  theatre  of  events  lay 
now,  as  earlier,  exclusively  on  the  west  coast  of  the  ocean,  and  it  ended  in  the 
founding  and  growth  of  the  sultanate  of  Zanzibar,  the  keystone  to  the  fabric  of 
politics  and  civilization  raised  by  the  Arabs  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  Hardly  was  the 
structure  completed,  when  it  cracked  in  every  joint.  While  the  ocean  previously 
had  been  a  remote  gulf,  with  one  single  approach  far  down  at  the  Cape,  it  was 
brought,  through  the  artificial  strait  of  Suez,  far  nearer  to  the  section  of  mankind 
which  required  expansion ;  and  in  place  of  the  Latin  nations,  which,  dogged  as 
they  were,  had  grown  weary  from  the  colonising  work  of  centuries,  the  fresh  and 
resolute  Teuton  stepped  forward.  Before  the  om-ush  of  Britons  and  Germans  the 
Moslem  bulwark,  laboriously  reared  by  the  work  of  a  millennium  at  the  eastern 
entrance  to  the  Dark  Continent,  rapidly  fell  to  the  ground. 


6U8  HISTORY    OP^    THE    WORLD  [chapter  vi 

Tlie  inroads  from  without  were  then  less  restricted  in  their  sphere  of  action. 
It  is  Hue  that  they  only  had  two  startiug-points ;  but  one  of  these  at  least  was  a 
base  cuiuiuauding  the  whole  area  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Tiiese  two  points  are  India 
in  the  north,  and  the  mainland  of  Australia  in  the  southeast,  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
If  we  reflect  on  the  relative  position  of  the  two  countries  and  to  Europe,  the  pos- 
session of  Xew  Holland  seems  far  from  secure,  unless  India  is  simultaneously  held, 
while  on  the  other  side  the  possession  of  India  in  no  way  implies  that  of  the  fifth 
continent.  The  acquisition  and  utilisation  of  Australia  by  the  British  really  resulted 
from  motives  which  have  not  the  slightest  connection  with  their  Indian  pt)licy. 
Amongst  other  things,  the  coast  of  Australia  wliich  faces  the  Indian  Ocean  only 
experienced  the  first  essays  at  colonisation  in  1829,  forty  years  after  the  landing  in 
Botany  Bay.  The  uninviting  aspect  of  Western  Australia  is  a  partial,  not  a  com- 
plete, explanation  of  this  fact ;  it  certainly  would  have  been  no  hindrance  to  settle- 
ments if  political  necessities  had  reijuired  this  coast  as  a  base  from  which  to 
control  the  Indian  Ocean.  Yet,  even  with  the  undue  preference  given  to  its  eastern 
coast,  Australia  largely  influenced  the  Indian  policy  of  Great  Britain.  It  is,  geo- 
graphically and  historically,  from  the  day  of  its  discovery  onward,  an  indivisible 
whole,  and  its  connection  with  the  Old  World  was  bound  to  be  closer  llian  that 
of  the  Pacific  coasts  and  islands,  if  only  for  the  reason  that  it  is  less  remote  than 
they  are  from  the  original  home  of  the  white  races.  Thus  Australia  has  ever  since 
1788  been  a  weighty  factor  in  the  Indian  policy  of  Great  Britain.  Its  interests 
have  been  bound  up  with  those  of  the  British  possessions  in  India ;  and  the  vast 
accession  of  temtory  which  was  entailed  by  the  colonisation  of  Australia  has  dis- 
tinctly increased  the  vigom-  and  persistence  of  English  policy  in  this  part  of  the 
globe. 

The  establishment  of  her  position  in  India  has  marked  out  for  England  a  defi- 
nite road  by  which  to  maintain  communications  with  her  Australian  colonies ;  she 
must  endeavour  to  protect  the  approach  at  all  possible  ])uints,  as  well  as  to  com- 
mand the  surface  of  the  adjacent  sea.  The  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  even  the 
French,  had  already  tried  to  do  so.  The  Portuguese  had  laid  their  hands  on  nu- 
merous parts  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  from  Madeira  and  Arguin  in  the  north 
as  far  as  Benguela  in  the  .south,  and  liad  also  made  bases  on  the  east  coast  from 
Sofala  to  Makdishu  and  Socotra.  Tlie  Dutch,  with  better  discernment,  made  the 
southern  extremities  of  Africa  and  India,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1602  and  1652), 
and  Ceylon  (1602-1796)  the  centre  of  their  system  of  defence,  and  at  the  same 
time  took  care  to  occupy  Mauritius  (1598-1710)  and  Delagoa  Bay  (1721).  For 
France  finally  the  islands,  Madagascar  and  its  neighbours,  were  intended  to  pro- 
tect the  road  to  India,  at  least  in  the  south  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  British 
were  far  from  following  in  these  steps  directly  after  the  beginning  of  their  Indian 
sovereignty ;  on  the  contrary,  for  decades  St.  Helena  was  still  reckoned  as  a  sutli- 
cient  base  on  the  long  route  round  the  Cape.  Even  the  first  occupation  of  Cape 
Colony  (1795-1802),  which  was  merely  the  result  of  jealousy  of  the  French,  had 
not  yet  opened  the  eyes  of  English  ministers  to  the  value  of  South  Africa  for  the 
Indian  Ocean ;  they  would  hardly  otherwise  have  given  it  back  to  the  Batavian 
Bepublic.  It  was  only  the  agitation  of  keen-sighted  politicians  like  Richard 
Wellesley,  who  as  far  back  as  1798  had  clearly  expressed  his  opinion  that  India 
was  untenable  without  the  Cape,  and  still  more  the  attacks  on  the  British  colonial 
empire,  executed  or  planned  by  Napoleon  I,  which  brought  about  this  resolution. 


^ATInalaTS^^lT]       HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD  609 

England  therefore  in  1806,  rapidl}-  anticipating  the  intentions  of  Napoleon  to 
occupy  the  Cape,  planted  her  foot  once  more,  and  this  time  finally,  on  South  Africa. 
This  step  decided  the  whole  further  course  of  events  on  the  Indian  Ocean.  England 
is  now  supreme  not  only  at  the  apex  of  the  great  inland  sea,  but  also  at  the  corner 
pillars  at  its  base.  In  this  way  she  has  not  only  acquired  an  impregnable  defensive 
position,  but  she,  beyond  all  other  nations,  is  in  the  position  to  guide  the  destinies 
of  this  ocean. 

There  have  been  at  all  times  numerous  attempts  to  shatter  the  British  supre- 
macy. These  began  with  the  Egyptian  expedition  of  Napoleon,  and  his  plan,  which 
we  have  just  mentioned,  for  the  conquest  of  the  Cape ;  they  were  continued  in  the 
Treaty  of  Vienna  of  1815,  in  which  England  was  required  to  give  back  a  large  part 
of  the  French  and  Dutch  colonies,  which  she  had  taken  away  between  1810  and 
1814,  and  were  repeated  more  feebly  in  the  perpetual  efforts  of  France  to  make 
Madagascar  the  starting-point  of  a  new  Indian  policy.  Napoleon's  expedition  to 
Egypt,  which  undoubtedly  would  have  attained  the  desired  end,  had  France  been 
a  match  for  England  by  sea,  must  be  considered  as  comparatively  the  most  event- 
ful of  these  operations.  But  its  results  were  very  different  from  what  had  been 
anticipated.  It  reminded  England  of  the  vnlnerable  point  in  her  position;  and 
from  this  time  English  policy  was  naturally  guided  by  the  hope  of  securing  the 
Eed  Sea.  Great  events  throw  their  shadows  before,  even  in  the  history  of  the  seas. 
The  plan  of  cutting  the  isthmus  of  Suez  was  mooted  during  Napoleon's  stay  in 
Egypt,  and  was  never  again  allowed  to  drop.  The  repose  in  which  the  Eed  Sea 
had  been  left  for  three  hundred  years  was  rudely  shattered  now  that  the  interest 
of  Europe  was  concentrated  on  it.  It  became  apparent  that  dii-ect  communications 
were  to  be  reopened  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Far  East.  Once  more 
the  attention  of  the  colonial  powers  was  concentrated  on  the  northwest  comer  of 
the  Indian  Ocean.  In  1839  the  English  occupied  Aden,  the  emporium  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Eed  Sea  which  had  iiourished  in  the  old  days  of  saUiug-ships.  At 
the  moment  when  the  construction  of  the  canal  could  no  longer  be  prevented,  she 
firmly  planted  herself  on  Perim  in  the  straits  of  Bab  el  Mandeb  (1857),  and  almost 
at  the  same  time  included  in  her  dominion  the  Persian  Gulf. 

C.   The  Present  Day  (after  1859) 

(a)  TJie  Construciioii  of  the  Suez  Canal  and  its  Results.  —  The  expedition  of 
Napoleon  had  shown  England  how  insecure  her  Indian  possessions  were,  so  soon 
as  France  or  any  other  power  set  foot  in  Egypt.  Accordinglj-,  after  the  battle  of 
the  Pyramids  (July  21, 1798),  the  chief  object  of  her  Indian  policy  was  necessarily 
to  prevent  such  a  contingency,  or  even  anj-  political  and  economic  strengthenuig  of 
the  country.  There  was  no  difficulty  in  carrying  out  this  purpose,  so  long  as  the 
plan  of  the  Suez  Canal  was  stUl  in  the  germ,  and  England  continued  to  hold  the 
undisputed  sovereignty  of  the  seas  whicli  she  had  won  during  the  Eevolutionary 
and  Napoleonic  wars.  But  later,  as  the  plan  of  the  canal  assumed  more  definite 
shape,  and  the  other  powers,  who  had  gained  strength  in  the  interval,  once  more 
advanced  on  to  the  seas,  this  sovereignty  became  more  difficult,  but  at  the  same 
time  more  important.  Lord  EUenborough  was  therefore  justffied  in  saying  that 
England,  if  she  wished  to  secure  the  supremacy  of  the  world,  must  stand  with 
one  foot  in  India  and  the  other  in  Egypt.     Lord  Palmerston  privatel}-  informed 

VOL.  n  —  39 


GUI  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [chapter  vr 

Count  FeiiUnantl  de  Lessejis  that  if  Knglanil  was  allowed  to  occupy  Egypt 
jtermanoutly  with  au  army  and  to  superinteud  the  tratlie  in  the  caiial,  he  and 
England  would  be  willing  to  aid  the  enterprise  in  every  way  (1855-185S) ;  but  it  was 
found  possible  to  coaiplele  tlie  canal  (1SG9)  without  this  great  concession.  How- 
ever, English  policy  soon  found  the  means  of  making  the  canal  a  source  of  strength 
instead  of  weakness  to  her  colonial  empire.  In  1875  Lord  Beaconsfield  seized  the 
opjH>rtunity  of  the  Khedive  Ismail's  pecuniary  embarrassments  to  purchase  his 
shares  in  the  cauaL  The  rebellion  of  Arabi  i'asha  alfonled  an  unex})ecied  oppor- 
tunity of  taking  a  still  further  step.  Half  against  the  will  of  the  ministry  of  the 
moment,  England  crushed  the  revolt  and  effected  the  occupation  of  Egypt  (1882). 
The  great  problem  was  thus  solved ;  the  way  to  the  Indian  Ocean  as  well  as 
to  the  I'aciKc  had  become  an  English  road.  But  at  the  same  time  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  old  country  of  the  I'liaraohs  brought  Great  Britain  face  to  face  with  a 
new  task,  that  of  flanking  the  Indian  Ocean  by  an  Africa  which  was  English 
from  Capetown  to  the  Nile. 

The  opposition  of  England  to  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal  is  intelligible, 
when  we  consider  her  historical  position  during  the  first  five  or  six  decades  of  the 
nineteenth  century  and  the  geographical  conditions  of  the  country  in  question. 
England's  intention,  of  which  Lesseps  was  informed  by  Palmerston,  was  to  retain 
the  monopoly  of  the  world's  trade  and  the  supremacy  on  every  sea.  Both  these 
objects  had  their  starting-point  and  their  foundation,  as  determined  by  the  course 
of  history,  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  at  that  period  was  in  fact  an  English  sea. 
Althiiugh  P^ngland  could  only  anticipate  that  the  cutting  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez 
would  bring  her  immense  profits  by  the  noteworthy  shortening  of  the  sea  route  to 
India,  yet  she  could  not  on  the  other  hand  disguise  from  herself  the  fact  that  this 
entrance  from  the  Altantic  Ocean  stood  open  to  others  l)esides  herself,  and  would 
attract  foreign  competitors  to  a  degree  which  could  ntit  yet  be  estimated.  Such 
competition  was  hardly  worth  considering  when  the  long  route  round  the  Cape  was 
in  use;  but  with  the  new  road,  which  ]ilaced  the  once  so  distant  East  at  the  very 
doors  of  every  people,  it  was  onl}'  too  nuich  to  be  dreaded.  Hence  the  obstinate 
resistance,  continued  by  every  possible  expedient  for  decades,  against  the  realisa- 
tion of  the  plan.  When  England  ultimately  resigned  herself  to  the  inevitable,  she 
had  probably  gained  sufficient  confidence  in  her  own  political  capabilities  to  feel  sure 
of  resisting  all  competition,  even  under  the  new  condition.s.  England  had  not 
deceived  herself  in  these  expectations.  One  error  onlj-  had  slipped  into  her  calcu- 
lations. She  had  omitted  to  take  into  account  the  always  inseparable  connection 
of  economic  and  political  interests  in  modern  times.  A  classic  example  of  tliis  was 
seen  in  the  Indian  Ocean  when  Germany  and  Italy,  the  two  new  powers  mainly 
to  be  considered,  advanced  after  1884  from  merely  economic  activity  to  a  political 
scheme  of  colonisation  on  the  hitherto  neglected  western  coast  of  that  sea. 

The  opening  of  the  new  waterway  brought  with  it  also  a  mass  of  new  results 
for  mankind  in  general  and  for  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Mediterranean  in  partic- 
ular. This  latter  now  not  only  developed  itself  into  one  of  the  most  crowded 
thoroughfares,  but  awoke  slowly  to  a  new  life  of  its  own,  which  in  its  most 
vigorous  form  stirred  the  Italians  to  oversea  ex]iansion.  But  still  more  wide 
were  the  efi'ects  of  the  completion  of  the  Suez  Canal  on  tlie  Indian  Ocean  and  the 
commerce  of  the  world.  The  numerous  routes  which  ran  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  the  north  and  northwest  were  suddenly  deserted,  except  by  a  few  sailing- 


fr?;:^i"nC«r]      history  of  the  world  en 

ships.  Ou  the  other  hand,  the  few  routes  which  traversed  the  new  commercial 
highway  in  the  first  years  after  its  opening  have  been  multiplied  and  differ- 
entiated ;  there  are,  at  the  present  day,  numbers  of  trunk  lines  which  converge  upon 
Port  Said  and  diverge  again  from  Aden  eastward.  The  opening  up  of  Australia 
and  Madagascar  has  done  something  to  restore  the  importance  of  the  older  routes. 
But  old  and  new  alike  have  the  Pacific  for  their  ultimate  objective.  The  Indian 
Ocean  at  the  jjresent  day  has  again  become  an  anteroom  to  its  larger  neighbour. 

In  addition  to  the  enormous  commerce  which  the  Indian  Ocean  of  the  jjreseut 
day  transmits  from  Europe  to  the  Pacific  and  in  the  reverse  direction,  the  Indian 
Ocean  has  also  some  political  developments  to  show,  which  are  the  result  of  indi- 
genous development.  There  is  of  course  nothing  of  the  historical  activity  of  early 
settled  nations  to  be  noticed  at  the  present  time,  when  the  sultanate  of  Zanzibar 
and  the  empire  of  the  Hovas  have  been  blotted  out  from  the  list  of  States.  But, 
in  compensation,  Britons  and  Germans,  French  and  Italians,  have  so  firmly  rooted 
themselves  on  the  coasts  and  the  surface  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  that  we  may  now 
venture  to  speak  of  Europeans  being  domiciled  there,  and  may  regard  their  activity 
as  being  that  of  peoples  native  to  this  region. 

(i)  The  Consolidation  of  the  British  Supremacy  in  the  Indian  Ocean  hi/  the 
Capetotvn- Cairo  Policy.  —  Eui^dand  endeavoured  in  other  ways  to  retrieve  the 
losses  which  she  had  thus  sustained.  In  1866  she  acquired  British  East  Africa, 
a  territory  precisely  equidistant  between  Cape  Colony  and  Egypt.  The  idea  of 
a  junction  of  these  three  provinces  must  naturally  have  forced  itself  upon  men's 
minds,  especially  since  between  them,  on  the  south  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden, 
on  the  Zambesi,  on  the  Nyassa,  and  in  the  important  Zanzibar  Archipelago,  at 
the  same  time  or  a  little  later,  opportunities  were  offered  for  the  expansion  of 
the  British  power.  The  maguificent  idea  of  an  Africa  which,  on  its  eastern  side  at 
all  events,  shall  be  British  from  the  Cape  to  the  mouths  of  the  Nile,  loses  some  of 
its  audacity  under  these  circumstances ;  but  it  has  been  keenly  taken  up  in  Eng- 
land and  has  already  approached  its  realisation.  This  idea  alone  caused  the 
masters  of  Egypt  to  gi\'e  Mahdism  its  well-deserved  quietus  on  September  2, 
1898,  before  Omdurman.  In  order  to  realise  it  the  English  have  crushed  the 
Matabele  empire,  and  have  moved  their  frontiers  far  beyond  the  Zambesi  to 
the  north.  For  its  sake  they  are  constructing  tlirough  Africa  a  raih'oad  system 
wljich  not  only  testifies  to  economic  sagacity,  but  by  meaus  of  its  northern 
branches,  the  Nile  Valley  and  the  Uganda  railways,  makes  England  independent 
of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Arabian  Gulf,  in  the  event  of  these  being  blocked  by  a 
hostile  fleet.  In  fact,  combined  with  other  motives,  it  led  also  to  the  defeat  of  the 
Boers.  The  Boers,  it  is  true,  were  more  African  than  the  negroes,  since  they 
have  never  struggled,  like  these  at  least,  to  reach  the  sea,  and  so  far  could  not  dis- 
turb Great  Britain  by  sea ;  but  as  a  land  power  England  was  bound  to  remain 
defective  on  the  Indian  Ocean  so  long  as  the  two  Boer  republics  existed. 

(c)  The  Northern  and  Northeastern  Indian  Ocean.  —  During  the  last  thirty 
or  fifty  years  the  north  and  the  northwest  of  the  Indian  Ocean  have  also  attained 
an  increased  importance  as  the  thoroughfare  to  the  East  at  the  moment  when 
East  Asia,  violently  roused  from  its  lengthened  seclusion,  was  opened  to  the  enter- 
prise of  the  European.     England  here,  too,  was  victorious.     At  the  first  dawn  of 


6112  HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD         [n.apter  vr 

this  jteriod  (1824)  she  laid  her  grasp  upon  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  with  Singapore, 
Malacca,  and  Pulo  renaiij;.  Since  that  time  the  Indian  Ocean,  so  far  as  it  conies 
into  the  question  uf  modern  world  commerce,  bears  in  that  part,  notwithstanding 
the  extensive  possessions  of  the  Dutch,  an  English  stamp. 

In  conclusion,  the  last  act  of  this  drama  lies  mostly  in  the  womb  of  time.  It 
brings  us  into  contact  with  a  nation  which  h;is  often  occupied  our  attention  on  the 
Pacific  (Vol.  I,  p.  593),  but  wliicli  apparently  has  no  right  to  meet  us  here, —  the 
Kussian  nation.  And  yet  their  ap{)earauce  on  the  Pacific  implies  their  movement 
toward  the  Indian  Ocean.  If  Russia  wishes  not  to  be  stitied  in  the  enormous  expanse 
of  her  Asiatic  iwssessions,  if  she  wishes  to  guide  tlie  unwieldy  mass,  she  must 
force  a  way  to  the  nearest  sea ;  her  East  Asiatic  coast  is  in  every  respect  insutli- 
cient,  and  above  all  too  remote.  Hence  comes  that  onward  movement,  during  the 
last  decades,  toward  the  south,  toward  Mesopotamia  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  which 
in  our  days  so  often  assumes  tangible  form  in  the  ([uestion  of  the  Western  Asiatic 
railways  and  of  a  Russian  harbour  on  that  gulf.  England  has  here  a  far  more 
difficult  position  tlian  anywhere  else  on  the  coasts  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  In  Further 
India  tlie  jiower  of  Holland  is  broken  up  over  infinite  islands,  groat  and  small ;  in 
East  Africa  England's  colonial  possessions  lie  firmly  riveted  round  and  behind  the 
territories  of  the  Portuguese,  Germans,  and  Italians.  But  there  she  sees  herself 
confined  between  the  sea  and  an  antagonist  whose  ponderous  mass  presses  slowly, 
but  with  irresistible  power,  toward  the  south. 


6.   RETROSPECT   AND   OUTLOOK 

The  Indian  Ocean,  from  the  first  day  that  men  reached  it  and  ventured  on  its 
waters  down  to  the  present,  has  played  the  part  of  an  intermediary,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  anthropology,  commerce,  religion,  and  more  especially  of  culture.  This 
peculiar  property  finds  its  truest  expression,  so  far  as  the  special  history  of  this 
part  is  concerned,  in  the  formation  of  an  ludo-African  sphere  of  civilization, 
which  embraces  the  entire  northwest  of  the  ocean,  and  whose  strongest  representa- 
tive we  see  before  us  in  Islam.  Even  to-day  it  is  still  conceivable  that  Islam  might 
recover  for  its  civilization  that  pre-eminence  which  has  been  gradually  lost  in  four 
centuries  of  conflict  with  the  white  races.  The  headship  in  this  struggle  would  on 
purely  numerical  grounds  fall  solely  and  simply  to  the  people  of  India,  if  they 
only  chose  to  renounce  their  gloomy  inertness  in  favour  of  a  more  active  religion. 
Their  choice  might  well  fall  on  Christianity.  But,  to  begin  with,  Islam  has  already 
a  great  advantage  as  compared  with  Christianity.  Two  million  Christians  are  con- 
fronted by  fifty-seven  millions  of  Mohammedans  in  India  alone  ;  and,  in  the  second 
place,  Christianity  seems  to  have  no  prosperity  in  store  for  it  within  the  region  of 
the  Indian  Ocean.  It  has  not  made  any  appreciable  progress  either  on  the  south- 
ern coasts  of  Asia  or  in  Africa,  while  Mohammedanism  has  spread  rapidly  in  both 
continents.  So  long  as  India  remains  under  English  rule,  it  will  never  advance  to 
independent  expansion  on  the  high  seas,  since,  for  this  purpose,  the  influence  of 
Europeanism  on  the  inert  mass  of  Hinduism  in  that  tropical  country  is  too 
insignificant. 

This  possibility  is  less  remote  in  the  case  of  the  two  other  great  English 
colonies  on  the  Indian  Ocean.     Australia,  at  the  present  day,  is  developing  into 


^ir?»lf"C"r]        HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD  613 

a  commonwealth  under  English  suzerainty,  which  lias  already  in  its  youth  given 
vigorous  signs  of  a  tendency  toward  expansion.  The  direction  of  such  expansion 
is  indeed  without  exception  toward  the  north  and  the  northeast,  to  the  island 
groups  of  Melanesia  and  Polynesia  ;  but  what  should  prevent  the  United  States 
of  Australia  from  turning  their  eyes  at  some  future  time  on  the  Dutch  archipel- 
ago ?  That  South  Africa,  which  is  now  embarking  on  a  similar  course  of  develop- 
ment, should  turn  its  attention  to  the  Pacific  is  a  physical  necessity,  since  the 
Antarctic  and  South  Atlantic  Ocean  could  not  offer  it  any  firm  base. 

The  position  of  England  in  the  Indian  Ocean  is  greatly  improved  by  such  events  ; 
she  is,  indeed,  since  tlie  successful  inauguration  of  her  Pan-African  policy,  stronger 
than  ever,  and  her  dominion  is  still  wider.  Nevertheless,  this  ocean  can  hardly 
become  once  again  a  closed  English  sea.  There  are  too  many  powerful  navies  at 
present  to  admit  of  this,  as  well  as  too  many  approaches  to  the  ocean.  Among 
these  means  of  access  the  Red  Sea  has  from  decade  to  decade  grown  in  importance, 
owing  partly  to  the  pre-eminent  value  of  Southeast  and  South  Asia  in  the  eyes  of 
Europe  and  the  United  States,  but  partly  also  to  the  substitution  of  the  steamer 
for  the  sailing-vessel  as  an  instrument  of  commerce.  Whetlier  this  change  in 
navigation,  wliich  chronologically,  almost  precisely,  coincides  with  the  opening  of 
the  Suez  Canal  (1869),  is  a  direct  consequence  of  it  must  remain  an  undecided 
point,  but  it  certainly  was  influenced  by  that  event.  The  Indian  Ocean  thus 
testifies  to  its  significance  for  a  region  which  certainly  will  become  a  more  im- 
portant factor  in  shaping  the  world's  history  in  the  future  than  it  is  even  at  the 
present  time. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  future  of  the  Indian  Ocean  in  the  domain  of  anthro- 
pology cannot  be  anything  but  unimportant.  There  is  no  scope  here  for  a  mixture 
of  such  far-reaching  significance  as  we  were  able  to  fore.see  in  case  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  (Vol.  I,  p.  59.5).  The  aborigines  of  Australia,  doomed  to  destruction  from 
the  first,  may  be  disregarded  ;  but  the  Hindu,  like  the  Africans  of  the  mainland 
from  the  east  horn  to  the  Zambesi,  will  continue  to  live  in  such  dense  masses,  that  no 
infusion  of  foreign  blood  could  produce  noteworthy  changes  of  this  sort.  It  is  only 
in  South  Africa  and  in  the  equatorial  district  of  the  east  coast  of  that  continent 
that  the  necessary  conditions  are  foimd  for  a  close  intermixture  of  races.  The 
latter  region  has  no  future,  for  the  Arab  immigration  has  lessened  since  the  com- 
mencement of  the  new  order  of  things.  The  Swahili  country,  therefore,  is  hope- 
lessly abandoned  to  negro  influences.  The  south,  on  the  other  hand,  has  better 
prospects  anthropologically,  since  there  a  number  of  various  racial  elements  are 
concentrated  on  a  narrow  space,  —  the  Kaffir  and  the  light-complexioned  peoples  of 
the  Hottentots,  and  the  Bushmen,  the  low-German  Boer,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the 
Malay  and  the  Indian.  It  is  questionable  whether  any  mixture  of  all  these  various 
elements  will  ever  take  place,  but  the  first  step  toward  this  result  has  been  shown 
long  ago  in  the  case  of  the  Bastaards. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abaka,  179,  180,  181 

Abbassids,  423,  595 

Abd  Allah  II  of  Bokara,  198,  199, 
208 

Abd  nl  Ahad.     See  Seiad 

Abd  uUah,  Seiad,  444,  446,  448 

Abdallah  of  Golconda,  438,  439 

Abhaya,  499 

Abhiraja,  520 

Abu  All  el-Hussein  ibn  Sina,  420 

Abu  Said  Badabur,  180,  186 

Abu'I-fatli,  Jelal  ed-diu  Akhar, 
431-439,  456,  481 

Abu'I  Fazl,  432,  434,  436 

Ahu'lGhazi  I,  199 

Abu'I  Hasan  of  Golconda,  442 

Abu'I  Kasim  Barbar  Bahadur,  186 

Abyssinia,  168,  451 

Acapulco,  570 

Achsemeuids,  590 

Achakpa.     See  Asu  chipa 

Acheh  (Achiu),  550,  554,  560,  561, 
603 

Acre,  99,  100 

Adams,  John,  318 

Adams,  Tobias,  465 

Adelaide,  251,  284,  285,  295,  296 

Aden,  101,  593,595,  609 

Aditya,  367 

Aditya  dbarma,  555,  556 

Aduiis,  594 

Adyi  Saka,  555 

Aetas,  516 

Afghan,  347,  364,  420,  421,  424, 
.  428,  430,  431,  433,  437,  445,  447, 
463,  465,  471,484,  485,  487,  490, 
492 

Afghanistan,  138,  144,  184,  187, 
197,  224,  225,  346,  347,352,  364, 
406,  407,  420,  421,  424,  429,  433, 
438,  482-484,  500 

Africa,  234-237,  246,  247,  254, 
265,  299,  304,  305,  308,  349,  351, 
403,  450,  456,  495,  535,  536,  538, 
549,  561,  572-575,  578,  580,  582- 
584,  587,  588,  590,  591 ,  595,  597- 
600,  602,  603,  605,607-613 

Afzal  Khan  of  Bijapur,  441 

Agastya,  359,  385,  386 


Aggabodhi  IV,  506 

Agni,  367,  375 

Agong  of  Materan,  558 

Agra,  419,  430,  432,  438,  439,  456, 
474,  480 

Agrabhi  I,  506 

Agriculture,  7,  41,  63,  125-128, 
131-134,  139,  209,  255,  259,  261- 
265,  275,  276,  285,  291-294,  332, 
349,  358,  359,  363,  365,  372.  406, 
502,  509,  541,  568,  574,  578 

Aguinaldo  Emilio,  571,  572 

Abaz,  589 

Ahmed,  Ilkhan,  180 

Ahmed  Abdali  Shah  Durrani,  445, 
446,  482,  485 

Ahmed  ben  Owais,  180,  184 

Ahmed  Shah,  Great  Mogul,  447 

Ahmed  Shah  Bahmani.     See  Ala 

ED-DIN 

Ahmedabad,  456,  469 

Ahmeduagar,  434, 438,  474 

Ahmedpur,  487 

Ai-Lao,  525 

Ai  Ti,  79 

Ai  Tsung,  95 

Aigun,  Convention  of,  226 

Aino   (Ainu),  2,  3,  5,   9,  17,   20, 

115,  130,  203,  204,  214,  215 
Aisin  Gioro.     See  also  Tai  Tsc, 

102,  212 
Aix  la  Chapelle,  Peace  of,  460 
Aizu,  Prince  of,  49 
Ajmir,  354,  420,  421,  430,  434,  456 
Akabah,  587,  590 
Akbar.     See  Ab6'l  Fath 
Akbar,  son  of  Aurang  zeb.     See 

Mohammed 
Akbar  Khan,  483,  484 
Akeshi  Mitsuhide,  30 
Aki,  5 
Akita,  44 
Akuta,  91 

Ala  ed-din  Ahmed  Shah  II,  428 
Ala  ed-din  Mohammed.    See  Qutb 
Ala   ed-din    Mohammed    Shah   I, 

424-426,    430 
Alani,  154,  155,  205,  216 
Alara  Kalana,  391 


Albasin,  106,  220 

Albuquerque,  Affonso  d',  451,  521, 

549 
Albuqueri)ue,  Francisco  d',  450 
Alcock,  Rutherford,  46 
Alexander  VI,  pope,  604 
Alexander  VII,  ]iope,  104 
Alexander   tlie    Great,    144,    166, 

387,  404-405,  417,  543,  590,  591 
Alexandria,  546,  590,  591,  604 
Alfonzo  the  Great,  450 
Alfurs,  565,  567,  568,  585 
AliofOudh.     See  Wasib 
Ali  II  of  BijapQr,  442 
Ali    Guhar    Shah    Alam    II,    443, 

463,  465,  468,  473,  474 
Ali  Mogliayat  Shah,  561 
Ali  Muaggad,  184 
Ali  Wardi  of  Bengal,  462 
'Alim  Shah,  428 
Alipuko.     See  ARiKsnGA 
Aliwal,  486 
AUah-Kuli  Khan,  222 
Allahabad,  371,  447,  463,  465,  471, 

473.  491 
Almeida,  Francisco  d',  450,  451 
Alo  ed-din  al-Kahar,  561 
Alonlpra,  522,  527,  532 
Alphabets,  also  Writing,  6,  11,  12, 

59-62,  68,  85,  116,  136,  164,  168, 

169,  387,  388,  519,  548 
Alps,  132 
Altai    Mountains,   124,    125,    132, 

146,  154,  156,  157,  158,  159,  160, 

167,  183,  202,  206,  221,227 
Altamash.     See  Shams  ed-din 
Altyn  Khan,  192,  219 
Altyn  Tagh,  124,  141 
Amakusa,  25,  26 
Amanda  Gamaui,  504 
Amang  Kurat,  558 
Amano  koyane  no  mikoto,  16 
Amarapura,  522,  523 
Araaterasu,  4 
Amatsu,  4,  5 

Amber,  4.33,  437,  444,  461 
Amboina,  452,  4.53,  475,  551-553, 

568 
America,  96,   105,   131,   200,   201, 


618 


HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD 


Jntlez 


213,  214,  220,  221,  254,  2Sd,  2G5, 

294,  29!'.  305,  30G,  311,3*13,320- 

334,  452,  53r.,  542,  570,  G02 
America,  Soutli,  235,  245-247, 252, 

253,317 
Amcriiau,  231,  308,  313,  317,  324, 

327,  343 
Amherst,  Lord,  478-»80 
Amir  Khan,  477,  478 
Ami>.v,  57,  106,  108 
Amrita,  3G7 
Amu    Daria,    196,    197,   223,  224, 

362,  424 
Amur,    1,    94,    200,  205,  212-214, 

215,  217,  219,  220,  222,  225,  226, 

228,  229 
Amursaiia,  107 
Auhsi  (Ansi),  79,  151 
An  Lnh  shiui,  91 
An  te  wnng,  90 
An  Ti,  88 

Anauda,  392,  393,  396 
Ancestors,  worship  of,  10,  43,  56, 

61,  64.  104,  112 
Andaman  Islands,  479,  516,  538 
Ando  Tsushima  no  kanii,  46 
Andrado  Feruao  Perez,  549 
Andriana,  575 
Andrianimpoina,  576 
Anga,  371 
Angora,  184 
Ankawijava,  557 
Annam,     101,  107,  515-517,    524, 

528-534,  544 
Antananarivii,  578 
Antarctic,  344 
Antarctic   Ocean,    234,    246,    344, 

582 
Autioch,  104,  591 
Anurudhapura,  497,  503,  505,  506, 

509,  510 
Anuruddha,  520 
Anwar  ed-din,  460,  461 
Aorsi,  15-4 
Apaoclii,  94 
Apastamba,  374 
Apia,  325-328 

Appa,  Sahib  of  Berar,  477,  478 
Arab,  129,   160,  161,  163,  168,  200, 

351,  354,  417,  419,449-451,  511, 

542-545,  548,  549,  557,  561,  567, 

572,  574,  575,  595-601,  603,  604, 

606,  607,  613 
Arabi  Pasha,  610 
Arabia,  151,450,451,  546,  548,549, 

557,  583,  587,  588,  591,  593,  595 
Arabian    Sea,  348,  371,  387,  428, 

590,  591,  595,  611 
Arados,  587 
Arahat,  394 

Arakan,  479,  515,  520-523 
Aral  Sea,  154,  160,  197,  222 


Ardiangel,  219 

Architecture,  79,  80,  417-419,438, 
547 

Arcot,  449,  461,  473 

Arctic,  201,  205,209,213,218.229, 
276,  344,  453 

Arctic  Ocean,  199,  204,  219,  220, 
276 

Area,  I,  57-59,  115,  236,  277,  293, 
294,  297,  300,  337,  345,  514,  554, 
560,  562 

Arcndt,  Karl,  62,  74.  87 

Argiiun,  474 

Argun,  180 

Arima,  22,  24-26 

Arikl>uga.  96.  177,  179 

Arimaddana,  508 

Arimaspes,  146,  147,  1+8 

Aristi'as,  136,  146,  147,  149 

Arjuna.  370,  385 

Arjnni,  445 

Armenia,  100,  143,  176,  179,  180, 
181,  184,  186,351 

Arrian,  404 

Arslan  Khan,  197 

Art,  114,  117,  16.5-167,  418-420, 
438,  .502,  505 

Arthur,  Colonel,  248,  273-276 

Arva,  365 

Arya  Damar,  557 

Aryabliata,  417 

Aryan,  133,  134,  135,  138,  139,  143, 
144,  161,  202,  203,  205.  217,345, 
347,  348,  352,  355-365,  371-373, 
375-;i79,  384-389,  400,  404,  406, 
414,  417,418,425,  476,  495,496, 
498-.500,  504,  541,  542,  588 

Asaf  Jab,  444,  447-449,  461-464, 
467,  472,  474 

Asaf  ed-I)ouIa  of  Oudh,  469,  471 

Asaniwratta,  379 

Asanga,  409 

Asela,  King,  500,  503 

Asliikaga,  lil,  22-24,  29,  30,  118 

Asliikaga  Takauji,  22,  23,  118 

Asbta,  478 

Asia.  1 ,  20,  24,  .54,  57-59,  75,  96, 
100,  102,  112,  114-199,  230,  231, 
234,  235,  253,  300,  306,  324,  343, 
345-349,  3G1,  387,  4(>G,  426,  450, 
454,  456,  482,  494,  511,  514,519, 
532,  535-537,  539,  543,  544,  552, 
553,  569,  571,  572,  581,  582,  584, 
585,  590,  592,  593,  595,  59G,  599, 
600,  602,  604,  606.  607,  611,  612 

Asia  Minor,  126, 143,  144, 176,  177, 
184 

Asiatic,  539,  540,  584,  585 

Asoka,  166.  187,  387,394-397,399, 
406-409.  497.  500,  501.  506 

Assam.  348,  .349,  351-354, 478,  479, 
515,  516.  518,  522 


Assau,  52,  53 

Assassins,  the,  177,  178 

Assaye,  474 

Assyria,  143,  347,  351,  404 

Ast.m.  \V,  G.,  6 

Astrakhan,  199 

Asu  chipa.  97 

Asura  (Ahurania/.diih),  3G7,  385 

Aswatlhaman,  374,  381 

At  bar  Veda,  416 

Atlantic  Ocean,  127,580,  582-587. 

594.  595,  599,  601,  602,  605,  610 
Atman,383 
Atrek,  224 

Atthakatha,  415,  504,  505 
Attila.  155 
Auckhind,  .336,  338 
Aucklaml,    Lord,     George    Edin, 

481-484 
Anrang    zeb.       See    Mohammkd 

iMc  III    El>    DIN 

Austral  Islamls,  307 

Australia.  230-299,  331-336,  338- 
340,  535,  536,  538,  542,  580.  582, 
583,  587,  GOO,  602,  606,  607,  608, 
611-613 

Australia,  Soutli,  271,  272,  283- 
289,  292,  293,  299,  335,  .337 

Australia,  Western,  270,  272,  280- 
283,  289,  294,  297,  299 

Anstralians,  240,  241,  245-247, 
249-252.  585 

Austria,  93,  345,  455,  463,  528 

Autoku,  18,  19 

Ava,  409,  479.  521,  522,  527  ' 

Avalidiitesvara,  409 

Avar.  127,  157,  205,  206,  216 

Avatiira,  410 

Avicenna.  See  Ann  AlS  el- 
Hussein 

Ayinonier,  E.,  518 

Ayodbyu,  359,  371 

Aynthia,  521,  525-528 

A/,erl>ijan,  186 

Azes,  King,  407 

Azim  Shah.     See  Mohammed 

'Aziz  ed-din  'Alaingir  III,  Great 
Mogul,  444,  463 

Azores,  604 

Bxn  EL  MANDEn,  609 
Babcr  II.     See  /EiiiR  ed-din 
Babylon,    122,   131-135,    143,   406, 

591 
Bacliu  Noyau  Gen,  98,  99 
Bactria,    144,    151,    166,  404,  407, 

430 
B,aelz,  Dr.  E.,  2,59,  115 
Bagdad.    172.   176,    177,    179,   180, 

423,  596 
Bahadur  Nizam  Shah  of  Ahmed- 

iiagar,  434 


inrf«1 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


619 


Bahadur  Sahi.     See  Raja 

Bahadur  Shah  of  Gujerat,  431 

Bahirava,  411 

Balihil  I.6dhi.    See  LoDi 

Bahuiaui  dj  uastv,  428 

Baian,  ITS 

Baikal   Lake,    89,    170,    205,  209, 

220,  228 
Bairam  Khan,  432 
Bairat  (Bhalira),  Decree  of,  396 
Bajazpt  I,  Sultan,  184 
Baji  Uao,  447,  448 
Baji  Hao  II,  477,  478,  488 
Bak'fu,  13,  20,  39 
Baker,  Shirley,  330,  331 
Baksar  (Buxar),  465 
Balaji,  447,  448 

Balaji  Wiswanath,  446,  447,  467 
Balamir,  155 
Balboa.  594,  606 
Bali,  557,  558,  568,  569,  603 
Balkan  Peninsula,  134 
Balkh,  199,  438 
Ballarat,  289,  290 
Baltic  Sea,  225 
Baluchistan,  .346,  352.  353 
Bamboo  Books,  62,  66,  71 
Banda,  551.  553,  568 
Bandhavaua,  374 
Bandula,  General,  479 
Bangalore,  471 
Ban^'kok,  505,  520.  527,  528 
Banhipur,  454,  455 
Banjerm.assing,  545,  563,  564 
Banka,  562 
Banks,  254 

Bantam,  551,  552,  558,  559,  563 
Barawa,  598 
Bardwan,  464 
Barends(zon),  Willem,  453 
Barid  Shah  of  Bedar,  428 
Barker,  Oapt.  Collet.  283 
Barlow,  Sir  George,  475,  476 
Baroda,  354,  448,  451,  482 
Barrackpur.  490 
Bass,  Mr.,  257 
Bassein,  469,  470,  473,  477,   522, 

523 
Bassora,  596 
Bastaards,  613 
Batavia,   259,  318,    551-553,    555, 

558 
Batmau,  John,  277 
Batta(k)s,  539,  548,  560,  561 
Batu,  175,  181 

Bavin  Nauug,  king  (Burmah),  521 
Beas,  485,  486 

Behar,  421-423,  431,  434,444,465 
Beinga-Della,  522 
Bellala,  425 
Ben.-ires,   371.   390-392.   397,   399, 

421,  428,  431,  440,  447,  469,  481 


Beudigo,  289 

Benedict  XIII,  pope,  104 

Bengal,   101,   257,   347,  351,  353, 

354,  389,  410,  419,  421-423,  427, 

430-433,  437,  439,  444,  447,  448, 

451,  453-460,  462,  465,  467,  468, 

470,  479.  520,  564 
Bengal,  Gulf  of,  347,  348,  386,  428, 

514,  523,  546 
Benjowski,  Count  Moritz  August, 

576 
Benkulen,  562 
Bentinck,    Lord,    William   Henry 

Cavendish,  480,  481,  486 
Berampur,  442 

Berar,  428,  430,  4.34,  474,  482,  489 
Berenice  Troglodytice,  594 
Bering  Strait  auil  Sea,  203,  209, 

213,  214,  216 
Bering  Vitus,  221 
Berkai,  181 
Best.  Captain,  456 
Betsileo,  573,  576 
Betsimisaraka,  573 
Bhakor,  422 
Bhallika.  391 

Bharata,  369,  371,  374,  390,  412 
Bhartpur,  444,  474.  479 
Bhatta  Bhavabhuti,  418 
Bhava,  412 
Bhaviui,  412,  481 
Bhawawarman.  king,  525 
Bhilla  (Bil),  388 
Bhima.  370,  443 
Bhodau  Phra,  522 
Bhonsia  dynasty,  478 
Bhumij,  360 
Bhutan,  191,  346 
BhutC'Swara,  411 
Bijapur,  439,  441,  442 
Bijayauagar,  428,  429,  449,  510 
BiliUtu,  192 
Billiton,  545 

Bimbisara,  kiug,  392,  402 
Biudatsu,  Japanese  emperor,  10 
Bindusara,  406 
Bintang,  550 
Bismarck    Archipelago,  232,  300, 

311 
Bismarck,  Prince,  327,  328 
Biwa,  lake.  1 8,  33 
Bizen  v.  Kihi,  49 
Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  462 
Black  Kiver  (Kuro  Shiwo),  2 
Black  Sea,  126,  154,  225,  406 
Blankert,  514 

Bligh.  William.  259,  260,  318 
Blue  Mountains.  257,  261,  270,  289 
Bodhi  (Bo,  Budh),  391,  397,  501 
Bodhisattwas,  409 
Boer,  296,  611,  613 
Bohemia,  99 


Bokhara,  125,  172.  181,  183,  197- 

199,  222,  223 
Bolau  Pass,  483 
Boleslav  V,  Duke,  175 
Bombay,  346,  351,   354,  457,  458, 

467,  469,  472,  473,  478,  491 
Bonard,  Admiral  Louis  Adolphe, 

532 
Boni,  566,  567 
Book  of  the  Kings,  162 
Bopp,  Franz,  360 
Borneo,  233,  475,    514,    516,   536, 

539,  543,  545,  547,552,  554,  557, 

562,  565 
Boro-Budur,  556 
Borommaraja,  526 
Boscawen,  Admiral  Edward,  460 
Bosch,  Jan  von  den,  554 
Botany  Bay,  232,   252,   255,  261, 

608 
Bougainville,  L.  A.  de.  311 
Bourdouuais,  Gov.  Bertrand-Fran- 

cois  Mahe  de  la,  460,  578 
Bourke,  Sir  Robert,  263,  265,  278 
Boutwell,  Captain.  312 
Bowen,  Lieutenant,  272 
Boxer,  54,  105,  111,  114 
Boyen  (Bayan),  95 
Boyer,  A.  M..  407 
Brahma,  383.  384.  415 
Brahma  I'ara  Brahma,  410 
Brahman.  345,  352.  353.  357,  360, 

361,  369,  373-387,  391,  392,  396, 

397,  400-403,  406,  408-418,  434, 
436,  440-442,  444,  447,  468,  480, 
481,  490,  496.  498,  499,  501,504, 
513,  516,  518-520,  524,  530,  548, 
568 

Brahman  Shiva,  85 
Brahmanas,  369,  377,  416,  417 
Brahmauism,    166,   371-389,   396, 

398,  404,  408-417,  444,  518,  519, 
546-.549.  555-558,  568,  597 

Brahmaputra,  161,  346,  347,  349, 

352,  423,  515,  587 
Brahmi,  395 
Brahul,  353,  360 
Breewariua  Labyrinth,  245 
Breslau,  99 

Brisbane,  279.  280,  293,  296 
Brisbane,  Sir  Thomas,  263,  264 
British  Northwest   I'rovince,  349, 

378 
Bromijoyo,  558 
Brooke,  Sir  Charles,  565 
Brooke,  James,  564,  565 
Bru.ant,  Volantz  du,  527 
Brunei,  543,  563-565,  569 
Brydon,  Dr.,  484 
Buckley,  William,  278 
Budara',  422 
Buddha,  11-13,  20,   82,    162,  189, 


G20 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


InJa 


190,  390-402,  501,  502,  505,  507, 
510,  511.  513,  519,  520,  588 

Buildli.igayu,  391 

Butl(lli:uliisii  (C'evloii),  505 

BiiJdhaglioslia,  -tlS,  505,  519,  522 

Budilhi.sni,  6,  7,  10-14,  26,  56,  57, 
81-86,89,  112,  115-117,  125,145, 
152,  162,  164-169,  174,  187-193, 
216,  346,  354,  375,  389-403,  406, 
408-417,  496,  497,  500-507,  510, 
512,  513,  519,  524,  544-549,555- 
557,  593,  597 

Bugi,  543,  563-566,  569 

Bukc,  17,34,  37-39 

Bulgaria,  206,  216 

BiildW,  \V.  vou,  313,  324,  325 

Bulwer-Lyttoii,  Barou,  Edward 
Koliert,  493 

BiiiKlilkand,  423,  424, 428, 434,  438 

Buugo,  23,  24,  51 

Buiivo,  37 

Buraukri  Naunchan,  Kiug  (Bur- 
inah),  521 

Biirmali,  106,  107,  110,  347,  350, 
351,  354,  400,  409,  478,  479,487, 
503,  507,  508,  516-518,  520-524, 
526,  527,  528,  529,  532,  533 

Burmese,  520,  521,  522,  523,  527, 
528 

Buriiell,  Arthur  C,  374 

Bunies,  Alexander,  482,  483 

Burning  of  the  Books,  75,  140 

Busl>y,  .James,  334 

Bush'kirs,  197 

Bushraugere,  264,  274 

Bussy,  Marquis  de,  461-463,  472 

Buton  (Bntung),  566 

Buyan  Kuli,  183 

Buzurg  Khan,  195 

Byzautiuui,  149,  150,  155,  159, 181 

Cabral,  Pedro  Alvarez,  450,  452 
Cabul,  134,  183,  187,  364,404,420, 

428,  429,  431,  438,  476,  482-484 
Cairo,  611 
Calcutta,  257,  281,  350,  388,  459, 

462-464,  466,  467,  469,  472,  481, 

523 
Caldwell,  Bishop,  359 
Caliiut,  450,  456,  511,  596,  604 
Calmuks,  190,  192,  193,  197 
Caiuliay,  456 
Canih.iy,    Gulf  of,   346,  371,   372, 

388,  496,  498 
Cambodia,  57,  516-520,   524-528, 

530-534 
Cambulac,  100 
Camden,  Lord,  257 
Campbell,  Archibald,  479 
Campbell,  Sir  Colin,  486,  492,  493 
Can  wu  clynaaty,  158 
Canada,  299 


Cnnnauore,  456 
Canning,  George,  474,  477 
Canning,  Lord,  489,  490,  493 
Canton,  58,  59,  92,  102,    103,    107- 

109,  549,  592 
Cape  Colony,  608,  609.  611 
Cape  Cormorin,  385,  388, 389, 425, 

461 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  450,  453,  513, 

552,  595,  608,  609 
Cape  I'almerston,  258 
Cape  Rames,  4.')1 
Cape  Stephens,  258 
Cape  Town,  257 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  605 
Cape  York,  235,  254 
Capellen,  Gov.  Godard  van  dcr,  559 
Carnatio,  449,  460,  461,  470,  472, 

473,  494 
Caroline    Islands,    230,    300,   305, 

308,  314,  327 
Carpentaria,  Gulf  of,  258 
Caspian    Sea,    90,    124,    126,    138, 

153,  154,  172,  196,  219,  222,  223, 

224 
Caste,  42,  43,  51,  90,  350,  352,  355, 

374-387,  389,  406,  408,411,413- 

415,  490,  496,  504,  520,  522,  546 
Catdipnole,  531 
Cathay,  606 

Catherine  of  Braganza,  458 
Catliolic,  24-29,  98-100,  295,  312, 

315-317,  321,  322,  329,  335,  341, 

434,  51-2 
Catholic    monastic  orders,  25,  27, 

98-100,452 
Caucasus,  100,  134,  144,  154,  181 
Cavendish,  Thomas,  455 
Cawnpore,  478,  491 
Celebes,  475,   538,  543,  552,   554, 

563,  5G5-569 
Central  Provinces,  349,  353,  354, 

356,  448 
Cenjueira,  Bishop,  28 
Ceylon,  345,    358,  359,    372,   378, 

387,  388,  392,  394,  396,  397,  399- 

401,  409,  416,  419,  451-453,  455, 

475,  494-514,  519,  538,  553,  573, 

583,  584,  585,  592,  593,  596,  597, 

600,  606,  608 
Chai,  75 
Chaitanya,  410 
Chalkri,'  528 
Chalukya,  408,  419 
Cham,  516-518,  524,  525 
Chambal,  447,  474 
Chamberlain,  .Joseph,  244 
Chambers,  Chief-,Justice,  328 
Chamorro,  314 
Champa,  516,  518,   519,  524-526, 

530,  531 
Cbanipapura,  518,  525 


Chan  Chu,  74 

Chancellor,  Hugh,  219 

Clmn.i  Bil.i,  434 

Chanda  Sahib  (Nuwab  of  C'arna- 

tic),  460-462 
Chanderuagorr,  460,  463,  464 
Chanilrabbanu,  509 
Chandragupta,  405,  407 
Chanilraguiita  I,  407 
Chang  C:hi  tung,  114 
Chang  Chu,  67 
Chang  Kia  wan,  109 
Chang  Kiang,  58 
Chang  kien.  General,  79,  148,  151 
Cliang  Liang  ti,  91 
Chang  Mao.     SeeTAii'iNO 
Chang  I'ang  chang,  94 
Chang  Shi  cheng,  97 
Chang  te  fu,  87,  89 
Changan,  80,  81,  82,  84,  86,  90,  92 
Chao,  71,  74,  75,  87 
Chao  Fei  yen,  80 
Chao  Hsiang,  74 
Chao  Kao,  76 
Chao  Kuang  yin,  93 
Chao  Shi,  95 
Chao  Ti,  79 
Chiio  To,  77 
Chao  Tsung,  92,  96 
Chao  Wang,  71 
Chao  Yang,  80 
Chao  Tuan  hao,  93 
Chaochan,  84 
Chaohsuan  Ti,  92 
Charax,  591 

Charles  II,  Lngland,  458 
Charles  V,  570 
Charles  VI,  454 
Charnock,  Governor,  459 
Cbatanati,  457,  459 
Chatham  Islands,  331 
Cliau,  59,  64,  65,  71,  89,  91,  101 
Chan,  Duke  of,  70,  91 
Chan  dynasty,  62,  65,  68,   70,  74, 

77,  82,  93,  140 
Cliau  dynasty,  later,  93 
Chan  Hsin.  .59,  64 
Chan  li,  65,  68 
Chan  Po,  77 
Cliau  Tun-i.  95 
Chanmont,  Chevalier  de,  527 
Chavannes,  Edouard,  69 
Chekiang,  58,  71,  92,  94,  101,  103, 

106 
Chel  la,  117 
Chemulpbo,  52,  120 
Chen,  71,  74,  84,  89 
Clien  Pa  hsicn,  89 
Chen  Tsung,  93,  96 
Chen  Yo  liaug,  97 
Cheng,  71 
Cheng  cheng  kung,  106,  570 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


621 


Cheng  chi  lung,  106 

Cheng  chi  sze.  See  Genghis 
Khan 

Cheng  Han,  87 

Cheng  ho,  101 

Cheng  hua.     See  Hsien  Tsung 

Cheng  ko  chuang,  106,  570 

Cheng  Tang,  63 

Cheng  Teh  shin,  95 

Cheng  Ti,  79,  80 

Cheng  Tsung,  93,  96,  192 

Cheng  tu,  87 

Cheng  tung.     See  Ying  Tsung 

Cheng  waug,  71 

Chera,  386-388,  425 

Cherchen,  oasis,  125 

Cheribon,  559 

Cherra  Punji.  349 

Chhung  chlieng,  117 

Chi,  71,  75,  78,  83,  89,  90,  92 

Chi  Cheng,  88 

Chi  fu  Kuo  yen,  88 

Chi  Mountains,  70 

Chi  Ti,  81 

Chiang,  59 

Chiaugtu,  90 

Chichi  (Huhanye'),  154 

Chien  Chao,  87 

Chien  Chin,  87 

Chien  Liang,  87 

Chien  lung.     See  Kao  Tsong 

Chien  Shu,  92 

Chien  wen.     See  Hui  Ti 

Chien  Wen  Ti,  84,  88 

Chien  Yen,  88 

Chien  vie.     See  Nankin 

Chiji,  9 

Child,  Sir  John,  457 

Chili,  59,  62 

Chimkent,  222 

Chin,  57,  71,  74,  75,  77,  82,  87,  92 

Chin  dynasty,  57,  65,  74,  77,  80, 
116,  140 

Chin  I-kei,  118 

Chin  Shi  Huang  ti.     See  Shi 

Chin  Tsung,  94 

China,  3.  8-11,  16,  21,  2.3,  31,  32, 
38,  51-118,  122-127,  131,  132, 
137,  139-142,  144-146,  149-153, 
156,  157,  159-163,  168,  170-176, 
178,  180,  182,  185,  188-191,  193- 
195,  198,209,211,216,219-233, 
225-227,  346,  352,  409,  426,  451, 
453,  455,  492,  514-520,  546,  548, 
550,  552,  556,  557,  561-563,  567, 
570,  585,  588,  593,  597,  602 

China  Sea,  1,  .57,  514,  515,  520 

Chinese,  6.  8,  21,  26,  32,  41-44,  52- 
54,  118,  119,  130,  133,  135-137, 
140,  142-147.  149,  151-156,  158, 
166,  175,  176,  178,  188,  191,  193- 
195,  211,  214,  216,  226,  243,  280, 


322,  324,  395.  407,  409,  502,  516, 
517,  520-522,  524,  525,  528-5,30, 
533.  539,  540,  543-545,  547,  552, 
555,  537,  559,  560,  563-565,  367, 
586,  592,  593,  596,  397,  600 

Ching,  Prince,  87 

Ching  dynasty,  57 

Chiug  nan,  92,  93 

Ching  Province,  87 

Ching  River,  70 

Ching  T.an,  57 

Ching  Ti,  77,  87,  89 

Ching  yang  fu,  88 

Chinting  tushu  chi  dieiig,  106 

Chitor.  430,  433 

Chittagong,  479,  515,  520 

Cliola,  386-388,  408,  425,  429,  506- 
510 

Chola  Naga.  504 

Choshu,  46-48,  50,  51 

Chota  Nagpur,  352 

Chou  Fa-Mongkut,  528 

Christianity.  10,  12,  24-30,  32,  50, 
84,  97-100,  102-105,  108-111. 
120,  166-169,  176,  177,  180,  181, 
187,  295,  313,  315,  316,  321,  322, 
325,  329,  333,  334,  340-342,  401, 
436,  439,  452,  490,  511,  512,  527, 
528,  530,  532,  544-546,  570,  571. 
577,  596,  612 

Christmas  Islands,  309 

Chronology,  62,  78,  117,  233,  417, 

323.  336 

Clm.    71,   76,    77,    84,   90,   92,    94, 

222 
Chu  Cluiau  Chung,  92 
Chu  hi.  86.  95 
Chu  ko  liang,  76,  86 
Chu  Ti,  93 
Chu  yang,  97 
Chu  Yuan  chang,  97 
Chii  Chii  Meng  hsiin,  88 
Chuau  h.su,  63 
Chu.aug  Hsiang,  74 
Chuang  Tsung.  92 
Chuen  dynasty.  89 
Chukchi"  213.214,  220 
Chukiang,  38,  59 
Chukyo  Tenno,  21 
Chulchong,  120 
Chulalongkorn,  King,  505 
Chumigren,  King,  526 
Chun,  Prince,  109 
Chun  Chin,  the,  63 
Chung  Cheng.     See  HcAi  TsUNO 
Chung  fu,  119 
Chung  Hau,  110 
Chung  Hwa,  56 
Chung  Kang,  63 
Chung  Kwoh  yin,  57 
Chung  mao,  91 
Chung  shan,  87 


Chung  Ti,  81 

Chung  Tsung,  91 

Chung  tu,  72.     See  also  Peking 

Chung  Yung.  66,  68 

Chungking,  59 

Chusan  Islands,  58 

Cimmerians,  143,  146 

Circars,  462,  463,  467 

Clans,  5,  16.  51,  112 

Clement  VIII,  pope,  27 

Clement  X.  pope.  527 

Clement  XI,  pope,  104 

Cleveland.  President  Grover,  323 

Clive,  Kobert,  461-468,  473,  477. 

605 
Cochin,  351,  354,  482,  513 
Cochin  China,  57,81,177,409,515, 

516,  517,  52H-534 
Coen,  Jan  Pieterszon,  551,  552 
Coirabatore,  388 
Colbert.  103.  459,  561 
Collins,  Colonel,  272,  274,  277.278 
Coloml)0,  510-514 
Columbus,  57,  96,  252,    253,    450, 

594.  599,  605 
Comba,  388 

Combermere,  Lord,  479 
Comoro  Islands,  578 
Compagnie  des  Indes,  103 
Confucianism,  56,  64-68,  83,  85,  86, 

89,  112,  115-117 
Confucius.     See  Kung  fu  Tsze 
Constnntinople,  99,  155,  159,  172 
Constitutions.  14-17,  36-39,  30,  52, 

36,  287-289.  298-299,  321,  322. 

324,  325.  328,  330,  338 
Convicts,  227,  229,  250,    254-258, 

261-264,  268-270,  272-277,  279, 

280,  282,  283,  312,  333 
Cook,   James,    252-255,    309-311, 

316,  318,  319,  328,  329,  335,  336, 

339,  344,  607 
Cook  Islands,  331,  332 
Coote,  Col.  Eyre.  464,  470 
Copleston.  Bishop.  396,  402 
Coptos,  588,  591 
Cornish,  W.  R..  376 
Cornwallis,  Lord,  470,  471,  473 
Coromandel,    339,    354,    387,   427, 

425,  452,  453,  456,  458,  460,  494, 

547 
Cossacks,  217,  218,  219,  220,  221, 

227 
Courbet,  Rear-admiral,  534 
Crawford,  John,  546 
Crimea,   134,  181,   182,   217,   287, 

490,  492 
Crom  Chiat,  528 
Croyire,  Louis  Delisle  de  la.  221 
Cuddalore.  470 
Cunningham,  Allan,  271,  279 
Currie,  Sir  Frederick,  486 


C,2-2 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


Curioiiof  Kedleston.Baron.Gcorge 

Nathuiiicl,493 
Custom  duties,  54,  286,  287,  298, 

323 
Cutch.  408 
Ciittack.  352 
Cyprus,  99 
Cyrus,  135,  143,  4(W 

Daivnkels,  Geu.  Herman  Willem, 

559 

Daghiu,  12 

Dagosliau,  477 

Dai!];o,  17 

Va'iy)  (laijiu,  16-18 

Daljo  kuan,  16 

Uaimyu,  35,  49,  50,  61 

Dainihuushi,  44 

Palail,arna,  I6'.',  188-194,  226 

Dalhousic,  Lord,  487-491,  493,  523 

Dalrymiile,  Col.  Harry  North,  524 

Daly,  23i; 

IXaniak,  558 

Damascus,  184 

Danii)ier,  William,  253,  254,  311 

Daiiial,  434,  438 

D.aiiuc>-ura,  18,  20 

Danube,  143,  144,  155,  206 

Dappcrt,  Dlfort,  480 

Dara  Sluikoh,  439 

Dariiistaii,  351,  352 

Darien,  606 

Darius,  143,  144.  216 

Darius  Hystaspes,  404,  590 

Darling,  Sir  Halph,  263,  264,  276 

Darliiii;  Downs,  271,  279 

D.-irlini;  Kiver,  236,  245,  271 

Darwin,  Charles,  248,  337 

Dasa,  356,  364 

D.asyn,  356,  358,  364,  367,  377 

Davatsi  (Tse  wan  da  shi),  107 

Davey,  Governor,  274 

David,  587 

Davud  Shall  of  Bengal,  433 

Dawarhakhsh,  438 

Decabrist,  229 

Deccau,  347,  348,  350,  352,  378, 
403,  408,  410,  419,  425,  426,  428, 
429,  434,  t37-440,  442,444,  447- 
44'.l,  458,  461,  463,  494,  496 

Dclagua  Bay,  605,608 

Delhi,  184,  187,371,  419-425,  427, 
428,  430-434,  437-440,  441,  443, 
445,  446,  448,  456,  457,  463,  465, 
468,  473,  474,  482,  491,  492 

Demak,  562 

Dengio,  11 

Denmark,  220,  245,  345,  454,  475, 
566,  606 

Denyo,  34 

Derwent,  2:>9,  272 

Devadatta,  393 


Dev.ip;iri,  424,  425,  427,  428 

Dewauampiya  Tissa,  500,  503 

Dhamnia,  396,  500 

Dliammasoka,  394 

Dharnia  I'auli  Haja,  511 

Dharma-sutnis,  374 

Dhatusena.  497,  506 

Dhritar.Vshtra,  369,  370 

Dhruwasena,  408 

Dhulip  Singli.  486,  487 

Diadochi,  405 

Diaz,  Bartolomeo,  450 

Dienien,  Antonio  Van,  532 

Digambara,  403 

Din  Mohammed,  Sultau,  198 

Diodorus,  404 

Diodotus,  407 

Dioscorides,  588 

Dipawamsa,394,  497 

Diwan  Mnlraj,  4S7 

Djaunali  Mohammed-shah  ibn 
Toghluq,    126 

Dnieper,  99,  217 

Don,  99,  217 

Dost  Molmmmed,  477,  482,  483, 
492 

DougliLs,  Hobert  K.,  59 

Doulat  Khan  Lodi,  428,  430 

Drake,  Frauiis,  455 

Dravidian,  345,  352,  353,  35.5,  356, 
359,  360,  372,  378,  386,  388,  392, 
400.  407-409,  411-414,  419.  425, 
432,  476,  495,  502.  506,  508-510, 
513,  518 

Drona,  370,  374,  381 

Drupada.  370 

Duab.  371,  423,  424,  465,  474.  486 

Dub.jis,  E.,  130,  !J37 

Ducliesue,  Lieutenant-General,  578 

Dnfferin,  Count  of.  Frederic  Tem- 
ple Bliickwood.  493 

Dund.as,  David,  474 

Duugans,  tlie,  194,  195,  196,  223 

Dupetit-Thoujirs,  Captain,  315, 
316.  321 

Dupleix,  .Joseph  Franjois,  460- 
462.  472 

Durga.  413,  416     . 

Durham,  Lord,  335 

Durjan  Sal  of  Bhartpur,  479 

Dnrven,  Diederiik,  552 

Duryodhana,  370 

Dutch,  26-29,41.  43,254,  297,350, 
452-457,  459,  460,  462,  464.  475. 
512,  513,  522,  529,  530,  551-554, 
558-562,  564.  566,  567,  569,  575, 
578,  604,  606,  608,  609,  612 

Dutch  East  India  Company,  453, 
464,  566,  568 

Duttha  Gamani.  501,  503 

Dyak,  536,  539,  562,  563,  564,  569 

Dzungaria,  57,  190,  193-195,  197 


East  India  Trading  Compant 
of  (Istend,  454,  455,    605 

Eaxt  Indian  Netherlands  Co.  105, 
108 

E.ast  Indies,  194,  543,  544,  549,  552, 
567 

Easter  Island,  230,  300,  305,  306, 
308,  309,  310,  317,  318,  344,  536 

Eastern  Sea,  57 

Echigo,  51 

Edkius,  .lo.icph,  67 

Edomites,  587 

Edrisi,  543,  574,  .593 

Education,  78,  90,  228,  251,  276, 
294,  295,  321,  3.30,  420,  427,  480, 
486.  488 

Egypt,  101,112,133,  135,184.  186, 
253,  451,  472,  548,  549,  586,  588, 
591,  595,  604,  609-611 

Egyptian.  135,  179,  587,  588,  590 

Elamites,  587 

Elath.  594 

Elentbes,  106 

Elgin  and  Kincardine,  Connt  of 
.lames  Bruce,  493 

Elizabeth,  Queen.  455 

EUenborough,  Lord,  484,  485,  609 

Ellichpur,  434 

Elphiustonc,  Mountstuart,  427, 
476,   477 

Elphiustone,  William  G.  K..  483 

Emesa,  180 

Emma,  Queen,  Hawaii,  322 

England.  15.  27,46,  47,  52-54,  105, 
108-110,  121,  132,  195,  223,  224, 
243,  244,  247-252,260-262,  267- 
269.  272-280.  282,  283,  285,  287, 
288,  290,  291,  292,  29.5,  298,  313, 
316,318,321,322,  324,326-331, 
334-.336,  339,  343,  350,  454,  456, 
467,  468,  470,  486,  490,  513,  523, 
524.  528.  529,  553,  559,  565,  577, 
60.5-613 

English,  27,  28,  45-49,  111,  233, 
243,  244.  247-299.  311-313.  315, 
316,  320,  322,  323.  326,  327,  .331, 
333,  335-338.  343,  348,  350,  357, 
415,  416,  427,  446,  452,  497,  453- 
534,  551,  553.  558,  562,  564-567, 
569.  571,  576-578,  608,  611-613 

Englisli  Eiuit  Inilia  Trading  Com- 
pany, 4.54,455,457,458,  467,480, 
488,"  493,  514 

Enoinoto.  Admiral,  49 

Ephtalites,  144 

Eratostlienes,  599 

Er-langa.  556 

Erythrcan  Sea.  598 

E.sihizcn,  .30.  39,  46,  48 

Eskimos,  201,  214 

Ethiopian,  594 

Eto  Shimpei,  51 


Index  I 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


623 


Eugene,  Prince,  454 

Euphrates,  143,  225,  456,  587,  590, 
591,  593,  594 

Europe,  19,  54,  75,96,  98,  112,  122, 
125,  127,  130,  131,  134,  141,  146, 
153-155,  159,  169,  172,  176,  177, 
181,  206,  207,  214,  216.  217,  236, 
253,  254,  262,  265,  318,324,  342, 
346,  355,  361,  372,  384,  523,  535, 
549,  571,  595,  596,  601,  604,  606, 
609,612 

European,  1,  10,  24,  48,  56,  179, 
200,  203,  205,  227,  231,  234,  239, 
242,  245,  246,  248-253,  258,  301, 
311,  312,  314,  317,  319,  320,  324, 
325,  329,  331,  333,  334,  336-338, 
342,  348,  350,  351,  354,  355,  382, 
414,  436,  439.  448,466,  472,  477, 
480,  481,486,  491,  492,  498,  521, 
522,  526,  528,  530,  531,  536,  539. 
542,  544,  545,  549-554,  563,  564, 
567,  573,  576,  597,  602,  603,  605, 
607,  611,612 

Eyre,  Eilwaril  John,  271 

Eziougeber,  589 

Fa  iiien,  82,  409,  544,  547,  555 
Fakhr   eil-ilin  Juuah   Khan.     See 

MOIIAMMEIJ  II 

Eiirquhar,  Sir  Robert,  577 
Farrukhsiyar.      See    Mohammed 

FaRKIIvHSIYAK 

Farsistan,  184 

Fath  'Ali  ot  Persia,  476 

Fattah     UUah     'Imad     Shah"    of 

Berar,   428 
Fattepur  Sikri.     See  Kanwa 
Fauna,  115,  201-203,239,304,305, 

332,  333.  358,  494,  541,  572 
Fazl.     See  Abu'l  Fazl 
Fei  Ti  (Tsang  wu  wang),  87, 89, 92 
Fei  Tsze,  74 

Feizi.     See  Shekh  Feizi 
Feng,  70 
Fer(;hana,  79,  125,   141,   147,   163, 

186,  195,  197,  199,  223,  429 
Fergussou,  James,  547 
Ferid  Chan.     See  SuiR  Shah 
Feroz  Sliuh  II,  424 
Feroz  Shah  III,  427 
Ferozshah,  486 
Fiji,  231-233,  297,  303,  .305,  308- 

313,  319,  324,  328,  330,  332,  342, 

540 
Fillmore,  President,  47 
Finance,  37,  50,  262-265,  268,  269, 

276,  282,  284-288,  291,  294,  312, 

313,  322,  331,  332,  337-340,  454, 

456-458,  463,  465,  468-471,  479, 

480.  486,  488,  523 
Finn,  127,  205,  206,  216,  218 
Finuo-Ugrian,  130,  138,  203,  206 


Finsch,  Utto,  202 

Firdu.si,  420 

Fitzroy,  Sir  Charles,  290 

Fitzroy,  Robert,  337 

Five  Emperors,  the,  63,  70 

"  Five  King,"  65 

Five  River  Land  (Pantshanada), 
347,  352,  364,  365,  367,  368,371, 
373,  378,  389,  404,  405 

Flacourt,  Etienne  de,  576 

Flinders,  Matthew,  258 

FUnders  Island,  249 

Flora,  115,  201,  238-239,  303,  304, 
.332,  494,  540,  572 

Floris  (Flores),  538,  569 

Forde  (English  officer),  463 

Formosa,  2,  51.  53,  55,  59,  60,  105, 
107,  108,  409,  542,  552,  570 

Fornander,  A.,  319 

Fort  Dauphin,  Madagascar,  561 

Fort  George,  Coromandel,  458 

Fort  Kalanga,  476 

Fort  Perovsk,  222 

Fort  St.  David,  460,  461 

Fort  William,  Bengal,  459 

"  Four  Shu,"  65 

France,  23,  46,  47,  53,  99,  103,  1  OS- 
HI,  120.  127,  263,  312.316,  317. 
322,  324,  334,  336,  343,  459^67, 
470,  476,  523,  528,  529,  531,  533, 
534,  553,  576-578,  606,  607 

Francis,  Philip.  467,  468 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  335 

Franklin,  Sir  John,  276 

Frederick  the' Great,  455 

Fremantle,  Captain,  281 

French,  105,  108.  110,  120,  258, 
263,  272,  273,  277,  280,  295,  311, 
312,  315,  316,  320,  321,  330,  334, 
335,  341,  4.54,  455,  459-469,  470, 
475,  513,  523,  527,  532,  534,  553, 
573,  576-578,  606-609.  611 

French  East  India  Company,  576 

Freycinct,  L.  C.  D.  de,  251 

Fu,"l01 

Fu  lin,  105,  153 

Fuchan,  57,  95,  108 

Fudai,  36 

Fudsiononia,  37 

Fuh(s)i,  62 

Fujiwara,  the,  5,  14-19.  21,  33,  37 

Fukieu,  92,  101,  102,  106 

Fukuda.  34,  41,  42,  56 

Fukui,  31 

Funu,  4 

Fu.san,  9.  31,  118,  119,  120 

Fushimi,  33,  39,  48,  118 

Fusu.  76 

Fuyu,  115,  116 

Gaetano,  Juan,  319 
Gaja  Bahu  IV,  507,  508 


Galapagos  Islands,  317 

Galdan  (Go  Erh  dan),  106 

Galle,  511,  512 

Gallieni,  Gen.  Jos.  Simon,  578 

Galamaleniang,  325 

Galvao,  Antonio,  550 

Gama,  Vasco  da,  450-452,  511,594, 
601-604 

Gambier  Islands,  254,  307,  315 

Ganaginoma,  37 

Gandhara,  405 

Ganesa,  411,  412,  519 

Ganges,  184,  187,  346,  349,  352, 
353,  364,  368-372,  377-380,  389, 
390,  402-405.  408.  413,  420.  431, 
456,  458,  459.  462,  465,474,  476, 
478,  486,  488,  491,  496,  499,  515, 
518,  583 

Gaugcs-Brahniaputra,  347,  348 

Ganjam,  352 

Ganonia,  37 

Gardane,  General  de,  476 

Gamier,  Lieut.  M.  J.  F.,  533 

Garuti,  371 

Gaupati,  425 

Gautama,  374,  390,  395,  399,  400, 
402,  406, 409.    See  also  Buddha 

Gaw-Laya  (Burmah),  520 

Gawler,  Colonel,  284,  285 

Gayomath,  424 

Geding  Souro,  562 

Gedrosia,  404,  405 

Ge'ez,  595 

Geographical  formation,  I,  58,  59, 
114,  115,  122-127,  199,  200,  208, 
209,  213,  230,  238,  299-302,  .331, 
344,  345-350,  494,  515,  535,  536, 
555,  560,  562,  565 

Genghis  Khan,  20.  95,  98,  100, 158, 
169,  172,  174,  176,  180,  181,  183, 
187.  188,  191,  194,  216,  422,  423, 
427 

Genouilly.  Commodore  Charles 
Rigauit  de,  532 

Gensan,  120 

George  IV  of  England,  333 

George  Tubou  I  (Tanfaabau),  329, 
330,  341 

George  Tubou  II,  330,  331,  ,341 

Georgia,  180,  181,  184 

Gerini,  G.  E.,  518 

German,  175,  228,  2.33,  243,  271, 
282,  295,  313,  317,  327,330,  343, 
605,  607,  611,  612 

Germany,  10,  23,  40,  52,  53,  105, 
111,  127,  265,  297,  298,  313,  319, 
326,  327.  328,  .330,  34.3,  345,  346, 
463,  528,  595,  604,  606,  610 

Gesenins,  Wilhelm,  149 

Ghakkas,  422 

Ghats,  342,  388,  449 

Ghazan.  180 


6-24 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


Indri 


Gliazi   ed-din   11    Mahmud,    422, 

423 
GliHzni,    House  of,   419-422,   483, 

484 
Ghivris  ed-din   Balbuu,   423,   424, 

426 
Gliiy  us  ed-din  Mohammed  ibn-Sam, 

421 
Ghivas  cd-din  II  (Mahmud),  422 
Ghivas  eddin  Tughlak  1,  426 
Gh.'r,  419-422 
Ghulab  Siugh,  485 
Ghurkas,  107,476,477 
Ghuzes  (Oghuz),  160 
Gilbert,  Gen.  W.  R.,  487 
Gilbert  Islands,  301,  305 
Giljaks,  1,  203,  215 
Gillespie,  Major-Gencral  Sir  Rob- 
ert, 476 
Gipps,  George,  266,  267 
Gladstone,  W.  E.,  298 
Glass,  150 

Gmelin,  Joh.  George,  221 
Go  Daigo,  22,  23 
Go  Fudai,  36,  37 
Go  Fushimi.  23 
Go  Kamevama  tenno,  2'i 
Go  Mizuno,  40 
Go-san-ke'  (io),  40,  45 
Go  Shirakawa,  17,  18 
Go  Toba,  21 
Go  Tsuchi  Tenno,  23 
Go  Uda,  21 
Goa,  27,  346,  352,  451,    453,   455, 

475,  511.  566 
Gobi,  Desert  of,  94,  123,  124,  142, 

192,  220 
Godavari,  352,  408 
Godeffrov  and  Son,  313,  327 
Gogra,  456 
Gokamn,  389 
Gokenin,  35 
Gukinai,  5 

Golconda,  439,  441,  442,  459 
Gold,  4,  25,  33,  240,  280,  283,  289- 

294,  296,  332,  339,  340,  543,  545, 

572,  578,  589 
Golden  Chersonese,  546,  580,  592 
Gond.  352,  355,  360 
Gorakhpur,  395 
Gordon,  Charles  George,  110 
Gosekke,  17 
Goshi,  36 

Gotama.    See  Buddha 
Gotenyama,  46 
Goth;ibha_va,  305 
Gough,  Sir  Hugh,  486,  487 
Govindpur,  459 
Grandidier  Alfred,  538,  572,  574, 

575 
Grant,  President  Ulysses  S.,  326 
Great  Australian  Bight,  272 


Great  Drsert,  347,  371 
Great  Mogul,  187,  429-493 
Great  Wall  of  China,  75,  76,  126, 

140 
Greece,  10,  134,  136,  144,  411,  546, 

557,  581,  593,  598,  600 
Greek,  143,  166-168,  202,  347,  368, 

386,  387,  404,  406,  407,  418,  498, 

591,  594 
Greenland.  201,  209 
Gregory  of  Tours,  502 
Gregory  XIII,  pope,  27 
Grey,  Earl,  269,  279,  287 
Grey,   Sir  George,  282,   285,  337, 

338 
Grierson,  George  A.,  353 
Grimm.  Jakob  and  Wilhelm,  361 
Groneman,  J.,  547 
Grose,  Major,  256,  257 
Guam.  314,  324.  .343 
Guignes,  Joseph  de.  139 
Guilds.  10,43,  51.  56 
Guilford,    Earl,  Frederick  Korth, 

514 
Gujerat.   354.  372.  388,  403,  407. 

408,  420,  421,  427,  431,433,  447, 

453,  469,  482,  487,  496-498,  500, 

547 
Gun  Carri.ige  Island,  249 
Gunpowder,  113,  171,  175 
Gupta,  407,  408 
Gum,  381,412 
Gwalior,  421,  430,    439,  448,  469, 

473,  474,  478,  482,  485-493 

Hachiman,  9 

Ilachiman  T.iro.  22 

Hahn,  Eduard,  133 

Ilai  phoug,  533 

Hai  shan  \Vu  Tsung,  97 

Haidarabad,  354,    356,    428,  444, 

447.  448,  472,  476,  482,  489 
Hainan,  60,  108,  530 
Hakka.     See  Kiiiruhis 
Hakodate.  43,  45.  49 
Hakone,  Pass  of,  22 
Halmahcra,  547,  567 
Ham  gyeng,  117  . 
Hami  Uasis,  125 
Han,  50,  57,  75,  77,  78,  88,  92,  93, 

97 
Han  cho,  63 
Han  dynasty,  7,  57,  65,  73,  76-79, 

80-82,  86,' 87,  116,  152 
Ilan  dynasty,  later,  81,  93,  115 
Han  ki,  93 
Han  Lin  crli.  97 
Han  River,  CO,  120 
Han  Wen  Kung,  84 
Han  yang,  117 
HangChingTi,  81 
Hangchau,  57,  94 


Hankaii,  59 

Hanoi,  530,  533 

Uap.ai,  329 

Har  Guvind,  445 

Har  Ciovind  II,  445 

Ilardiuge,     Lieutenant-Gcnenl, 

485,  486,  48S,  493 
Hardy,  Edmund,  396 
Harei  William,  564 
Ilargreaves,  289 
Hari-kari,  19,  20,33,48 
Harris,  (ioneral,  472 
Harris,  Townscnd,  45 
Harrison,    President   Benjamin, 

323 
Hartog  Dirk,  253 
Hasan  Rusurg,  180 
Il.X'^an  liangu,  428 
Ha-stinapura.  370 
Hastings,  Warren,  467—170 
Hastings,  Marquis  of,  Lord  Moira, 

476-478,  480 
Hatamoto,  35,  36,  37 
Hathepnt,  Queen,  588 
Havclock.  General.  491,  492 
Hawaii,   230,  231.    232,  300,  306, 

307,  310,  319-324,  328,  341-344 
Hawaiki.     See  Savaii 
Haye,  Governor  La,  576 
Heath,  Captain,  457 
Hebrews,  100,  351,  352,  354,  575, 

588-590,  596 
Hedin,  Sven,  147 
Heike,  19 
Henry  the  Navigator  (Portugal), 

450 
Henry  II  of  Silesia,  175 
Henry  IV  (France),  459 
Henty  Family.  277,  281 
Herat,  172,  180,  184,  421,  482,  490 
Herodotus.  57,  136,  146,  404 
Hervey  Islands,  315 
Heytesbnry,  Ix)rd  William.  481 
Hiaksai.  116 
Hiao  tang  shan,  69 
Hidetada,  26,  33,  39,  41 
Hideyori,  25,  33,  34,  44 
Hideyoshi,  9,  30-33,  35,  40,   102, 

118,  119 
Hicizan,  II,  12,  18,  22 
Hilmejit,  482 
Uimal.iya  Mountains,  58,  123, 126, 

161,  346,  347,  349,  352,354,390, 

410,  411,  423,  426.  433,  476,  588 
Himeko,  Queen,  3,  6,  8,  9 
Ilinayana.  409 
Hindu,  352,  353,  354.355,  410-414, 

419-4.30,  432.  434-436,  438,  439, 

440,  441,  463,  465,  466,  468,  472, 

481,  486,  489,  490,  518,  519,  544, 

546-548,  555,  557,  560,  563,  567, 

568,  573,  585,  613 


Illder 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


625 


Hiuilu   Kush,  144,   363,  364,  429, 

439,  483 
Hinduism,  353,  354,  408,  410-414, 

418-429,  513,  518,  548,  556,  557, 

561,  566,  612 
Hindustan,     421-423,     428,     430, 

444-446,  448,  459,  463,  465,  474 
Hindustani  (Urdu),  426 
Hippalus,  591 
Hipparohus,  591,  606 
Hira,  593,  595 
Hirado,  26,  28,  29 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  589 
Hirth,  Friedrioli,  79,  139,  151,  153, 

154 
Hisen,  23,  31,  39,  50,  51 
Hislop,  Gen.  Sir  Thomas,  478 
Hitachi,  22 
Hitopadesa,  418 
Hitotsubashi,  40,  45,  48 
Hiuen    Tsang,   84,  395,   409,  410, 

525 
Hiuug  nu,  75,  79,  81,  139,  210,  407 
Ho  Fei,  87 
Ho-shi-la,  97 
Ho  Ti,  89 
Hoang  ti  Tang,  70 
Hoangho,   58,    70,  71,    79,  93,  97, 

109,    124,    140,     164,     173,    175, 

176 
Hobart,    247,    258,   272,   274,   295, 

296 
Hobart,  Lord,  513 
Hobson,  Captain,  335-337 
Hochstetter,  Ferdinand  von,  339 
Hodson,  English  officer,  492 
Hoernle,  A.F.  R.,  402 
Hoii,  37 
Hojo,    the,    19-22,    35.     See    also 

TOKIMASA 

Hojo  Tokeyori,  12 

Holkar,  469,  473,  475 

Holkar  dynasty,  477 

Holland,    27,    342,   344,   453,  454, 

513,  552-554,  561,  606,  612 
Holo,  62 
Homer,  129 
Honan,  59,  60,  63,  64,  71,  78,  81, 

87,  89,  90,  92-94,  101,  175 
Hondo    (Honshin,    Nippon),   1,  2, 

30,  215 
Hong  Kong,  105,  108 
Hongi    (Shongi),    333,   334,   341, 

.342 
Honjo,  34 
Honolulu,  322,  323 
Hooker,  William  Jackson,  276 
Hopetown,  Earl  of,  299 
Horde,  186,  197,  358 
Horde,  Blue,  181 
Horde,  Golden,  96,  181,  182 
Horde.  White,  181 
VOL.  11  —  40 


Hos,  360 

Hosain,  183 

Hosho,  116 

Hosokawa,  23 

Hou  Chao,  87 

Hou  Chau.     See  Chau 

Hou  Chin,  88 

Hou  Chu,  89 

Hou  Han.     See  Han 

Hou  Liang.     See  Lianu 

Hou  Shu,  93 

Hou  Tang.    See  Tang 

Hou  Tsiu.     See  Tsin 

Hou  Yen,  87 

Houtman,  Cornelia  de,  453,  551 

Hova,  573-578,  6U 

Hovell,  William,  271,  277 

Hsi  Chin,  Liang,   We,  and  Yen. 

See  Chin 
Hsi  ping,  156 
Hsi  po,  64 

Hsia,  93,  97,  101,  164,  172,349 
Hsia  dynasty,  57,   59,   62,   63-65, 

68,  70,  92," 93 
Hsia,  Western,  92,  95,  163,  174 
Hsiaug,  62 
H.<<iang-Chi,  76,  77 
Hsiang  Liang,  76 
Hsiao,  74 

Hsiao  Ching  Ti,  89 
Hsiao  King,  66 
Hsiao  Ming  Ti,  83 
Hsiao  Tao  Cheng,  89 
Hsiao  Tsung  (Huug  chi),  101 
Hsiao  Wu  Ti,  82,  89 
Hsiao  Yen,  89 
Hsien,  101 

Hsien  peng.     See  Wen  Tsung 
Hsien  pi.     See  Siex  pe 
Hsien  Ti,  81,  86 
Hsien  Tsung,  84,  96,  98,  176.    See 

also  Mango  Kuan 
Hsien  yang,  76 
Hsin,  new  dynasty,  79 
Hsing  ching,  102,  212 
Hsii,  78 

Hsii,  Shon  hui,  97 
Hsuan  Ti,  79,  80,  152 
Hsiian  Tsung,  84,  91,  98,  171 
Hsiiau  Wang,  71 
Hsuau  Tsung  (Tao  Knang),  108 
Hsuen  Tsang.    See  Hican  Tsang 
Hu,  75 
Hua  Tai,  88 
Huai  Ti,  88 

Huai  Tsung,  Chung  cheng,  102 
Huai  Yang,  81 
Huan  Hsuan,  88 
Huan  Ti,  81 
Huang  Chao,  88 
Huang  chin  tse'i.     See  Yellow 

TCRBAN 


Huang  ti,  62,  63,  78,  145 
Hue,  531 

Huemo  Kadphises,  144,  407 
Hugli,  346,  454-457,  459,  464 
Hui  Ti,  77,  101 
Hui  Tsung,  94 
Hui  wen,  74 
Hukuang,  71,  101,  107 
Hulagu,  176,  178,  179,  423 
Humayun.     See  Nasir  ed-din 
Hume,  Hamilton,  271,  277 
Huns,  127,  139-144,   146,  148,  149, 
151-158,  161,  162,  170,  173,  174, 
186,  205,  206,  210,  211,  216,408 
Hunan,  60,  77,  78,  107 
Hung,  Prince,  77 
Hung  chi.     See  Hsiao  Tsuno 
Huug  Tsiu  tsuen,  109 
Hung  wu.     See  Tai  Tso 
Hungarians,  99,  127,  216 
Hungary,  96,  175,  181,  206 
Hunter,  Captain,  256,  257 
Hupei,  58,  78,  89,  92,  97,  102,  107 
Hussein,  Ali,  444,  446,  448 
Hyder  Ali,  466,  467,  470,  472 
Hyperboreans,  147,  200-206,  208, 

209,  213,  216,  227 
Hyphasis,  405 
Hyuga,  5 

I  PROVINCE,  78 

I  barbarians,  59 

I  hong,  120 

Iking,  65,  66,  73,  80 

I  liu  chi  pan,  97 

I  Ti  (Prince  Huai  of  Chu),  77 

Ibrahim  Shah  I,  424 

Ibrahim  II,  428,  430 

Ibrahim  (Suri),  431 

Ibrahim  (Simuride),  444 

Ichan,  87 

Ichany,  59 

Idumeans,  589 

lelal  ed-din  Khilji.     See  Feroz 

Ihauriko,  5 

li-kamon  no  kami.  45 

Ikamon  no  Kani,  37 

Iki(-shima),  1,21 

Ikko,  12 

Ilbars,  198 

Ilchikadai,  99,  100 

Hi,  57,  65,  68,  110,  12.5,  222 

Hi  chu  Tsai,  173,  174,  176 

Hkan,  180 

Ilkhan  dynasty,  179 

Imerina,  573,  575 

India,  24,  82,  84,  85,  112,  122- 
126,  129,  134,  143,  144,147,148, 
150,  151,  153,  161,  166,  172,  179, 
243,  343,  345-495,  500,  502,  503, 
505,  508,  513-515,  520,  522,  538, 
544-548,  551-553,  556,  560.  563, 


626 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


index 


569,  570.  579,  580,  583.  584,  585, 

588,  5W,  591,592,594-597,  604- 

006,608-610,  612 
Indian,    134,    144,    164.    166,    168, 

.•545-495,  539,  540,  543-549,  555, 

573,  590-594,  603.  613 
Indian  Ocean,  234-230,  242,  243, 

259,  349,  449,  450,  475,  511,520, 

542,  548,  580-613 
Indo-Arvan,  389 
IndoChiiia  (Further  India),  135, 

139,  353,  360,  455,  514-534,  557, 

586,  612 
ludo-Germanic,  361 
Indo-Iranian,  302,  363 
IndLi-Scvtliiaus,  144,  145 
ludont'sia,  230,  231,  233-235,  305, 

496,  516,  518,  535-579,  581,  582, 

583,  584,  585,  597 
Indore,  448,  473,  474,  478 
Inrfra,  338,  359,  362,  367,  368,  375 
Indraprastha,  370 
Indus,  161,  172,  184,  187,  346,  347, 

333,  364,  368,  371,  372,  404,  403, 

407,  420,  421,  423,  483,  496,  547, 

583,  590,  591,  595 
Ingologo  of  Matcran,  558 
Innocent  IV,  pope,  98,  99 
Innocent  X,  pope,  104 
Innocent  XI,  pope,  105 
Inouye.  47 
Irak,' 176,  179 
Iran,  124-126,  129,   131,  134,  139, 

143,  144,  146,  167,  178,  180-182, 

184.  186,  588 
Iranian,    135,    143,   144,    146,   148, 

154,  166,  167,  179,  180,  187,  196, 

205,  206,  360-365,  404 
Irawaddi,  347,  479,  487,  515,  517, 

520,  523 
Irkutsk,  220,  228 
Irnach  (Hernac,  Irnas),  155 
Iruha,  Japanese  alphabet,  1 1 
Irtish,  221 

Is.iiiagi  no  mikoto,  4 
Isanami  no  mikoto,  4 
Isinawarman,  King,  525 
Isker,  218 

Isle  Bonaparte.    See  Keuxiou 
Isle  dc  Bourbon.     See  Keuniom 
Isle  de  France.     See  Mai'kitius 
Isle  Napoleon.     See  Mauritius 
Ismail  el  Sufi,  196 
Ismail.     Sec  Kiieijive 
Ispahan,  184 

Issedones,  146,  147,  148,407 
Issik-knl,  141,  142,  144 
iswara,  384 
Italy,  009-612 
Ilo,  Marquis,  47,  52,  53,  54 
Ivan  IV,  Tsar,  207,  217,  218 
Iwttkura,  47 


118, 
322, 


lyomitsu,  40,  41,  119 

lyeniiichi,  48 

lyesuda,  45 

Iyeya.su,  3,  20,  25-27,  30-44 

lyeyoshi,  4.'i 

Izumo,  4,  5.  7 

Jacatka, 551 

Jacobi  Hermann,  402 

Jaoobseu,  J.  A.,  202 

.lafna.  510-513 

Jagatai,  180,  181,  182,  183,  184 

Jagdalak,  484 

Jah,  444 

Jain,  334,  394,  402-404,  40S,  410, 

419 
Jaipiil,  419,  420 
Jaipur.  444 
Janiailagni,  388 
James  I,  436,  436 
Jangahi  dynasty,  555 
Janids,  186 
Japan,    1-56,    96,     102,     112-115, 

117-121,  141,170,  204,  210,213- 

215,  221,  226,  233,  324,  344,409, 

451,  453,  454,  535,  550,  570,  577, 

604,  GOG 
Japan,  Sea  of,  12,  114,  117 
Japanese,  1-56,  96,  102,  u; 

120,  121,  130,  214,  215, 

324,  542,  570,  571 
Japara,  Treaty  of,  558 
Jarvis,  James  J.,  319,  320 
Jaswaut  Rao  Ilolkar,  473,474,478 
Java,  101,  130,  409,  453,  458,  464, 

514,  537-539,  541,  545-563,  567, 

508,  573,597 
Javanese,  543,  547,  552,  554-561, 

563,  564,  567,  509,  573 
Jaxartes.  126,  144,   180,  190 

303.     See  also  Syk  Dari  \ 
Jayapangu,  568 
Jayawarman  V.  King,  519 
Jeiio,  109 
Jehorum,  589 
Jehoshaphat,  389 
Jelal-ed-diu  Mankburni,  172 

422 
Jellalabad,  484 

Jenks,  E.,  239,  274,  277,  280.  291 
Jesuits,  12,  24,  25,  27, 102-104.  314 

341,  342,  452,  455,  571 
Jettha  Tissa  I,  303 
Jey  Singh  II,  444 
Jh'ansi,  492,  493 
Jiliaugir,  108 
Jilolo^  567 
Jimnui,  5-7,  14.  16 
Jina     (Mahavira     AVariihaiimna), 

402,  403 
.Tingi  kuau,  16 
Jodlipur,  478 


362, 


175, 


Johnston,  Major,  200 

J-oi,  45,  50 

Jokjakarta,  559 

Juan  Fernandez,  317 

Juangs,  360 

Judd,  Dr.,  322 

Jui  Tsung,  91 

Juji  (Suschi),  181,  182 

Jumna,     359,    364,    309-371,    389, 

407,421,427,  430,  474 
Jung,  59,  71.  75 
Jung,  Karl  Kiiiil,  245,  250,  321 
Juntoku,  21 
Justin  II,  159 
Justinian.  594 
Jutsze  Yiug,  79 

KAAIiU.MAXf,  321 

Kabir,  410,  444 

Kada,  44 

Kadiri,  556,  558 

Kafiristau,  433 

Kafiir.  510 

Kaga,  37 

Kagoshima,  24,  47 

Kai-chan,  110 

Kaifougtu,  93,  94,  175 

Kaiseng,  110 

Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land.  233 

Kaisun  (llai  Shan,  Wu  Tsung),  97 

Kakyes,  60 

Kalah,  596 

Kalakana,  King,  322,  326 

Kahiunuioliua,  King,  319 

Kaldan  Klian.  190,  192 

Kalcimoku,  321 

K.aljan,  101 

Kali.  412,  413,  481 

Kali  Ghat,  459 

Kaliilasa,  418 

Kalinga,  351,  378,  388,   425,  498, 

505,  509 
Kalki,  411 

Kamakura,  11,  18,  20-23,  31 
Kamar  ed-din  of  Kashg-ir,  183 
Kamcliatka,    200.    204,    213,    214, 

210,  219,  220,  221,  227 
Kamtliamelia  I.  233,  319,  320 
Kanieliamelia  II,  320,  321,  340 
Kameh.imeha  III,  IV,  V,  321,  322, 

.341 
Kami,  5,  9 
Kamida.  Fort  of,  49 
Kamma  (Karma),  370,  397,  402 
K.ampfer,  4 
Kamrun,  431 
Kanagawa,  43,  45 
Kanai,  019,320 
Kauara.  388 

K.inauj,  410.  420,  421,  431 
Kandahar,  83,  431,  433,  438,  439, 

482-484 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


627 


Kandapura,  402 

Kandy,  505,  511-514 

Kaug  hsi.     See  Sheng  Tsu 

Kang  wen,  117 

Kang  Yu  Wei,  54,  111 

Kanghis,  3 

Kanishka,  407 

Kansu,  58,  75,  "8,  82,  92,  93,  95, 

107,  no,  114,  124,  125,  132,  140, 

147,  195 
Kaiiwa,  406,  430 
Kao  Ilan.     See  Lu  hax 
Kao  Huan,  89 

Kao  Huang  ti.     See  Nobcuazi 
Kao  Li  tze,  91 
Kao  Ti.     See  Kao  Tsn  and  Wen 

Ti 
Kao  Tsu,  77,  SO,  89,  90,  93 
Kao  Tsung,  90,  91,  94,  98,  107 
Kao  Yang,  89 
Kao  Yuji,  88 
Kapilavastu,  82,  390,  395 
Kapiolani,  323 
Kara  (Korea),  8 
Kara  Kliitai.     See  Khitan 
Kara  Koiulo,  186 
Karakorum,  95,  96,  99,  172,   176, 

178,  179,  191,  192 
Kara  Yusuf,  180,  186 
Kararani.     See  Sdlaimax  Khan 
Karashar  oasis,  125 
Kargalik  oasis,  125 
Karini  Khan,  477 
Karma.     See  Kamma 
Kama,  370 
Karo,  35,  36 
Karrak.  423 
Kartavirya,  Prince,  388 
Kasan,  182,  207 
Rash,  182,  183 
Kashgar,  107,  125,  147,  149,  152, 

157,  168,  171,  174,  181,  183,192, 

195,  196 
Kasliiapniadanga,  82 
Kashmir,   166,   187,  352,  354,364, 

378,  407,409,  410,  416,  420,  433, 

437,  485 
Kasi,  371 

Kasim  of  Bengal.     See  Mi  r 
Kassapa,  Buddhist.    See  K.^syapa 
Kassapa,  king  of  Ceylon,  506 
Kassapa  IV,  506 
Kasuuoki  JIasahige,  22,  23 
K.isyapa,  393,  400 
Katakana  script,  6 
Katliiawed,  406 
Kato  Kiyomasa,  12,  32,  118 
Kattak.     See  Orissa 
Kattigara,  592 
Kaufraann,  Gen.  Konstantine  von, 

223 
Kaurawas,  370 


Kawachi,  5 

Kawazi,  22 

Kaya,  8 

Keane,  Augustus  H.,  131 

Keane,  John,  Lieut  -Gen.,  483 

Kci  Kobad.     .See  Mo'izz  ei>din 

Keiko.  Emperor,  7,  9 

Kekuaokalani,  321 

Kemperniann,  38 

Ken  A(ng)rok,  556 

Kendall,  missionary,  333,  334 

Keug  Ki  man,  106 

Keng  Tsing  chung,  106 

Kerait,  171,  172,  174 

Kermadec  Islands,  332 

Kern,  H.,  547 

Kertarayasa,  556 

Kerulen,  174 

Kethoga,  179 

Ketteler,  Klemeus  von,  HI 

Khagatai,  99 

Khalil,  186 

Khalka,  95-106 

Khama  Rajeudra  Wodeyar,  481 

Khansu,  596 

Kharisniia,  95,  155,  159,  171,  172, 

174,  183,  194 
Kh.arizm,  421,  422 
Khatmandu,  476 
Khazars,  216 
Khedive  Ismail,  610 
Khiang,  148,  163 
Khilji,  House  of,  419.  424-426 
Khitan,    57,  92-94,  116,   117,  161, 

164,  170,  171,  211,  525 
Khiva,  155,  172,  183,  197-199,219, 

222,  223,  224,  407 
Khmer,  516,  519,  524-526 
Khojent,  222 
Khokand,  107,  125,  195,  197,  199, 

222,  223,  407 
Khonds,  352,  486 
Khorasan,  90,  ISO,  184,  186,  196 
Khotan,    157,   166,   167,  186,  195, 

407 
Khudayar  of  Kliokand,  223 
Khusruu,  438 
Khusrou  Malik,  421 
Khusrou  Shah.   See  Nasie  ed-din 
Khvber  Pass,  483,  484 
Ki,'71,  72 

Ki  jun  of  Chosen,  115 
Ki  Tsze,  115 
Kia.  King,  105,  108 
Kianchau,  1 1 1 
Kiang  River,  58 
Kiang  hung,  528,  529 
Kiang-ning,  83 
Kiangsi,  78,  90,  101 
Kiangsu,    58,   71,  76,   78,    92,    97, 

107 
Kibi,  5 


Kieif,  172,  175 

Kien   Tsien    Kio.      See    KoziLO 

Kadphises 
Kien  lung,  68,  78,  105-108 
Kiho,  98 

Kii,  5,  36,  39,  40,  44,  45,  48 
Kikata.  356 
Kikiokikunoma,  37 
Kihva-Kisiwani,  598 
Kim,  121 

Kim  Wfin  Kieu  Tan  Truyen,  532 
Kimmei,  Emperor,  10.  16 
Kimos,  573 
Kin,  50 
Kin  Li,  159 
Kin  sha  kiang,  58 
Kin  Tarters  (Nu  chi),  94-96,  101, 

117,  164,  170,  171,  173-176,209, 

211,  212 
Kinau,  321 
King,    Philip    Gidley,    255,    257, 

259-262,  272,  273 
King  chin.  King,  69 
King  George's  Sound,  271,  281 
Kingsland,  339 
Kinoshita  Tokiohiro.  SeeHiDEvo- 

SHI. 

Kioto,  9,  11,  17,  18,  20-24,  30-34, 

39,  40,  46-48,  50 
Kipchak,   180,   181,  182,  184,  186, 

197,  207 
Kirata,  371,  411,  412 
Kirgis  (llakas),  60,  127,  129,  160, 

161,  170,  171,  195-198,206-208, 

221,  223 
Kiria,  oasis,  125 
Kirti  Sri  nija  Simha,  Ceylon,  510, 

513 
Kisil  Su,  147 
Kistna.     See  Krishna 
Kita  Shirakawa  no  miya,  40 
Kitan-Tartars.     See  Khitan 
Kitsze,  4 

Kiu-yung  Kuan,  165,  168 
Kiying,  105 
Kiyomasa.     See  ICato 
Kiyomori,  17,  18,  30 
Kjeng  Kwi,  117 
Kjeng  sang,  117 
Kliasraa,  175 
Klings,  351 
Klisma,  594 
Ko,  15 

Ko,  king,  359 
Ko  lo  lu.     See  Quarluk 
Ko  to  lo.    See  Qdtluq 
Kobe,  49 

Kobodaishi.     See  Kckai 
Kohani  (Rohini),  390 
Kohinoor,  430,  487 
Kohistan,  486 
Kolilbrugge,  J.  H.  F.,539 


628 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


Indfz 


Kojiki,  644 

Kokio.  21 

Koko-pok-jjuru,  2,  215 

Kokorai  I'nliai,  116 

Kokushu,  34-39 

Kolainlia  (Ceylon).  See  Colombo 

Kolao  Hui,  1 10 

Kolarians,  353, 360 

Kolya,  390 

Kolyma,  220 

Koinei,  48 

Koniiyo,  Tenno,  17,  23 

Koimgamana  liuddha,  393 

Kuiiig,  Heiiiricli  von,  4J5 

Konislii  Yukinnga,  32,  118 

Koukan,  425 

Konogatari,  19 

Kouoye.  Emperor,  1" 

Kora,  463,  468 

Korea,   1,3-5,  7-10,  17,  21,  23,  28, 

31,  32,  41,  51-34,  59,  79,  90,  96, 

101,  102,  110,  111,  114-121,  141, 

156,   176.  210,211,225,226,542 
Korea,  Straits  of,  1 
Koriaks.  214 
Korkay,  386 
Kosala,  371 
Ivoshito,  2 

Kotoku,  Emperor,  15,  16 
Kotta,  511 

Kotzebuc,  Otto  von,  221 
Koxiiiga.  106,  370 
Koya  .Mountain,  II 
Kozolu     Kadpliises    (KieD     Tsien 

Kio),  144,  407 
Kozuke,  22 

Kozum  Khan,  208,  218,  219 
Kramer,  Augustin,  324 
KrascheoiDDikor,    Stephen,     214, 

221 
Krasuoiarskoi,  206 
Krasuovodsk,  224 
Krishna,  339,  370,  378,  388,  408, 

411,  428,  440,  446,  462,  547 
Kroma  Mom  Chit,  528 
Kroscnsteru,  Ritter  von.  221 
Kshatriya.  374,  375,  377,  379-381, 

387-.-i90,  402,  404,  405,  414,  430, 

441,  442,520 
Kte^ius,  404 

Ku  Knng,  66.     See  Tan  fu 
Kii  liang,  66 
Kuan  Ti,  86 
Kuan  Yu,  86 
Kublai    Khan,  21,  60,  84,  85,  96, 

117,  176,  177,  180,  182,  188,  192, 

525,  556,  596 
Kuchar,  oasis,  125 
Kudara,  8,  10,  116 
Kudikal,  356 
Kuci,  lOJ 
Knei  chi,  88,  106 


Kuenlun    Mountains,  58,  71,   123, 

124,  125,  1.38,  145 
Kuge,    16,17,34,35,37-40,47,51 
Kui,  516 

Kukai  (Kohodaishi),  11 
Kukaku,  36 
Kuku  Nor,  211 
Kula-^khara,  King,  386,  508 
Kuljar,  223 
Kultogin,  159,  160 
Knm.-ino,  5,  32 
Kumaoso  (Kumaso),  5,  7,  9 
Kuniura  Dasa,  506 
Kumaril.%  410 
Kumaris,  95 

Kumaso.     Sec  Krsnoso 
Kumi  gassira,  37 
Kung,  King,  69 
Kuiig  fu   t.sze,  3,  64-67,  69.  71-73, 

94,  104,  112,  152 

Kung  Ming.     See  Chd  kg  mani; 

Kung,  I'riuce,  109 

Kung  Ti,  88,  90,  95 

Kung  T.sze  kia  yu,  66 

Kung  wo,  116 

Kung  yang,  66 

Kungsi,  lo7 

Kuo  Wei.  93 

Kup:ing  Timor,  554 

Kurd-Cabul  I'ass,  484 

Kurdistan,  184 

Kurg.  3.i4,  337,  471,  481 

Kurgan,  221 

Kurilcs,  tlie,  2,  214,215 

Kurku,  360 

Knrtid  Ghag.ith  eddin  Pir  Ali,  184 

Kuru,  369-371 

Kurumba,s,  350,  388,  429 

Kusagcsaka,  5 

Kushana,  407 

Kusblck,  Khan,  171,  172 

Kusinara,  393 

Kusunoki  Masahige,  22,  23 

Kutb,  Shah  of  Golcouda,  428 

Kutli  ed-tlin  Eibek,  421,  422 

Kuweni,  498 

Kuyuk  Khan,  96,  99,  176 

Kwanibaku.  16,  32,  33 

Kwanimu,  Kniperor,  11,  12,  14,  17 

Kwang  cliau  fu.  111 

Kwang  hai,  117 

Kwang  hsii,  78,  111 

Kwang  si,  58,  60,  77,  79,  101-103, 

108.  109,  515,  5.33 
Kwang  tszc,  67 
Kwang   tung,  60,  77,  79,    84,  92, 

95,  101,  103,  106,  515,  533 
Kwanrei,  23 

Kwanto,  17,  18,  20,  23,  34,  39 
Kweichau,  60,  101,  106,  107 
Kwo  Tsze-i,  91 
Kwo  Tze  King,  97 


Kyilshu,  I,  2,  4,  3,  7,  9,  17,  19.  21, 

23,  24.  26,  .30,  31,  39,  96,  213 
KyryUin.     See  Kebulen 

La  TsAxr.,  190 

I.abaum,  565 

Labong,  525 

LagK-e,  Capt.  Dontard  de,  533 

Lagrone,  de,  105 

Lahore.     172,    405,    419-422,   428, 

430,  431,  436,437,445,482,  485- 

487 
Lahore,  Viscount.    See  Hardinge 
Laji  TiR«a.  503 
Lake,  General,  Gerard,  474,  475, 

479 
Lakshmi.  412 
Lfila,  497,  498 

L.illah  Kdokh.     See  Trikanini 
Lally-Tolli-ndal,  Count,  462-464 
Lamaisim,  83,  188-191,  194,  409 
Lambert,  Laraotte,  527 
Lamgiin,  420 
Lampong,  562 
Lancaster,  James,  456 
Land,  16,    19,  34,  42,    51,   63,  80, 

264-269,  276-279,  281-286,  291- 

294,  336,  337,  435 
Landak,  563 
Langson,  534 
Lanka,  498,  499,  509 
Laune,  \VilliHni,  249 
Lansdowne,    Marquis    of,     Henry 

Fitzmaurice,  493 
Lao,  316,  517,  519,  525,  526,  528, 

.330,  331,334 
Lao  T.sze,  64,  66.  67,  72 
Lapo'ruuse,  Count,  325 
Laperouse,  Strait,  1 
Lapierre,  Commodore,  532 
Laplace,  Captain,  316 
Lapp.  203 
Larike,  498 
Lassen,  Christi.in.  361 
Launceston,  259,  274,  296 
Lawrence,    Henry,  Col.  Sir,    486, 

487,  491 
Lawrence,  Baron,  John,  487,  492, 

493 
Lawrence,  Major  Stringer,  460-462 
Law.son,  colonist,  261,  270 
Le  dyuasty,  530,  531,  533 
Le  Lo,  330 
Le  Maire,  J.,  311 
Le  Phung,  533 
Leang, 73 

Leemans,  Conrad,  557 
Leichardt,  Ludwig,  271 
Leiieur  de  Ville-snr-arc,  Captain, 

532 
Lembong  Mangkurat,  563 
Lemuria,  572,  573 


Indez 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


629 


Lena,  215,  219 

Lendenfeld,  Robert  von,  333 

Lescheuault  district,  282 

Lesseps,  Count  Ferdinand  de,  610 

Lewis  Pond  Creek,  289 

Lhasa,  162,  163,  190,  191 

Lhasa,  Raja  of,  191 

Li  (An nam),  530 

Li  (Chin),  60 

Li  (Korean),  121 

Li  Fu  Kuo,  91 

Li  Hung  Chang,  52,  53,  lU 

Li  Ki,  65,  68,  70,  80 

Li  Shi  Min.     See  Tai  Tscng 

Li  Sze,  75 

Li  Tai  Peh,  91 

Li  Tsun  hsu,  92 

Li  Tsung,  95 

Li  Tsze  cheng,  102,  106 

Li  Wang,  71 

Li  Yuan,  90 

Liang,  78,  87-90,  156,  157 

Liang  dynasty,  83,  85,  89.  92,  544 

Liau,  also  Khitan,  57,    92,  93,  94, 

117,212 
Liau  chau,  60 
Liau  tung,  53,78,94,  101,110,116, 

119,  175,  211,  212 
Liegnitz,  175 
Lieh  yu  kan  (Licius),  67 
Lientung,  62 
Light,  Colonel,  284 
Ligor,  518,  525 
Liki.     See  Li  Ki 
Liliuokalani,  Queen,  323 
Ling  Ti,  81 
Ling  Wang,  69,  71 
Lingan,  411,412,  519,  524 
Linschoten,  Jan  Huygen  van,  453 
Lions,  tlie,  dynasty,  498 
Lisbon,  452,  453 
Literatuie,  12,  17,  19,  44,  65,  66, 

76,79,  82,  85,  90,  91,  94,96,  112, 

179,  415^19,  432,  490,  532 
Liu,  86-88 
Liu  hsien,  81 
Liu  Hiian,  81 
Liu  Kao,  93 
Liu  kin,  5,  51,  101,  110 
Liu  Pang,  Duke  of  Pei,  76,  77 
Liu  Pei,  81,  86-88 
Liu  Tsung,  95 
Liu  Yu,  88 
Liu  Yiian,  88 
Livadia,  110 

Liverpool  Plains,  263,  271,  279 
Lo,  River,  62 
Lolo,  59,  60 
Lo  yang,  7 1 
Lolinor,  145,  152 
Ludi  (Lodhi),  House  of,  419,  428, 

430,  432 


Lombok,  568 

London,  258,  259,   262,  275,   284, 

291,  328,  340,  457,  477,  534,  553, 

561 
Lonsdale,  Captain,  278 
Lord  Howe  Island,  298 
Loyalty  Islands,  341 
Louis  Philippe,  343 
Louis  IX,  99,  100 
Louis  XIV,  464,  527,  531 
Louis  XVI,  471 
Lu,  59,  65-69,  71,  72,  106 
Lii,  Prince  of  Shang,  63 
Lu  fang,  81 
Lu  hau,  77,  79 
Lu  pan  shau,  95 
Lu  Pu,  86 
Lu  Shin,  95 
Lucknow,  444,  491,  492 
Lumbini,  390,  395 
Lun  Yu,  66,  80 
Lunalilo,  322,  323 
Lunchaufu.  75 
Lung  chi,  91 
Luug  yo,  88 
Luzon,  2,  569,  570 
Lyons,  Council  of,  98 
Lytton.     See  Bllwer 

Ma  Hlan,  101,  115,  116 
Mabushi,  44 
Macao,  28.  103,  104,  451 
MacArthur,  M.ij  -Gen.  Arthur,  572 
MacArthur,  Jolin,  257,  258,  260, 

275 
Macartney,  George  Viscount,  108 
Macassar,  552,  565-567,  569 
Macaulay,  Thomas  Babington,  466 
McKinley,  President  WiUiam,  323 
Macnaghten,  William,  483 
MacPherson.  John,  486 
JIacquerie,  Lachlan,  260-263,  274, 

275,  291 
Macquerie  Harbour,  274,  275 
Madagascar,   535,   536,   538,   540, 

542,  565,  572-578,  581,  583,  584, 

585,  587,  600,  603,  608,609,  610 
Madeira,  608 
Madhya-desa,  371,  518 
Madras.   350,  353,   3.54,   411,  454, 

457,  459,  460,  462,  463,  467,  470, 

472,  473,  475,  476,  479,  491,  524 
Madura,  496,  506,  508,  513,  558, 

559 
Maes,  Macedoni.in  merchant,  147 
Magadha,  348,  371,  390,  391,  392, 

396,  402,  405-407,  415,  505 
Magalhaes   (Magellan),   550,   570, 

594 
Magha,  509 
Magyars,  127,  129,  175,  204,  205, 

206 


Mahabat  Khan,  436,  437 
Mahabbarata,    the,    57,    369-374, 

377,378,  385,  416,  417 
Mahiideva,  362,  411,  412 
Mah;idevi,  412 
Mahilkala,  411,  412 
Mahauadi  delta,  371 
Mahauama  (Ceylon),  505,  511 
Maharajpur,  485 
Maharastra,  441 
Mahiirattaku  (minister),  503 
Mahasena  (Ceylou),  505 
Mahavira,  403 
Mahawansa,    497,    502,    503,    507, 

510-512 
Mabayaua,  409 
Mahayogiu,  411,  412 
Mahdism,  611 
Mahendrawarman,  525 
Mahinda,  388,  415,  501,  505 
Mahiuila  IV,  506,  509 
Mahnnid  KkUi,  430 
Mahmud  of  Trausoxiana,  183 
ILihrnud  Shah  II  (Bahraani),  428 
Mahmud    Shah    II    (Mameluke). 

See  Nasir  ed-dix 
M.ahmud  Shah  II  (Tuglak),  427 
Mahmud  Shah  of  Acheb,  561 
Mahmud   Yamin    ed    Dowlah   of 

Ghazni,  420,  421,  423,  424 
Mahratta,  388,  425,  440-449,  458, 

461,  462,  463,  168,  469-475,  477, 

478.  480,  491,  493,  531 
Maigrot,  Bishop,  101 
Maitreya,  400 
Makdichu,  598 
Mai  Paharia.  352 
Malab.ar,  349,  354,  355,  357,  388- 

389,  451-453,  456,  471,  498,  503, 

506,  596-603 
Malacca,  451,  4.53,  511,  513,  521, 

523,  525,  526,  538,  543,  544,  546, 

548,  549,  550,  552,  557,  560,  561, 

565,  572,  573,  584,  585,  592,  593, 

596,  597,  612 
Malacca,  Strait  of,  561 
Malava,  408 
Milavikagnimitra,  418 
Malay,  3.  5,  59,  215,  231,  241-243, 

305,  306,  308,  475,  495.  504,  509, 

513,  516,  521,  535-539,  541-575, 

584,  585,  586,  593,  597,  598,  600, 

603,  613 
M.alay  Archipelago,  .536-538,  .541, 

54.3-574,  582.  583,  587,  593,  597 
Malaya  Desa,  509,  520 
Malcolm,  Col.  John,  476 
Malietoa  Laupepa,  326,  327 
Malietoa  Talavou  (Pe'a),  326,  327 
Malikjmr,  172,  422 
Malindi,  598 
Malkhed,  408 


630 


HISTORY    OF    THE   WORLD 


InJri 


Mnlvn,  422 

MfUwa,  423,  424,  431 ,  433,  444,  447, 

448 
Maiueluko,  419,  422^27,  604 
Man,  511,  81 

Miuiiuir,  3S6,  387,  506,  508,  511 
Maimbliarana,  506,  507,  508 
Munnn'ii,  374 
M:iuciial>a,  522 
.Manchu.  3,  44,  59,  119,  209.  212. 

220,  226 
Maucliu   dynasty.   65,   78,   85,  94. 

102,  103,  105-109,  112,  189,  192, 

193 
Manchuria,  4,  53,  54,  57,  59,  102, 

114,  140,  155.  161,  169,  209,210, 

211,  213,  220.  226,  228 
Mand:Ua,  386 
Mandalay,  523,  524 
Mang,  72,  79 
Maugalore,  467,  470 
Mangites,  186,  199 
Mangku  Bumi.  559 
Manga  Khan,  96,  99, 100,  117.  17r,, 

177,  179 
Mauihiki  Islands,  332 
Manikpur,  423 
Manila,  570-572 
Manji.     See  Manzi 
Manjusri,  409 
Mantra,  374,  412 
Manu,  57,  374-377,380,382,417, 

588 
Manzi,  57 
Mao,  59 

Maori,  233,  302,  304,  317,  331-339 
Marcus   Aurelins  Antoninus,  546, 

592 
Marcuse,  Adolph,  323 
Marianne  Islands,  230,  305,   309, 

314,  324,  342,  343 
Marquesas   I.slands,  307,  315,  319, 

334,  341 
Marsden,  Samuel,  334 
Marsh,  Othniel  Charles.  537 
Marshall  Islands,  301,  305 
Martaban,  523 
Martin,  460 
Maruts,  367 
Marwar,  433 
Masago,  20 

Masaliige.     See  Kdsunoki 
Masaruki,  23 
Maacarcncs,  573,  578,  579 
Mascarenhas,  Pero,  578 
Massageta;,  134,  135,  143,  146 
Massowali,  595 
Masiilipatain,  457,  458,  463 
Mataafa,  327,  328 
Matan  (Borneo),  550 
Mataii  (Philippine),  563 
Matarani.  558,  559 


Matra,  Mr.,  254 

Matsya,  371 

Mattiiews,  General,  470 

Mattra,  440,  446,  447 

Matuanlin,  6,  7 

Mams.  King,  407 

Maui,  319.  320 

Maurennahar,   180,  197 

Maiirire.  Prince,  551 

Mauritius,  4.'i3,  459,  460,  464,  472, 

475,  552,  577,  578,  579.  608 
Maurya  alphabet,  395 
Maurya  dynasty,  405-407,  506 
Maya,  390,  395 
Mayo,  Count,  Richard   Southwell 

Bourke,  493 
Mayotta,  578 
Me  chuu  (Me  tsu),  159 
Me  ki,  159 

Mecca,  432,  434,  453, 457 
Medes,  143 
Mediterranean,  253,  300,  320,  350, 

351,  356,  449,  580,  581,  582,  587, 

589,  590,  594,  .596,  599,  602,  604, 

610 
Meerut,  490,  491 
Mega-sthenes,  387,  406 
Mei  Hi,  63 

Meiiiicke,  Karl,  309,  318,  329 
Mekong,  347,  515,  516,  520,  528, 

529,  532.  533 
Melanesia.  230,  232,  242,  243,  300, 

301,  305,  308-312,  324,  343,  535, 

538,  539,  541,  542,  572,  584,585, 

613 
Melbourne,  243,  259,  270,  271,  278, 

279,  289,  290,  295,  296 
Melville  Island,  279 
Mcnabe,  575 

Meuam.  515,  516,  520,  525,  528 
Meuando,  565-567 
Menangkabau.  543.  550.  560,  597 
Mendang  Kaniulan,  555 
Menderaji,    or    Mentaragyi    Pran, 

522 
Menezes,  451 
Meng  dan  Meng.  523 
Meng  ko.     See  Manisu  Khan 
Meng  Tsze,  65-67,  70.  73-75 
Mcngyitsauke,  521 
Mentara,  King,  521,  526 
Menuthios,  572 
Mergui.  516,  522,527 
Mcru,  Mountain  of.  370,  509 
Men-,  198,  224,  421 
Mesopotamia,  180.  587,  593,  612 
Metcalfe,  Charles,  485 
Metcalfe.  Lord,  481 
Mete,  140,  141 
Mcwar,  423,  430 
Mi  Tib,  74 
Miaui,  484 


Miaotszc,  59,  60,  101,  107,  108 

Michizanc',  17 

Micronesia,  230-232,300,301, 303- 

305,  308,  309,  313-314,  343,  540, 

547,  585 
Middlcton,  Sir  Ilcury,  456 
Midnapur,  464 
Migne  niogne,  532 
Miidera.  22,  23 
Mikado,  3,  6,  12,  13,  1.5-17,  20-23, 

29, 36-41,  44. 45, 47. 49-51,  53,  55 
Military   duty,  35-37,  68,   77,  93, 

295-297,  388 
Millot,  General,  534 
.Miniizuka,  32 
Min,  92 

Min  (Korean),  120 
Min  chau,  75,  88 
Min  'I'i  (Chinese),  88 
Minahassa,  567 

Minamoto,  11,  15,  17-22,  32,  33 
Minatogowa.  23 
Mindanao,  536,  570,  571 
Mindon    Min.      See    Meno    dan 

Mkno 
Mines,  132,  239.  332,  350,  562 
Ming.  31.  78,  97.  100-102,  106,  117, 

119,  188,  192,  193,  212,  530,545, 

597 
Ming  Shon,  101 
Ming  Ti,  81,  82,  90,  152 
Ming  Tsuug,  97 
Ming  yu  chen,  97 
Ming  yuan  Ti.  89 
Miuti  (Burmah),  521 
Minto,  Lord,  475,  476,  480 
Minusink,  204 
Miotze.     See  Miaotsze 
Mir  Jafir,  Nuwab  of  Bengal,  463- 

465,  468 
Mir  Ka.sin,  Nuwab  of  Bengal,  464, 

465 
Missionaries,  13,  14,  24-29,82,97- 

100,  102-104,  113,  114,  120,  169, 

315-317,  .321,  322,  325,  326,  330, 

.•i34,  335,  340-343,  359,  490,  500, 

501,  523.  532,  546.  .592 
Missions,  24-29.  82,97-100,   102- 

104,  312.  315-316,  321,  322,  334, 

337,  340-342,  4.54,  528 
Mitchell,    Major  Thomas   Living- 
stone, 271 
Mithila,  371 
Mito,  39,  40.  44-46,  48 
Mitra.  362.  367,  385 
Mitsuhide.      See  Akeshi 
Mitsukuni,  44 
Miuni.  121 
Mo  Ti.  92.  95 
Mobariz.  Mogul  ruler.  449 
Modyopahit,    543,    549,    556-558, 

561,  562,  563,  568 


Index 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


631 


Mogallaua,  392 

Mogul  Empire,  429,  443,  446,  448, 

456-459,  491 
Moguls,    354,    424-427,    433,    434, 

442,  448,  456,  482 
Mohammed,    180,    434,   548,    575, 

594,  595,  598 
Mohammed     Akbar      (Timurite), 

440,  442 
Mohammed  All  of  Carnatic,  461, 

462 
Mohammed    'Azim    Shah    (Timu- 
rite), 443,  459 
Mohammed  Bahadur  Shah  II,  488, 

491,  492 
Mohammed  Cambakhsh,  442,  444 
Mohammed     Farrukhsiyar,    443- 

445,  448,  449 
Mohammed  Hakim,  433 
Mohammed  ibn-Bachtyar,  421 
Mohammed  II,  ibn-Tughlak,   346, 

426,  428 
Mohammed      Kasim      Hindflshah 

Firisbtah,  423 
Mohammed  Khan,  42.3 
Mohanmied  Mu'azzem  Shah  'A  lam 

Bahadur  Shah  I,  440,  443-445 
Mohammed   Muhi  ed-din  Aurang 

zeb,  'Alangir   I,   439-446,    448, 

449,  457-459 
Mohammed  Nekhflsuyar,  444 
Mohammed  Shah.     See  Roshen- 

AKHTAK 

Mohammed    Shah    I.      See    Ala 

ED-DIN 

Mohammed  Shah  (Malay),  548 
Mohammed  Shah  IV  (Seiad),  428 
Mohammed  Shiabani.  186,  196-199 
Mohammed  Yakub  Bei,  195 
Mohammedan,  351,353,  354,  416, 
417,  419-429,  438,  439,  440,  448, 
459,  466,  467,  470,  471,  475,  490, 
496,  510,  558 
Mohammedanism,  57,  98-100,  110, 
112,  160,  166-169,  176,  177,  180, 
181,  183,  188,  192,  194-196,  208, 
353-355,  410,  413,  418-429,  444, 
472,  543,  545,  548,  549,  555,  557, 
558,  561,  563,  566-570,  575,  595, 
596,  612 
Moi,  516 

Mo'izz  ed-din  Ghori,  421,  422 
Mo'izz  eddin  Jihaudar  Shah,  443, 

456 
Mo'izz  ed-din  Kei  Kobad,  424 
Mo'izz   ed-dowlet    Krusrou    Shah, 

421 
Moluccas,  451,453-455,  513,  538, 
549-554,  557,  565,  567,  568,  570 
Mombasa,  598 
Mongama  (Borneo),  563 
Mougleng,  529 


Mouijol  dynasty,  3,  60,  78,  84,  95- 
98,  100,  112,  117,  167,  169-187, 
191,  192,  196 

Mongolia,  57,  59,  96,  97,  106,  107, 
123,  125,  130,  131,  139-142,  153, 
15,5-157,  159,  162,  173,  178,  182, 
189,  190,  193,  194,  199,  212,  226, 
401,  409,  536,  586 

Mongols,  2,  8,  20,  21,  57,  85,  95, 
100,  101,  109,  117,  127,  128,  130, 
131,  135,  137-139,  141,  142,  158, 
160-162,  164,  166,  168-190,  192, 
193,  196,  197,  200-207,  209,  213- 
219,  306,  323,  345,  346-352,355, 
363,  406,  407,  422,  476,  539,  544, 
588 

Monogotari  and  Geuge,  19 

Mons  (Takings),  516,  517,  520, 
521 

Mouteban,  Cousin,  109 

Monto,  12 

Moravia,  96 

Moreton  Bay,  268,  276,  279 

Mori,  23,  30,  31,  33 

Moritz,  Governor  of  Orange,  453 

Moriyoshi,  22 

Mornington,  Earl.  See  Richard 
Wellksley 

Moscow,  218,  219 

Moser,  Heiurich,  129 

Mossmau,  historian,  259 

Motoori,  44 

Moulmein,  479 

Mount  Aim  (Further  India),  403 

Mount  Alexander  (Au.stralia),  289 

Mount  Girnar  (Further  India),  403 

Mount  Taurus  (New  South  Wales), 
257 

Mount  Wellington  (Tasmania), 
272 

Mozaffar  ed-din  of  Bokara,  222 

Mozaffar  III  Habib  of  Gujerat, 
433 

Mozaffar  Jang  (Delhi),  461 

Mozaffarids,  180,  184 

Mozambique,  453 

Mozzobo,  522 

Mritsbtshhakatika,  418 

Mu,  battle  of,  59,  64 

Mu  jung  Te,  88 

Mu  sung,  211 

Mu  Tsung,  109,  110,  111 

Mu  Wang,  71 

Muang  Bang  Tapan,  529 

Muang  lem,  529 

Muang  Pa,se,  529 

Mudhadji  II  (Appa  Sahib)  of 
Berar,  477,  478 

Mudrurakshasa,  418 

Mujiks,  2 

Mukden,  212 

Muller,  Gerhard  Friedrich,  221 


Multan,   184,   420,   422,   42S,    440, 

487 
Mundas,  360 
Munemori,  18 

Miinnich,  von.  Field-marshal,  221 
Muuro,  Major  Hector,  465 
Munro,  Thomas,  470 
Muong  Thai,  525 
Mura,  36 

Murabek  Shah  (Khilji),  425 
Murabek  Shah  II  (Seiad),  428 
Murad  (Timurite),  434 
Munid  Bakhsh  (Timurite),  439 
Muravier,  Count  Nicolai,  226 
Murray,  General,  474 
Murray  River,  236,  237,  263,  271, 

283 
Murrumbidgee  River,  236, 263,  271 
Murshlbad,  463 
Murshid  Kuli  Khan,  444,  462 
Musa,  3 
Musashi,  22 
Mutsu,  Munemitsu,  53 
Mutsuhito,  6,  48,  50 
Mysore,   354,  388,   406,  425,   428, 

441,  449,  466,  467,  469-173,  476, 

481,500 

Nadir  Shah,   199,  445-447,   449, 

482,  485 
Naga,  358,  400 
Naganauda.  418 
Nagasaki,  21,  25,  26,  29,  39,  41,43, 

50 
Nagato,  24 
Nagpur,  478,  488,  491 
Nahapana,  407 
Nai  Ma  chen,  96,  176 
Naidaijin,  16,  30 
Naiman  mongols,  94, 171,  198 
Naini  Tal,  477 
Nairanjara,  391 
Nakamura,  30 
Nakasendo  Mountains,  18 
Nakatomi  no  Kamatari,  16,  17 
Namchao,  525 
Namdoji  Prau,  522 
Namollo,  214 
Nan  Han,  Liang  Tang  and  Yen. 

See  Han,  etc. 
Nan  Wang,  74 
Nana  Sahib,  488.  491-493 
Nanak,  444,  445 
Nanda  dynasty,  405 
Naniwa  (Osaka),  5 
Nanking,    58,    59,    82,    83,    87-89, 

94,  97,  101,   103,   105,   107,   109, 

110 
Nanking  Pass,  97 
Nanling,  58 

Nanshan  Mountains,  124,  141 
Napier,  Sir  Charles  James,  484 


632 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


Indti 


Napoleon    I,   472,   -iTS.   482,   485, 

553.  5T7.  579,  608,  609 
Napoleon  III,  532 
Nara,  1 1 
Narai,  527 
Xarba.la,  348,  352,  408,  413,  435. 

438.  474,  491 
Nariakira,  44—46 
Narinaga,  45 
Narui,  37 

Nojsir  eclniin  Khusrou  Khan,  425 
Nasir  ed-<liu  Xlaliiimii  Shah,  423 
Kasir    pd-din    Muliammed    Iluma- 

yuu,  430.431,433 
Nasir  cd-diii  Nasrat  Shah.  430 
Nasir    ed-din    Sabukctegin,    419, 

420 
Nasir  Jang  (Deccan),  461 
Nasr  Allah  of  Bokhara,  199 
Nataputta,  402.     See  also  Jisa 
Naulivau.  312 
Nayaks,  449 
Nayas,  516 
Neale,  Colonel,  47 
Nearohus,  405,  591 
Nebuchadnezzar  II,  .'590 
Necho  II,  588,  590,  598 
Negapatan,  460 
Negoro  Dhigo,  559 
Nc'grier,  General,  534 
Nr-kflsiyur  (Timurite),  444 
Nellore,  456,  458 
Nepal,  90,  107,  191,  346,  395,  408, 

476,  477,  479,  481 
Nertchinsk,  Peace  of,  106 
Netherlands,  27,  47,  553,  559,  571 
Nevelski  Strait,  1 
New  Caledonia,  232,  250, 300,  305, 

311,331,  343 
New  Guinea,   230,  233,  241,   243, 
297,  299,  300,  302,  304,  305,  308, 
311,  344.  538,  567,  568 
New  Hebrides,  232,  311,  312,  342, 

343 

New  Holland,  608 

New   South  Wales,  236,   254-270, 

272,  273,  275,  277,  280,  282,  286- 

290,  293,  296-299,  333,  334,  339 

New  South  Wales  Corps,  256,  258, 

260 
New  Zealand,  230-234,   243,  244, 
272,  285,  289,  298,  .300,  304-307, 
310,  313,  326,  .331-340,  343,  542 
Newca.-itlc  (New  South  Wales),  259 
Newman,  A.  K.,  244 
Ngan-hwci,  78 
Nguyen  Ange,  531,  532 
Nguyen  Du  Hun  tam  tri,  532 
Nguyin  Iloang,  531 
Ni  dynasty,  120,  121 
Ni  kung.     See  Tai  wbn  kumo 
Ni  Tai  jo,  117 


Nias,  562 

Niehircn,  12 

Nichola.s  II,  czar,  228 

Nicholas  III,  jKjpe,  100 

Nicholson,  John,  492 

Nicosia,  99 

Nido,  Korean  alphabet,  116 

Nicgata,  43 

Nienfci,  110 

Nig.-»ntba.  402 

Nigliwa,  395 

Nigrito   race,  516,  537,  538,  555, 

569,  573,  574,  585,  586 
Nihilist,  229 
Nihongi  (Chronicles  of  Japan),  3, 

6,  7 
Nikko,  9,  13,  40,  41 
Nile,  590,  591,  610,  611 
Nilgiri  Mountains,  348 
Ning  hsia,  93 
Ning  po,  108  . 
Ninh  hai,  533 
Ninson  Harbour.     See  Chelmcl- 

PHO 

Ninus,  404 

Nippon.     See  Hou  Chad 

Nirvana,  393,  400,  401 

Nishada,  356,  359,  371,  378 

Nitta,  22 

Nitta  Yoshisada,  22,  23 

Nizam  ed  din  (Mameluke),  424 

Nizam   of    Haidarabad,  445,   448, 

449.  4fil-464.  471.  472,  489 
Nizam  Iskander  II,  428 
Nizam  Shah  of  Ahmcdnagar,  428 
Nizam  lU-mulk,  448,  449 
Nobunaga,  Ota,  12,  23,  24,  29-32 
Nobutaka,  30 
Nogais.  207,  208 
Nokonoma,  37 
Norfolk  Island.  255,  256,  258,  259, 

268,  272,  273,  276,  298,  312,  318 
Noriyori,  18 
Norodom  I,  533 
Noronha,  Gov.  Garcia  de,  451 
North  Frederick.  514,  498 
North  I.sland,  333,  334,  .336,  338, 

390 
Northbrooke,      Baron,       Thomas 

George  Baring,  493 
Norway,  206,  345 
Nott,  Major-Gen.,  484 
Nova,  Jo,lo  da,  450 
Nova  Zcmblia,  453 
Novgorod.  96,  207,  208,  217,  218 
Nil  clii.     .Sec  Kis  Tartkrs 
Nubau,  .■!I9,  320 

Nuiicoinar.  Nanda  Kumar,  Brah- 
man, 463 
Nur     ed-din     Mohammed     Selim 

JehSngir,    105,    433,    434,    436, 

445 


Nur  Jehan,  437,  438 
Nir-i-Mahal,  438,  456 
Nurchazi,  102,  212 
Nyass:i,  611 
Nyauug  Mendarah,  King,  521 

0  FANIi  KfNO,  76 

Oahu,  319,  320 

Obaid  Allah  Shaibjini,  198 

Obi,  89,  207,  218,  219,  229 

Oceania,    230-235,    299-344,    535, 

540.  573,  582 
Ochterlony,  Major-Gen.  Sir  Darid, 

476 
Odawara.  23,31 
Odoiitala,  Plain  of,  58 
Odyssey,  498 
Oghuz,'l60 
Ogotai  Khan,  95,  96,  99,  174,  175, 

176,  178 
Ogul  llaimish,  96,  99 
(.)liironia,  37 
Obo  usu  no  mikoto,  7 
Oishi,  52 

Ojiu  llachiman,  9 
Okhotsk,  213,  219,  225 
Okuma,  54 
Oldenbarneveld,  551 
Olopen,  97,  98 
Oman,  .548 

Omar  (Timurite),  429 
Omar  Khalif,  595 
Omar  Shah  Kliildji.     See  Shiiiab 

EI>-I>IN 

Omdurman,  611 

Ommeiads,  595 

Omphis  or  Mophis.    See  Taxile* 

Omsk.  221 

Omura.  24,  25 

On,  207 

One  Hundred  Families  (Hiaksai), 

116 
Ong  Khan,  95,  98,  170 
Onou,  171 
Ophir,  589 
Opium  war,  108 
Oraou,  352 
Ordan  Padjah,  168 
Ordo,  140,  172 
Orenburg,  222 
Orissa,    351,    352,  371,   372.    378, 

388,  406,  410,  433,  444,  447,  453, 

457,  459,  465.  474,  496,  518 
Orkthun,  1.36.  159 
Ormuz,  451,  455,  511,  596 
Oroka,  37 
Oroks,  202,  216 

Osaka,  12.  33,  34,36,  39,  43,  48,  50 
Osbegs.     See  Uzbegs 
Osman,  127,  160,  184,  205,  2,M 
Ostiaks,   202,   203,  204,   205,   207, 

208,  227 


Index 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


633 


Ota,  23,  30 

Ota  Nobuhida,  30 

Ota  Nobunaga.    See  NoBtrNAGA 

Otago  (Xew  Zealand),  337,  339 

Otalieiti.     See  Tahiti 

Otis,  Major-Gen.  Elwell  Stephen, 

572 
Otomo  of  Bungo,  31 
Otonomiya,  22 
Otrara,  172 
Oudh,  349,  421,  430,  433,  434,  444, 

468,  469,  481,  482,  488,  489,  490, 

492,  493 
Outram,  491,  492 
Owari,  30 

Owari,  Prince  of,  36,  39,  40,  48 
Oxley,  J.,  270,  271,  279 
Oxus,  126,  144,  180,  363,  407,  408, 

429.     See  also  Amu  Dabla 

Pa  LI  KIAO,  109 

Pa  wang.     See  Hsiaxg  chi 

Pacific  Ocean,  1,58,  211,213,  219, 
225-2.34,  236,  240,  242,  243,  259, 
296,  299-303,  306-308,  318,  320, 
323,  324,  328,  332,  342-344,580- 
587,  594-596,  599,  601 

Pada,  3S7 

Paderia,  395 

Pagan,  479,  520 

Pagan  Meng,  487,  523 

Page,  Vice-admiral  Theogene 
Franfois.  532 

Paharia,  360 

Paidar,  175 

Pajajaram,  555,  556 

Pajang,  558 

Paku  Buwono,  558 

Paku  Buwono  III,  559 

Pakwa,  62 

"  Palace  of  Supernatural  Splen- 
dour," poem,  69 

Palaeo- Asiatic  nations,  214-216 

PiUaka,  566 

Palawan,  570 

Palembang,  545,  561,  562 

Palestine,  179 

Pali,  390,  409,  415,  497,  505,  519, 
548 

Paligars,  449 

Palipat,  458 

Palk  Straits,  494,  495,  506,  510 

Pallava,  388,  408 

Pallegoi.x,  Bishop,  528 

Palmerston,  Lord,  609,  610 

Palni  Jlouutains,  387.  494 

Pamirs,  the,  124,  145,  195,  224, 
363,   364 

Pan  Chan,  152,  153,  154 

Panchan-Lama,  189 

Panchatantra,  417 

Paudawa.     See  Pandii 


Pandicazhay,  356 
Pandu,  sons  of,  369-371,  387,  412 
Pandu  of  Madura,  498,  506,  508 
Pundukabhaya,  499,  500 
Panduwasudewa,  499,  500 
Pandya,   356,   359,   386-388,   429, 

506,  508-510 
Pangeran  Samatra,  563 
Pango-Pango,  326 
Panini,  415 

Panipat,  430,  432,  447,  465 
Panja,  520,  521 
Pankn,  61,  62 
Panniar,  485 
Pantshala,  370,  371,378 
Pao  sse,  7 1 
Papeete,  315,  316 
Paper,  69 
Papuan,  241,  243,  538,  539,  565, 

574.    See  also  Malat 
Parakesariwarman,  506 
Paramatta,  291 
Paramindr  Maha  Chulalongkorn, 

King,  505,  528 
Parangi  (Portuguese),  Ceylon,  510 
Parasara,  417 
Parasurama,  374,  410 
Paris,  Peace  of,  464,  475,  491,  571, 

607 
Parker,  E.  H.,  8 
Parkes,  Sir  Henry,  298 
Parrakkama    Bahn     I     (Ceylon), 

507-509 
Parrakkama  Bahu  11,  509 
Parrakkama  Bahu  III  and  IV,  510 
Parry,  W.  E.,  344 
Parsees,  351,  352,  354 
Parsva,  Parsvanatha,  402,  403 
Parthian,  144,  155 
Parvati,  412 
Parvenus,  29,  34 
Pasepa,  188 
Pasir,  560 
Pasuruan,  556 
Pataliputra.     See  Patx.v 
Paterson,  Captain,  256 
Paterson,  Governor,  273,  275 
Patkai  Mountains,  347 
Patkanoff.  227 
Patna,  394,  396,  406,  407, 409,  456, 

459,  463,  465,  491,  493 
Patoma  River,  210 
Paul  V,  pope,  27 
Paulet,  Lord,  322 
Pawa,  393 

Pe'a.    See  Malietoa  Talavoc 
Pechili,  58,  63,  64,  75,  78,  92,  94, 

107,  111,  114,  140,  175 
Pechili,  Gulf  of,  58.  1 75,  226 
Peel,  Sir  Robert.  269 
Peel,  Thomas,  281 
Pegu,  487,  515,  520-523,  526,  527 


Peh   tsi    (Pe'kche',    Hiak'sai,    Ku- 

dara),  8 
Pei  Chan,   Chi,  Han,  Liang,  tse, 

Yen.     See  Chan,  Chi,  etc. 
Pei  ti,  88 
Peking,  32,  52,  54,  71,  85,  88,  92, 

94,   96,    97,    100-107,    109,    111, 

118-120,  171,  178,  191,  212,  226, 

530 
Pelemeh  Talaweh,  514 
Pelew  Islands,  230,  299,  305,  314 
Penang,  593 
Pepiu,  206 

Peppe,  William  Caxton,  395 
Pereira,  Gonzalo,  550 
Periplus  of  the  Erythrean  Sea,  546 
Perm,  212,  228 
Perovsky,  General,  222 
Peroz,  King  (Sassanid),  155 
Perry,  Commodore,  45,  47 
Persia,  96.  99,  138,  149,  154,  155- 

159,  160,  172,  174,  175,  180,  183, 

184,  186,  187,  196,  198,  199,  351, 

361,  404,  405,  420,  423,  432.  439, 

440,  444,  445,  450,  453,  476,  482, 

490,  581,  593,  594,  600 
Persian,  57,  135,  144,  149,  166,  168, 

177,  179,  181,  196,  198,  216,  224, 

347,  419,  426,  433,  438,  482,490, 

594,  596,  599,  600 
Persian  Gulf,  101.  451,  490,  546, 

548,  581,  583,  584,  587,  589-594, 

596,  597,  600,  604,  609,  612 
Perth  (West  Australia),  281,  282 
Pescadores,  the.  53 
Peschal,  Oskar,  246,  304,  327,  536, 

596 
Peshawar,  172,  409,  422,  446,  447, 

482-485,  492 
Peshora  Singh,  485 
Peshwa,    446-448,    470,   472,   473, 

477,  478,  488,  531 
Peta.     See  Paidak 
Peter  the  Great,  217,  219,  221,320 
Phagyi-dan,  King,  479,  522,  523 
Phang,  58 

Phaulkon.  Constantine,  527,  528 
Phaya  Tak,  528 
Phayre,  Arthur,  523 
Phendingkang,  528 
Phiatak.     See  Phaya  Tak 
Philip  n,  24,  27,  452,  512 
Philip  III,  27 
Philippines,  the.  25,  27,  308,  314, 

324,  328,  343,  516,  535,  .538,  539, 

542,  545,  551,  552,  563,  569-572, 

584 
Phillip,  Arthur,  250,  252,  255,  256, 

259 
Pho,  58 
Phcenicia,  149,  150,  449,  581,  588- 

590,  600 


g;]4 


HISTORY    OF    THF.    WORLD 


[/ml 


I'lira  Cliau  Plira-sntthons,  •'>27 

Plira  Kl:uig.     See  Phailkox 

riira  Narct,  526,  527,  531 

I'Ura  Phet  Untscha,  527 

Phra  I?iiaug,  525 

Phra  Utoiig,  525,  526 

Phiicuo';,  531 

PliveiiK-yang.  31,  53,  IIG,  118 

I'icrusiHg,  528 

I'iguoux  do  Bi'liaine,  Bishop,  531 

Pimibu.     See  Uimbko 

Pincliau,  70    • 

Pindari,  477,  478.  481 

Ping  (province),  78 

Ping  Ti,  65,  79,  80 

Ping  Wang,  71 

Ping  Yang,  88 

Pingan.     See  Phyeng-tano 

Pinto,  Feruand  Meudez,  24 

Pippli  (Oressa),  459 

Piprawa,  395 

Pir  Molianinicd,  184 

Pischel.  H.,  395 

Pitakas,  394,  415,  504 

Pitcairn  Island,  259,  298,  309,  318, 

319 
Piihora  Ray,  421 
Pitt,  William,  470,  472,  474 
Piyadasi,    King,    395.      See   also 

AsOKA 
Plas.s.v,  463-4r,5,  605,  607 
Pleyt'e,  W.,  540 
Pliny  the  Elder,  150,  591 
Plutarch,  405 
Pnom  Penh,  533 
Po,  74 

Po  ku  tu  lu,  68 
Podolia,  96 
Pogge,  I..,  308 
Point  dc  Galle,  511 
Point  Solander,  237 
Poland,  96,  99,  175.  181,  227,  229 
Poli,  560,  563 

Pollock,  General  Sir  George,  484 
Polo,  King  (Borneo),  545,  563 
Polo,  Maffeo,  96 
Polo,  Marco,  57,  96,  175,  176,  430, 

549,  562,  574 
Polo,  Nicolo,  96 
Polonnarnwa,  506-508,  509 
Polynesia,  2,  59.  139.  2,30-234,  241, 

242,  300,  301,  303-315,  318-320, 

324,  330-332,  343,  540-543,  565, 

585.  601,  613 
Pomarc  I,  II,  313,  342 
Pomare  IV,  V,  315,316 
Ponipey,  154 
Ponape.  309,  314 
Pondicherry,    460,    462-464,   465, 

470 
Pontianak,  563 
I'ontus,  1.54.  253 


Poonah,  3:>4,  441.  4i">9,  472-»74, 
478 

I'opham.  Major,  469 

Pupulatiun,  2,  13,  50,  57-61,  115, 
1.30  136,  215,  228,  229,  240-245, 
251,  259,  262,  268,  270,  275,  276, 
282,  285,  289,  292,  296,  297,. 303, 
306,  314,  316,  318,  322.  324.. 332, 
339,  345,  346,  350-354.  403.  480. 
495,  501,  515-517,  537-539,  555, 
564-566,  567,  569,  572-573,  575, 
583-586 

Porcelain,  68,  113,  149 

Port  Arthur,  53,  HI,  226-228 

Port  Arthur  (Tasmania),  274,  275, 
286 

Port  Palrynii>le,  273 

Port  Essington,  271,  279 

Port  Jackson,  2.56.  258 

Port  Nicholson.  336 

Port  Philip,  259.  269,  27 1 ,  272,  277- 
279, 284.     See  also  Victoria 

Port  Said,  611 

Port  Stephens  (New  South  Wales), 
263 

Portland  Bay,  277 

Porto  Novo,  470 

Portug.ll,  46,  99,  100,  342,  343, 
350-453.  456,  512,  530,  551,  571, 
604,  606 

Portuguese,  24-28,  102,  108.  114, 
168,  324,350,  450-4.33.  456,  459, 
510-513,  521,  522.  526,  527,  530, 
549-552,  558,  501,562,  566,568- 
570,  572,  575,  578,  604-606,  608, 
612 

Porus.  King.  365 

Potala,  190 

Potau  I  and  11,338 

Pott.  Aug..  361 

Prajiipati.  390,  .392 

Prakita,  413,  426 

Pratisthana,  371 

Prayaga,  371,  378 

Prcster  .John,  98, 168 

Printing,  113 

Pritchard,  English  ci>nsul,  313, 
316 

Prithviraja  II,  421 

Prilhwi  Nar.iyan,476 

Priyad.irsin,  also  Asoka,  395 

Prome,  479,  487.  520.  521,  523 

Prschevalskij,  Nikolai  von,  193 

Pru.ssia,  46,  455,  463 

Ptolemy  Claudius,  387.  518.  520, 
524,  543.  546,  572,  599,  600 

Ptolemy  II  Phil.idelphus,  590 

Pu  Ch'iin,  111 

Pu  hai.  211,  212 

Pulo  Condore,  531 

Pulo  Peuang,  612 

Pumpelly,  Raphael,  58 


Puiidra  Banga,  371 

Puni.  545.563 

Punjab,  186,  349,  3.54,  363.  364, 
369,  373,  389,  405,  407,409,419, 
426.  428,  430,  431,  4.33-445.  447, 
478,  483,  485,  487,  491,  492,496 

Punt,  588 

Purana,  416 

Purandara,358 

Pnrohita,  366,  373 

Puru.  364.  365,  405 

Purusha,  375 

QCAIILUK  (ko  lo  lu),  160 
Queen  Charlotte's  Sound.  336 
Queensland,  2.33, 236, 263, 271 .  272, 

279,  280,  282,  289,  293,  294,  296- 

299 
Qui  iihon,  5.33 
(^uiros,  252,  254 
Qutb    (Ala)    ed-diu    Mohammed, 

171,  172 
Qutb   cd-din    Amir    Timur.     See 

TlMLR 

Qutluq,  159 

RadAma  I  and  II,  576,  577 

Raden  Patah.  558 

Kadloff,  Wilhelm,  204 

Haffel,  Dr.,  328 

Rafi  'ed-darajat,  443 

Hafi  'eddoula  Shah  .lihun  11,443 

Raghuat  Rao  (Raghuba),  469.  470 

Raghuji  Bhonsala,  447,  448,  474 

Rahula.  390,  392 

Raiatea,  .307 

Rainiharo.  577 

Kaiiiilairivony,  578 

Rainitaiarivoy,  477 

Raja  Bahadur  Sahi,  476 

Rajagaha,  Council  of,  393 

RSjagriha.  390,  391 

Rajana  (Rajw.ansi,  Rajputs),  365, 

377 
Rajatarangini,  416 
Rajawali,  512 

Rajniah.ll,  352,  353,  360,  371,  465 
Rajput.   377,   421,   426,    430,  433, 

437,  440,  475,  476,  478,  482,  485 
Rajputana,  354,  378,  403,  430,431, 

440,  491 
Rajwausi,  377 

Kakshasa,  358,  385,  386,  496 
Rakshasa  marriage,  379 
Rakyah  Sultan  (Timurite),  429 
Rani  Raj,i,  443,  446 
Rama.  374.  385.  388,  389,  496 
Rama  Klioniheng,  525 
Ram.annja  (Bnrmah),  410,  496 
Ramathiliodi.  King.  525 
Ramatshnndra.  410 
Raraayana.  369.  417.  506 


Index 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


635 


Ramses  II,  590 

Ramses  III,  588 

Raua  SaDka,  430 

Rauavalona,  577 

Ranavalona  II,  577 

Ranavalona  III,  578 

Ranee  Ganga  Bai,  492,  493 

Rangoon,  479,  487,  492,  522-524 

Ranikat,  477 

Ranjil  Singh,  475,  482-484 

Rarotonga,  233,  307,  333,  542 

Rascli  ed-din  Khodja,  195 

Rashtra  kflta,  408 

Rasi'a  Begum.     See  Razitah 

Rasoahe'rina,  577 

Ratoapura,  521 

Ratuavali,  418 

Ratzel,  Freidrich,  348,  582 

Rayasa.     See  Ken  A(ng)rok 

Raymond,  Joachim  Maria,  472 

Raziyah  Begum,  423 

Real  Compaiiia  de  Filipinas,  571 

Red  Sea,  101,  451,  581,  583,  584, 

586-591,  594,  599,  600,  603,  604, 

609,  611,  613 
Rehoboam,  589 
Reigiruites,  44 
Re'musat,  Abel,  67 
Remy,  historian,  319 
Re'union,  459,  460,  472,  475,  577- 

579 
Riazau,  175 

Richardson,  murder  of,  46,  47 
Richelieu,  Cardinal,  576 
Richthofen,  F.  von,  57,  58,  59,  63, 

132 
Ridel,  Bishop.  120 
Ridgeway,  Sir  Joseph  West,  514 
Rig- Veda,  368,  369,  373,  375,  378, 

415,  416 
Riosiu,  5 

Ripou,  Marquis  of,  George  Fred- 
erick Samuel  Robinson,  493 
Risdon  (Restdown),  258,  272 
Rishi.  375,  376,  385,  412 
Riunoji  no  niva,  13 
Riuzogi  of  Hizen,  31 
Riviere,  Major  Henri  Laurent,  534 
Rizal,  Dr.  Jose',  571 
Roberts,  General,  524 
Roberts,  Mr.,  missionarj-,  109 
Robinson,  George  Augustus,  248, 

249 
Roch.     See  Sh.\h  RrcH 
Roches,  M.,  29 
Rockingham     (West    Australia), 

280 
Rodriguez,  579 

Roe,  Sir  Thomas,  436,  437,  456 
Roggeveen,  J.,  311,  317 
Rohana,  503,  506,  .507,  508 
Rohilla,  447,  469,  473 


Rohillkaud,  491,  493 

Rohini,  390 

Rokn  ed-din  Chershah,  177 

Romanovski,  General,  222 

Rome,  10, 19,  24,  104, 150,  153,  154, 
202,  387,  411,  449,450,546,  581, 
591,  593,  594,  602 

Ronins,  42,  46 

Roper,  river,  236 

Rose,  German  consul,  328 

Rose,  Sir  Hugh,  493 

Rosheu-akhtar,  Mohammed  Shfih, 
443,  447 

Ross,  J.,  344 

Roya,  Mailer,  396 

Rudra,  367,  384,  411 

Rudrawarman,  King,  525 

Ruizai  sect,  1 1 

Runin-dei,  395 

Ruf5sia,  2,  46,  53,  54,  58,  96,  99, 
111,  121,  126,  138,175,  176,  181, 
182,  191, 193-195,  197,  207,  214- 
229,  243,  320,  321,  324,  336,  343, 
463,  476,  482,483,606,  612 

Russians,  45,  46,  54,  96,  106,  108, 
172,  199,  212,  214-229,  482,  483, 
612 

Kyoshu,  34-36 

Rysnnck,  Peace  of,  460 

Sa,  Gabriel  de,  452 

Saavedra,  Don  Alvarado,  319 

Sabutegin.     See  Nasir  ed-din 

Sacae,  134,  407 

Sacred  Edict,  106 

Sada  Siva,  411 

Sadaijin,  16 

Sadat,  444 

Saddha  Tissa,  503 

Sadhyas,  375 

Sado,"  25,  33 

Sadon,  520 

Saga,  Emperor,  1 1 

Sagausk  Mountains,  124 

Saghalien,  1,130,202,213,215,216 

Sagoin,  521 

Sahib.    See  Nana  Sahib 

Saho  (Mahratta),  446,  447 

Saigo,  48,  51 

Saigon,  532,  533 

St.  Helena,  COS 

St.  Lazarus,  570 

Sainte  Marie,  57.5-577 

St.  Petersburg,  110,  221,  224 

St.  Vincent,  (iulf  of,  283 

Saka  chronology,  525,  556 

Sakai,  39,  43,  49,  516 

Sakalavas,  574-576 

Sakti.  412 

Sakuntahi,  418 

Sakya,  390,  395,  402 

Sakya  Muni,  390 


Sale,  Gen.  Robert,  484 

Salem.  388 

Salim  Shah,  431 

Salmanassar  II,  404 

Salsette,  451,  455,  469,  470 

Salwe'n,  .347,  479,  515,  520 

Sama  Veda,  373,  416 

Samar,  571,  572 

Samarkand,  125, 147, 149, 159,  160, 

172,  181,  182,  184,185,  198,  199, 

223,  224,  427 
Samathra,  560 
Sambaji.  442,  443,  446 
Samboshi,  30 
Samgbamitta,  505 
Samghamitta,  399,  501 
Samkhya  philosophy,  383 
Samoa,  231, 298,  305,  307, 308,  319, 

324-328,  330-333,  342,  343,  564 
Samoyeds,  204 
Samurai,  3,  19,  35,   36,  42,  45,  46, 

50,  51,  55 
San  Dico,  572 
San  Francisco,  323,  324 
San  Kao  Chi,  86 
San  LoureD<;o,  575 
San  Miau,  59 
San  Thome,  459 
Sanapati  Bhatarka,  408 
Saudomir,  175 
Sandoweh,  520 
Sandrocottus,  405 
Sanetomo,  21 
Sang  Kui,  190 
Sankara,  411 
Sankara  Acharya,  410 
Sanscrit,   166.  .356,  359,  360,  361, 

376,  386,  388,  415,  432,  498,  506, 

518,  519,  524,  547,  556,  566,  573 
Santa  Cruz,  311,  312 
Santanu,  King,  369 
Sautlials,  360 
Saps,  157 

.Sapta  Sindhavas,  364 
Sarasvati,  370,  412,  415,  421 
Sarawak,  564,  565 
Sariputta,  392 
Sarmatiaus,  134,  143 
Sartak  Khan,  99, 100 
Sarts,  129,  196 
Sassanids,  594-596 
Satake,  44 
Satara,  488 
Sat-cho-to,  46 
Satnami,  440 
Satomenchin,  King,  521 
Satpura,  348 

Satsuma,  23,  24,  46-48,  51,  52,  119 
Satuk,  168 

Savage  Island,  328,  331 
Savaii,  307,  319,  325, 327, 328, 333, 

542 


6:16 


HISTORY    OF     VUE    WORLD 


InJr. 


Sana,  47 

^^awattlli,  392 

Sa.vall^k  Muiintaius,  124 

Si-hall.  A.lain,  103 

Si-hanz,  .Moritz,  296,  .140 

Schniiilt,  Joliauues,  361 

Si-hurtz,  lleiuricb,  244 

Scolot;v,  134,  143 

Soythians.  129,  131,  134,  135.   143, 

144,  146,  154,  167,  205,  216,347, 

406.  407,  409 
Seauchkara,  5S8 
Sebu,  570 
Secauclar,  431 

Sc'chelles.     See  Seychelles 
Sc'chelles,  Mureau  de,  579 
Seddon,  Richard,  332 
Sefewide.     See  Tamasp  I 
Sciads,  House  of,  4 19, 428, 444, 448 
Seiinii,  Emperor,  7,  9 
Seiwa,  17 
Sekiang,  59 
Sekigahara,  25,  33 
Seleuceia,  591 
Seleucus  I  Nicator,  405 
Selim  Jehiingir.     See  Nur  ed-dSn 
Selim  (Islam)  Shah  SQri,  431 
Seljuks,  160,  421 
Selong,  516 
Semaug,  516 
Semarang,  556 
Semiramis,  404 

Semitec,  133,  135,  351,  355,  449 
Semper,  Karl,  538 
Sena  I,  506 
Sendsh.  600 
Seoul,  31,  32,  52,  53,  110,  115,117, 

118,  119 
Sepoy  mutiny,  489-491 
Sepoys,  460 

Sequeira.  Admiral,  482,  549 
Seram,  567,  568,  569 
Serampataiii  (purl,  454 
Serendah.  574 
Seringapatam,  471,  472 
Serrio,  Francisco,  550 
Setmu,  9 
Setsu,  4.  5 
Seychelles,  579 
Seyyid  Abd   ul-Ahad   of  Bokara, 

223 
Seyyid  Mohammed  Rahim  Khan, 

223 
Sha  Hao,  62 
Shah   Alam   I.    See   Mohammed 

Mu'azzem 
Sliah  Alam  II.     See  Ali  Cahar 

Shah 
Shah  Jchan  I.     See  Shihab  ed- 

DIN 

Shah   .Ich.in    II.     See   RatI    'ed- 
docla  Shah 


Shrih  Hmli  I  Koch),  186 

Shall  Shuja  (Afghan),  482-J84 

Shahriyar,  438 

Shailiaiiids,  179,  186.  196,  198, 199 

Shaibi'k  Khan  (Mohammed),  186, 

196,  198 
Shaista  Khan,  459 
Shaj  Hhousla,  441 
Shakyainuni,  82 
Shamanism,  3,   70,   112,    164-1C6, 

174,  189,358,  409 
Sharao.     See  Gobi 
Shams  cd-din  Altamsh,  422,  423 
Shan,  517,  519,  521,  523-525,  528, 

529 
Shnii  dynasty,  4,  68 
Shanhaikwau,  .53,  75 
Shang.  59,  63,  71 
Shaiig  Chin  sic,  106 
Shang  dynasty,  61,  63,  71 
Sbaiig  ko  hi,  106 
Shaiig  Ti,  64,  81 
Shang  Tsung.  1 18 
Shang  tu.  96.  97 
Shanghai,  108,  109 
Shansi,  58,  59,  63,  70,  78,  88,  101, 

102.  107,  140,  1.56,  175 
Shantung,  58,  59,  62,  64, 69,  71,  78, 

81,  86,92,  101,  111,114,140,175 
Shao  Kang,  63 
Shao  Ti,  77,  81 
Shark  Bay,  253,  263,  282 
She,  141  " 
Sheep    raising,  61,    143-145,    257, 

259,  2G1,  262,  265-268,  275,  276, 

278,  279,  281,  282,  284,  293,  332, 

339,  350,  363 
Shekh  Fcizi,  432 
Sbembnan,  478,  522,  527 
Shen  Kung,  85 
Shen  nung,  62 
Shen  Tsung,  93,  102 
Sheng  Tsu,  85,  104,  106,  107,   190, 

192 
Shensi,  58,  59,  70,  78.  82,  89,  90, 

92,  107,  110.  Ill,  132,  175 
Shenyn  (Hun),  141 
Shcshonk  1  (Shish.ak),  589 
Shetiha  Tissa  (fey Ion),  505 
Slii  Huang  ti,  65,  75-77,  104 
Shi  King,  65,  70,  73,  75,  80 
Shi  Min,  87 

Shi  Tsu,  81,  85,  96, 105,106,152, 189 
Slii   Tsung,  85,  102,  106,  189 
Shi  tu,  90 
Shilm.  13,  41 
Shibala  30,  31 
Shih  ti,  62 

Shihiib  cd  din  (Khilji),  425,  429 
Shihub  ed-din  .Miibammed    Khur- 

rani  SliSh  Jehiin.  437,  439-441, 

446,  456,  459,  473,  488 


Shiiif,  428,  4.39,  444,  575 

Shikken,  21,  23,38 

Sliik.iku,  1,  2 

Shimaliani.  20 

Shinia/.u  i.f  S.atsuma,  31,  .33,39 

Shiniazu  Sabum,  46 

Shimizu,  40 

Shinionuseki,    Straits    uf,  47,    53, 

III 
Shimosa,  22 
Shimpei,  50 
Shin,  sect,  11-14 
Shin  han,  115,  1 16 
Sliiiiano,  51 

Shingaikwan,  the,  13,  14 
Shingking,  102 
Shingou,  sect,  11,12 
Shiimo,  38 
Shinra  (Shiragi),  8 
Shinrau,  1 1 
Shintoism,  2-4,  11,  13,  14,  26,  29, 

30,  44.  56.  204 
Shi|)s,  5,  21.  28,  31,  32,  43,  47-49, 

51.  !>3,   120,  253,  296,  312,  317^ 

321,  327,  328,  331,  3.34.  336,  451, 

452,  454,  456,  457,  511-514,  532, 

541,  544,  545,  551,  571,  588,  589, 

596,  599 
Shir  SImb  (Sfiri),  431,  435,  436 
Shiraki,  6 

Shizoku.     See  Saml'rai 
Shodo  Shonin,  40 
Shogun,  11-13,    17,  18,20-22,30- 

33,  36,37,39-42,44,  45,  47-51, 

55 
Shoja  (Timurite),  439 
Shore,  Sir  John,  471 
Shotepala  ( Ving  Tsuug),  97 
Shotoku.  17 
Shouten,  W..  311 
Shoyo,  34 
Shrader,  Otto,  135 
Slirenck,  Leopold  von,  214 
Shu.  59.  72,  81,  87,  92 
Sim  king.  59.  63,  65,  73,  75,  80 
Shuja  c(l  Doula,  Nuwab  Wazir  of 

Oudh,  465,  466,  468,  469 
Shujaku.  I" 

Shukarcharya  confederacy,  485 
Shun,  63 

Shun  chi,  103,  105 
Shun  Ti,  89,  97,  101,  192 
Shun  Tien  fu,  107 
Sliunga  dynasty.  406 
Shu-niiig.  94,  95 
Si  Tsiug  kan  kion,  68 
Si  Wang  mu,  71 
Si  Yu,  79 
Siam,   58,    103,  395,  400,  409,  453, 

513,  515  517,  520-522,  524-529, 

531,  533 
Siam  Thai,  525,  531 


Index 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


63 


Siamese,   60,    517,    519,   524-529, 

532 
Siberia,  57,  106, 122-123,  130,155, 

160, 172,  173,  180,  193,  197,  199- 

529,  361 
Sibree,  James,  574,  575 
Siddartha.     See  Buddha 
Sien  pe,  155,  156,  210,  211 
Sihabahu,  497,  498 
Sihala  (Dipa),  498,  504 
Siliasiwali,  497 
Sikh,  354,  444,  445,  475,  476,  480, 

482,  484-487,  492 
Sikkim,  346 

Sikri.     See  Fattepur  Sikri 
Sila.     See  Sinra 
Silesia,  96 
Silk,  68,   69,    114,    145,    146,    149, 

151,  159,  594 
Sinia,  555 
Siraajar,  478 

Simha  I,  Ceylon,  510-512 
Simba  II,  512,  513 
Simla,  477 
Siraoda,  45 
Simyu,  356 
Siudh,  354,372,  407,  422,427,433, 

476,  483,  484,  487 
Siadhu,  345,  371 

Sindia,  469,  473-475,  477,  478,  493 
Singanfu,  64,  70,  76,  80,  89 
Singapore,  543,  553,  557,  597,  612 
Singbalese.  387,  394, 399,  4 1 6,  495- 

302,504,  306-311,  514,  321 
Siulo.     See  Shiraki  and  Sinra 
Sinmu,  Emperor,  II 
Sinra,  114,  116,  119 
Sir  Daria,  172,  197,  222,  362 
Sirasanghabodhi.       See    Vijava 

Bauu  I 
Sirhind,  battle  of,  431 
Sirimeghawanna,  505 
Sita,  496 
Sitanaka,  311 
Siva,  353,  362,  400,  410-413,  310, 

512,  513,  519,  324 
Sivaji,   441,    442,    446,    447,    449, 

478 
Sivaroy  Mountains,  494 
Sivas,  184 
Sivistan,  422 
Siwaraga,  555 
Sixtus  V,  pope,  24 
Skanda,  411 
Sk.jbeleff,  224 
Slav,  167,  206 
Slave  dynasty,  422-424 
Slaves,  10,  28,  81,311,  317 
Sleeman,  Major,  481 
Soarez,  Fernando,  575 
Soarez,  Lopez,  431,  511 
Sobraon,  486 


Society  Islands,  315,  316 

Sofala,  572,  599,  600 

Sofan,  4,  5 

Sogdiana,  90,   144,   151,   154,   158, 

159,   160,  404 
Solf,  Governor,  328 
Solo,  556,  559 
Solomon,  589 
Solomon    Islands,   232,   300,   302, 

311,  328,  342 
Soma,  367,  368 
Somali,  599 
Somdet    I'hra    Paramindr   Maha 

Mongkut,  528 
Soraeswara,  King  (Chola),  509 
Somrath  Phra  Marai,  532 
Sougka,  515,  533 
Sorai,  388 

Sorell,  William,  274,  275 
South  Island,  336,  338,  339 
South  Sea,  230,  233,  234,  285,  301, 

309,  311,  319,  327,  328,  330,  334, 

341,  342 
South  Sea  Islanders,  302,  310 
Spain,  342,  343,  432,  456,  485,  550, 

331,  570,  571,  604 
Spangenberg,  Martin,  221 
Spaniards,  23,  108,  258,  300,  314, 

315,  319,  522,  532,  545,  550,  368, 

603,  606 
Spencer  Gulf,  235 
Speransky,  Michael,  227 
Spice  Islands,  453,  498,  549,  550, 

552,  368,  606 
Spilhergen,  Joris  ran,  512 
Sri-Bhodja,  547 
Sri  Harsha.  418 
Sri  Raja  Adhiraya  Simha,  514 
Sri  Turi  Bumana,  543 
Sri  Wikkama  Raja  Simha,  514 
Sri  Wira  Parakkama Narinda,  513 
Stabrobates,  404 
Stanovi  Mountains,  213 
Steiuberger,  Colonel,  326 
Steller,  Georg  Wilhelni,  204,  221 
Stephens,  Thomas,  453 
Stewart  Island,  336 
Stirling,  Captain,  280-282 
Stock    raising,    61,    125-135,    141, 

145,  201-203,  206,  209,  210,  219, 

281,  282,  984,  291-294,  332,  339, 

350,  363.  363,  372,  574 
Strabo,  589,  392 
Strauss,  Victor  von,  67 
Stroganoffs,  218 
Stuart,  General,  472 
Stubel,  O.,  324 
Sturt,  Charles,  271,  283 
Sn,  73 

Su  chau, 147 
Su  ming,  62 
Su  shih,  93 


Su  Tsung,  84,  91 

Subha,  504 

Subrahmanya,  411 

Suchin,  210 

Sudan, 296 

Sudiis,  King,  369,  371,  373,  389 

Suddhodana,  390,  395 

S^adra,  375-381,  383,  401,  403,  409 

Sudraka,  King,  418 

Sueu,  King,  74 

Suez,  450,  595,  609 

Suez  Canal,  607,  609-611,  613 

Suffren,  Admiral,  470 

Sugawara,  17 

Suh  yi,  62 

Sui  dynasty,  80,  84,  86,  88-90,  96 

Sui  yen,  62 

Suiko,  Empress,  10,  15 

Suinin.  Emperor,  3,  6,  9 

Siijin,  Emperor,  9 

Snkadana,  563 

Sukhodaya,  525 

Sukit,  157 

Sulaiman     ibn-i    Abdur-Rahman, 

110 
Sulaiman  Khan  Kararani,  433 
Sulu  Island,  563,  570,  571 
Sumatra,   101,  451,  453,  475,  316, 

536,  539,  543,  544,  547,  548,  550, 

533,  334,  556,  557,  560-562,  569, 

573 
Sumbawa.  566,  568,  569 
Snmera  Mikoto,  14 
Sumcrians,  132,  133 
Sun  Chuau,  81,  87 
Sun  fei,  62 
Sun  Tseh,  87 
Sun  yun,  83 
Sunda  Islands,  535,  538,  542,  543, 

543,  546,  550,  568,  569 
Sunda  Strait,  560 
Sunda  Sea,  383 
Sung.  71,  73,  82,  97,  196 
Sung  dyn.asty,  37,  82,  88 
Snng    dynasty,   northern,    84,  93, 

116,  159,  164 
Sung    dynasty,    southern,    94-96, 

175,  177,  178 
Suugari  River,  59 
Sunuite.  198,  575 
Sunto,  116,  117 
Sura  Tissa,  503 
Surabaya,  556,  558 
Sur.'ijah  ed-dowlah  of  Bengal,  462, 

463 
Surakarta,  559 
Surasena,  371 
Surat,  441,  452,  457-459 
Surgi  Arjangaon,  474 
Suri  dynasty,  431 
Surugn,  33,  39,  40,  44 
Surville  de,  311 


63S 


HISTORY    nV    TIIK    WORLD 


/ndri 


Siirva,  367 

Survn  I  Vimila  Dliamma,  512 

Sutiej,  430,  -140.  485,  480 

Suttee,  415,  480,  481,486 

Siiyurgliatmisli,  183 

Svetaml)ara,  403 

Swahali.  573,  613 

Swan  Island,  24'J 

Swan  River  (West  Australia),  281 

Sweden,  23.  455,  557 

Swicton,  Lient.-(ien.  Ivan,  561 

Sy  li  Chiao  Wei,  78 

Sydney,  237,   243,   250,    255,  258, 

261,  267,  270-275,  279,  280,289, 

291,  295,  296,  298,333 
Sydney,  I.ord,  255 
Syncliriniistic   tables  of   rulers  of 

the  Chinese  dynasties,  62,  74,  87 
Syuyangong,  522 
Syr  Darin.     See  Sir  Dakia 
Syria,  98,  100,  126,  150,  169,  176, 

177,  180,  184,  253 
Sze  nia  Cliao,  87 
Sze  ma  I,  87 
Sze  lua  kwang,  93 
Sze  nia  Tsieu,  75 
Sze  ma  Yen,  87 
Szechwan,  58,  60,  78,  87,  92,  97, 

101,    102,     106,    107,    148,    176, 

177 

Ta  CniN,  87 

Ta  Ching  dynasty.     See  RIancih' 

Ta  Cliing  kwoli,  57 

Ta  liio,  66 

Ta  Ilsia.     See  HsiA 

T:i  Kiiing,  58 

Ta  Liau,  212 

Ta  Miug.     See  Ming  Dynastt 

Ta  Mo  (Bodhidbarnia),  83 

Ta  Nao,  78 

Ta  Ti,  87 

TaTsin,  79,  98,  153,  592 

Ta  Tnni;  (Korea),  115 

Ta  tuug  fu  (Shansi),  212 

Ta  yuan,  79 

'I'arhiliana  Kioliei,  7 

Tadamori,  17 

Tagals,  .539,  569,  571,  572 

Tagong,  520 

'laliiti,  259,301,307,315-319,334, 

341,  342 
Tai,  7.5,  87,  88,  156 
T.ii  chi,  61 
Tai-<long-gang,  31 
Tai  kung,  63 

Tai  ping,  108-110,  114,  195,  533 
Tai  slian.  81 
Tai  ting  Ti,  97 
Tai  Tsu,  92-94,100-102,  212 
Tni  Tsnng,  84,  90,  91,  94,  95,  98, 

101,  174.  212 


Tai  lung.  6S 

Tai  wen  Knng,  52,  120,  121 
Taiiisu,  Trinee  of.  40 
Tait)Uga,  207 
Taide  Tristilo  de,  550 
Taiho,  16 

I'aikosama,  24,  25,  33 
Taikwa,  16,34.50,  55 
T.iilapa  Devn,  408 
Tainiir  peninsula.  210 
Taira.  11.  15.  17,  18,  19,  20,  44 
Tuj-i-Mahal,  438 
Takauioehi,  17 
Takatoki,  22 
Takauji.  22,  23 
Takeda,  23 
Takeru.  5 
Takiminoma,  37 
T.iku,  Ui9 

Talienwan,  53,  111,  226 
Talifu.  1 10 

Tallin  (Shelun  Zarun),  156 
Tanuirinonio,  37 
Tamascsc  I  and  II,  327 
Taniasp  I  iSefewide,  198 
Taniatave,  577,  578 
Tambora,  569 
Tumbraparui     (Tampanni),     348, 

386,  498,  500 
Tamerlau  (Taniur-ileng),  184 
Tametorao,  18 
Tamil,    386,    387,    388,    495,    500, 

502-506,  508,  510,  511 
Tamir  Muni,  386 
Tan  fu  (Ivu  Kung),  64,  70 
Tan  ki,  64 
Tauauarivo.  ."175 
Tang,  73,  90,  106,  116 
Tang,  later,  92, 98 
Tang,  soutliern,  92 
Tang  dynasty.  57,  7S,   84,  90-92, 

116,  164,  212,  530 
Tang  Ming  Huang.  91 
Tang  Yin,  57 
Tangla  Mountains.  58 
Tanguts,  95,  164 
Tanjorc,  449,  454,  464,  473,  488 
Tanti.i  Topee,  49g,  493 
Taiitia.  416 
Tanu  Mafili,  327 
Tanva,  312 
Tao,  66 

Tao  Kuang,  105,  108 
Tao  tell  King,  66,  72 
Taoism.  64,  66-68,  71.  77,  82.  84, 

86,  89,  92.  112 
Taprobane,  498 
T.ipti.  348.  349.  372,  456 
Tapussa,  391 
Tara  Uai,  443 
Tarim,  59,  123-125,  136,  138,  141, 

142,  145-155.  157.161,  162,166- 


169,  174.  180.  184.  ISO.  191-196, 

220,  22.3,  225 
Tartar,  3,  70,  74,  76,  78,  87,  88,  91, 

92,    94,    112,    141,  142,    145,    156, 

168,  170,  171,  177,  198.  2(14,406, 

409 
Tartar    dynasty    in    India,    Fir«t, 

422-424 
Tartar  dynasty  in  India,  Second, 

424-426 
Tartar   dyna.-ity  in    liidi.a,    Tliinl, 

426,  427 
Tartar  Kinpire,  207,  208,  217,  218 
Ta.'ihkcnt,  125,  159,  197,  199,  222 
Tasnian,  Abel,  252,  253,  333,  607 
Tasmania,  240,  242,  243,  247-249, 
,  287-295,  298,  314,  336, 


Zl  i~J.I  I 


339 
Tasmanians,    240-242,    243,    246- 

249 
Tatara  (l)udar),  156 
Taufaabau.   .SeeGKOnoE  TuBOu  I 
Taulaiiga,  331 
Taupo,  I.akc.  339 
Tavernier,  Jean  Baptiste,  438 
Taw  Sein  Tlio,  519 
Taxation,  9,  16,  20,  .34,  36,  79,  92, 

93,  97,  266,  267,  275,  290.  329, 

427,435,  436,  440,  447-449,  463, 

408,  470,  471,  474,  480,  486,  493, 

509 
Taxila  and  Taxiles,  405 
Tay  Son,  531 
Te  I'ito  te   Henna.     .See  Kaster 

Island 
Te  Tsung,  92,  94,  98 
Te  Wen,  88 
Tea,  149,  150,  194,  219 
Tegh  Bahudur,  445 
Teheran.  437 
Teigninoutb,  Lord.  471 
Tekanoinn,  37 
Telegn,  388 
Tclingana,  437.  547 
Temples,  12,  13.  30,  40,  41,  82,  84, 

85.  167,  418-420,  422,  424,  440, 

501,  513.  519.  520,547 
Tena.'iserim,  479,  522,  523 
Tendai  .sect,  11,  13 
Tenggereses,  539 
Tcujiii,  9 

Tcunent,  J.  E.,  512 
Tensi,  Kniperor,  16 
Ten.son,  9 
Terai  (Nepal),  395 
Tercdon,  590 

Ternate,  547,  550, 551, 553, 567, 568 
Terrieii  de  la  Cou|)eric,  59 
Tha<lominbia,  King,  521 
Thai,  510,  517,  52.5,  528,  531 
Thakombau,    312,    313,    329-331, 

340 


( 


Index 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


639 


Thar,  desert  of,  431 

Tharawadi,  King,  523 

That-ke,  534 

Theebaw.     See  Thibau 

Tlieodosius,  Emperor,  90 

Tliibau,  King,  Burmah,  523,  524 

Thie  utri,  532 

Thierry,  Barou,  334,  335 

Thin  le,  157 

Thiuai,  532,  533 

"  Thirteen  King,"  65 

Thompson,       William     (Wocemu 

Kiugi),338,  339 
Thracian,  143 
Three  Kingdoms,  86 
Thugs,  480,  481,  486 
Ti,  59,  70 
Ti  Chi,  63 
Ti  hsiaug.  63 
Ti  ku,  63 
Ti  Kuei,  63 
Ti  Ping,  95 
Ti  Yi,  88 
Tian  shan  Mountains,  125, 140, 144, 

145,  147,  157,  163 
Tibao,  Sebaste  Gonzalez  de,  522 
Tiberius,  592 
Tibet,    58,  59.   85,    106,   107,  122, 

123,  125,  130,  131,  151,  161-164, 

174,  176,  187-194,  346,  351,  354, 

401,  406,  407,  426,  515,  517. 
Tibetan,  139,   141,   142,   146,   148, 

160-164,  172.      See  also  Nu  CHi 
Tidor,  550,  567,  568 
Tie  mu  cheu,  170 
Tie  murh,  97 
Tie  shi,  97 
Tien,  64,  139 
Tien  chau,  56 
Tien  Hia,  56 
Tien  shun,  101 
Tien  tsu  Huang  ti,  94 
Tien  Wuong,  531 
Tientsin,  52,  53,  102,  109,111.  114, 

120,   534 
Tigris,  143,  590,  591 
Timofeyevitch,  Yarmak,  218 
Timor,  453,  538,  569 
Timnr,  96,  97,   169,  181-187,  192, 

207,223,419 
Timur,    House   of,    182-187,    196, 

197,  419-488 
Tinian,  309 

Ting  Tsung.     See  Kdtuk  Khan 
Tippu  Sahib  of  Mysore,  470-472, 

475 
Tissa  Mogalliputta,  394 
Titianus.     See  Maes 
Titus  Flavins  Vespasianus.  351 
Toba.  17,  21,  156,  164,  211 
To  Lei.     See  Tuli 
Tobi  Island,  547 


Tobol.  207,  218 

Tobolsk,  206,  207,  208,  219 

Toda,  357 

Todar  Mai,  435,  438 

Todoyoshi,  22 

Toghluq  Timur,  183 

To-lman  (Shun  ti),  97,  192 

Tokaido,  46 

Tokimasa,  18,  20 

Tokimuue,  21 

Tokio,  9,  II,  50.  51,  53 

Tokiwa,  18 

Tokiyori,  21 

Toktamish,  182,  184 

Tokugawa,  the,  12,  13,  23,  36,  37, 
39-45,  48,  49,  119 

Tokuzo  Fukuda,  9,  10 

Tomaschek,  Wilhelm,  146,  147 

Tomobe,  10 

Tomsk,  206,  228 

Tonga,  231,307,308,311,313,324, 
325,  328-331,  341,  342 

Tongatabu.  329,  331,  335,  341 

Tonghak,  52,  111 

Tongking,  57,  58,79,101,110,  117, 
515,  516,  524,  529,  530,  534,  592 

Tougra,  157 

Topikal,  356 

Torreus  River,  284 

Torres  Straits,  241,  252 

Tosa,  46,  49,  50 

Tournon,  patriarch  of  .\ntinch, 
104 

Tozama,  36,  37 

Trade,  9,  24,  29,  51,  52,  56,  103, 
108,  110,  119,  12.5,  145-152,  159, 
161,  169.  194,  218,  219,  266,  275, 
278,  279,  282,  285,  294,  332-334, 
339,  436,  449,  452-458,  465,  480, 
512,  513,  522,  54.3-546,  550-556, 
564,  567-571,  576,578,  587,  589- 
592,  600 

Tran([ueliar,  454,  475 

Transo.xiana,  180,  189,  420,  430 

Travancore,  471,  482 

Trichiuopoli,  461,  462 

Trigue  dynasty,  531 

Trimurti,  367,  409 

Trincomali,  511 

Tringh.     See  Tiugne 

Trinil,  537 

Tripoli,  100 

Tritsu,  365 

Trnkanini,  247,  249 

Trnna  Java,  558 

Tsai,  71,  74.     See  also  Wi;v  Ti 

Tsai  tien.     .See  Kwang  hsl 

Tsaidam,  148 

Tsang  ki,  62 

Tsang  wu  wang.     See  Fei  Ti 

Tsao,  71,  73 

Tsao  Hau,  93 


Tsao  Tsao,  81 ,  86,  87 

Tschekiang,  7 

Tsrliernajev,  Michael,  222 

T.schirikov,  Ale.xis,  221 

Tse,  72 

Tse  Liang,  83 

Tse  wan  ta  shi.     See  Davatsi 

T.seng,  Marquis,  1 10,  534 

Tshandala,  375,  376 

Tsi,  71-73 

Tsi  Wang,  106 

Tsimiar,  577 

Tsin,  Prince  of,  87 

Tsin  dynasty,  82,  87,  88 

Tsin  dynasty,  later,  93 

Tsin  kingdom.     See  Chin 

Tsin  Kuei,  94,  95 

Tsin  Wu  Ti.     See  Sze  ma  Yek 

Tsinai,  7 

Tsiug,  province,  78 

Tsinhai,  109 

Tsitsikar,  220 

Tsiumeik,  Princess,  577 

Tso  chin  ming,  60 

Tso  Tsung  tang,  1 14 

Tsong  ko  pa,  189 

Tsuchi,  21 

Tsiuda,  30 

Tsugaru  Strait,  1 ,  2 

Tsukushi,  5,  7 

Tsuuemoto,  17 

Tsunetoki,  21 

Tsushima,  1,  21,  40,  119 

Tsze  sze,  66 

Tsze  Ying,  76,  77 

Tu  fa.    See  To  ba 

Tu  fo,  85 

Tu  mvn,  158 

Tu  Tsung,  95 

Tuamotu  Island,  301,315,316,318, 

341 
Tuan,  Prince,  111 
Tuan  TuBg,  95 
Tuan  Yie,  88 
Tnbu.ai  Islands,  315,  316 
Tuchi  (Duchi),  141 
Tuduk,  532-534 
Tughau  Timur.     See  Tohcan 
Tughlak,  House  of.  419,  426-428 
Tuii  (To  Lei),  95,  103,  175,  176 
Tunian  (Denman),  140 
Tumen-ula,  114 
Tumua,  491 
Tun,  Prince,  1 1 1 
Tun  huaug,  88 
Tun  shih  huai,  156 
Tung.     .See  Kung  Ti 
Tung  Chau,  71 
Tung  chi.     See  Mi  Tsuno 
Tung  Cho,  86,  87 
Tung  hu,  140,  141 
Tung  kwo,  114 


G4U 


HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD 


Inttrz 


THngtu,  :i 

Tuug  Wc,  89 

Tmisusillii,  87,  94,  140,  141,  153, 
170,  173,  175,  205,  209-215 

Tiiiisliih  hiiai,  211 

Tup  Tiimir,  97 

Turaiiuiii,  355 

Turiouun.  ISO,  186,  196,  198,  219, 
223,  224 

Turfaii.  oi\sis,  125 

Turkestau,  57,  79,  96,  107,  108, 
110,  114.  124,  125,  129,  131,  135, 
138,  139,  166,  171-173,  180,  182- 
184,  186,  193,  195-199,  217,  222, 
223 

Turkestan,  East  and  West,  90, 123, 
125,  145-153,  167,  168,  174,  180, 
183,  186,  195,  196-199,  226 

Turkey,  182 

Turks,  91.  92,  127,  129,  136,  139, 
147,  150-161,  163,  167-170,  174, 
176,  204-206,  209,  211,  406,  420, 
424,  426.  445,  448,  549,  604 

Turnhull,  320 

Turner,  (Jeorge,  324 

Tumour,  (ieorge,  497 

Turon,  531,  !J32 

Turvasa,  364 

Tusclii.     See  Jrji 

Tutuila.  324,  326-.i28,  343 

Twau,  211 

Tvlos,  587 

Ua  Tsong,  533 

XJilaijin,  16 

V.laya  III,  Ceylon,  506 

lIilMaka  Kainaputta,  391 

t'dipur,  433,  437 

Uilwa  Nala  (Rajmahal),  465 

Udyana,  83 

Ugrasena,  568 

Uigurians,  82,  95,  1.52,  154,  1.57, 
158,  160,  161,  163,  167-171,  173- 
175,  187,  198,  206-208,  211 

I'jfalvy,  Karl  Eugen,  131 

Uji,  10,  14-16 

XJju,  503 

L'lu  Mongol,  197 

Unclii  Mountains,  5 

Uniteil  States  of  America,  45-47, 
52,  54,  56,  108,  120,  243,  244, 
282,  293,  298,  312,  321-324,  326- 
328,  330,  334,  336,  343,  470,  551, 
602,  606,  613 

United  Tribes  of  New  Zealand,  334 

Universal  Dutch  United  East  In- 
dia Company,  551,  552,  558,  559 

Unoi  (Huns),  139 

Upili,  393 

Upanishads,  382,  383,  416 

Upatissa  II  (Ceylon),  505 

Upolo,  326,  327 


Urakanii,  29 

Ural  Mountains,  124,206,  218,  360 

Ur.il-Altai.  135,  154,  206,  360,  361 

Uravcla,  391 

Urban  V,  pope,  100 

Urga,  194 

Urgenj.  198 

Urhuya  (dictionary),  66,  106 

Urusan,  32 

Usbeks.     Sec  Uzbegs 

Ushas,  367 

Usun,  141,  142,  144,  152,  154 

Utsh,  423 

L'ttararam.itsliaritra,  418 

Uycno,  40,  41,  49 

Uyesugi,  23 

Uibegs,    181,    186,    196-199,    208, 

429,  438,  483 
Uzgent,  172 
Uzun  Hasan,  186 
Uzziah,  589 

Vaisv.v,  375,  377-380,  382 

Vajradhara,  409 

Valalihi,  402.  408 

VaUkcnier,  Adrian,  552 

Van  Diemen's  Land,  252-257,  263, 

272-277,  279,  282,  286.   See  also 

Tasmania 
Vao  Nigne,  533,  534 
Varuna.  367,  385 
Vas.-mtcsi'mi,  418 
Vasislitha,  369 
Vattezhat,  387,  388 
Vavau  (Tonga),  307,  329,  330 
Vaz,  Lopi),  451 
Vedrmta,  383,  395 
Vedas,  364,  366,  368. 374,  379, 382- 

385,  411,412,415-417,445,588 
Vedda,  358,  360.  495,  499,  573 
Vellore,  470,  472,  475 
Venice.  450.  452,  581,  604 
Versailles,  I'uace  of,  470 
Vesiili,  393.  394,  402 
Viceroys  of  India,  493 
Victoria,  Australia,  245,  251,  270- 

272,  277-280,  283,  284,  286-290, 

292-297,  299, "339 
Victoria,  Queen,  493 
Victoria,  river,  236 
Vienna,  127,  009 
Vijaya,  378,  387,  504-510 
Vijaya  Babu  I,  ,506,  508 
Vij.aya  Bahu  II,  III,  IV,  509.  510 
Vijaya  Raja  Simha,  513 
Vikkama  Bahu  I.  Ceylon,  507 
Vikrainuditya  IV,  408 
Vimila  DhamniaSurya  I,  512 
Vindhya  Mountains,  348,  386,  419, 

42.i."424 
Vipa8(Beyeh).  364 
Vira  Pandu,  508 


Visftkbadatta,  418 

Vishnu,  353,   374,    384,  388,  400, 

410-413,  416,  498,  513,  519,  547, 

555 
Visbnuwardhana,  408 
Visivauiitra,  369 
Vita   Levu,    301,   312.     See    also 

Fiji 
Vitasta,  364 
Vizagapat.an,  457 
Vhidiniir,  175 
Vladivostok,  226,  228 
Vlaniing,  Arnold  do,  568 
Vogules,  203,  207 
Volga,   96,  99,   158,  205-207,  217, 

218 
Volliynia,  96 
Voltaire,  464 

Wa.     See  .Iai'an  and  Wo 

WaKwak,  542 

Waitaugi,  33.5-337 

Waitz,  Theodore,  320 

Wakainatsu,  49 

Waketield,  Edward  Gibbon,  283- 
285,  335,  336 

Wakka,  495,  499 

Walatbawar,  battle  of,  461 

Wiildcrsee,  (\)uiit  Alfred  von,  111 

Wallis,  Samuel,  315 

W;'iliniki,  496 

Wan  li.     See  Chen  Tsuno 

Wang,  70 

Wang  An  Sbih.  93,  94 

Wang  dynasty,  113 

Wang  liien,  115 

Wang  ken,  116 

Wang  Mang.  78-81 

Wang  wen  kao,  69.  70 

Wanga,  king  of,  497 

Wanyamwesi,  308,  320 

Warckauri.  See  Cqatham  Is- 
lands 

Wardliainana,  402 

Warg,aon.  469,  470 

Wasabha,  504 

Wasimba,  573 

Wasodhara.  390 

Wasuki.  Prince,  358 

Watson,  Admiral.  462 

Wattha  Guniaui  Abhaya.  501,  503, 
504 

Wuyii,  375 

Wazir  All  of  Oudh,  471 

We.  62,  71,  74,  75.  81,  83,  87-89, 
156,   157,    164  ' 

We  dynasty.  3,  6,  82,  87,  89,  158 

We  men,  1 1 5 

We,  East,  89 

We.  North,  88 

We.  West,  89 

Woi,  59,  70.    See  also  Wb 


Index  I 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


641 


Wei  liai  wei,  111 

Wei  Hou,  91 

Wei  River,  70,  76,  82 

Weihaiwei,  53 

Weiho,  176 

Wellesley,     Arthur.      See    Wel- 
lington 

Welleslev,  Baron,  Richard  Cowley, 
472-477,  608 

Wellington,  Duke  of,  472,  474 

Wellington  (Australia),  336,  340 

Wen  Huang  ti,  212 

Wen  Ti,  77,  80,  89,  90 

Wen  Tsung,  97,  109 

Wen  Wang,  64,  65,  70 

Wen  wu  Huang  Ti,  177 

Wengi,  408 

Wentworth,  Blaxland,  and  Lawson 
(colonists),  261,  270 

Wheeler,  Sir  Hugh,  491 

Whish,  General,  487 

White  Horde.     See  Horde 

Wliite  Huns.     See  Huns 

White  Lilies,  108 

White  Sea.  219 

Wideha,  371 

Wihara,  371 

Wijaya,  498-300,  504 

Wijaya  II,  503 

Wikraniorwasi,  418 

William  I,  Emperor,  330 

William  IV  of  England,  284,  3.34 

Williams,  John,  325,  341 

Williamstonn,  278 

Wilmot,  Sir  Eardley,  274,  276 

Wingchau,  525 

Wira-rajendra  Wodeyar,  481 

Wira-Salamega,  506 

AVissmann,  308 

Wo,  Great  ( Wa,  Japan),  7,  8 

Wo  k'uo  t'ai.     See  Ogotai 

Wo  wu  li  hai  mi  shi.     See  Ogcl 
Haimish 

Wodevar,  466,  467,  472 

W„lf,"L.,  308 

Wu,  71,  74.  81,  87,  92,  97 

Wu  Chao,  90,  91 

Wu  Cheng  sze,  91 

Wu  dynasty,  87 

Wu  Han.  90,  91 

Wu  hwan,  140,  210,  211 

Wu  ku.  156 

Wu  San  Kuei,  102,  105.  106 

Wu  Ti,  77-80,  83,  84,  88,  89,  142, 
148,  151 

Wu  Tsze  Shan,  69 

Wu  tsze  tien,  91 

Wu  Tsung,  84,97,  98,  189 

Wu  nang,  64,  140 

Wu  Yue,  93 

Wuchang,  58,  59 

Wuti.  7 

VOL.  11-41 


XAN'ADtT,  96 

Xavier,  Francis,  24,  102,  452 
Xerxes,  404 
Xieng-JIai,  516,  525 

Yaboloni  Mocntaiss,  124 

Yadawa,  359,  370,  378 

Yadu,  364 

Yaishan,  93 

Yajnavalkya,  417 

Yajur  Vedas,  416 

Yak,  161 

Yakkas,  499 

Yakshu,  356,  338 

Yakub  Bey,  110,  195,  199,  223 

Yakuts,   202,  204,   205,    210,  212, 

215,361 
Yakutsk,  219 
Yalu,  53,  114,  119 
Yama  (Yima),  362 
Yamashiro,  5 
Yamato,  4,  5,  7,  9,  10,  21 
Yamato-dake,  7,  9 
Yandabo,  Peace  of,  479,  523 
Yang,  61,  78 
Yang  chau,  58,  100 
Yang  Chien,  89 
Yang  chou.     See  Chiang  tu 
Yang  Kwei  fei,  91 
Yang  Ti,  90 
Yang  Yen,  92 
Yangtsze   Kiang,  58,  71,  87,  102, 

109,  110,  176,  347,  515 
Yao,  59,  60,  63,  101 
Yao  Chang,  88 
Yarkand,  82,   107,   152,   195,  223. 

407 
Yasalalaka  Tissa,  5(M 
Yasodhama,  408 
Yasutoki,  21 
Yau  chen,  80 
Yau  yiu.     See  Yao 
Y'ear  mottoes,  78 
Yebis,  4 
Yediger,  208 
Ycdo,  20,  31,  33,37-41,  43,  44,  46, 

48-50,  119 
Yedo,  Bay  of,  49 
Yedo  Michifusa,  44 
Yeizai,  11 

Yellow  Sea,  57,  58,  114,  115,  140 
Yellow  Turbans,  81,  86,  87 
Y?lu  A  pao  chi,  212 
Yelui  Chutsai.    See  Ilichu  tsai 
Yemen.  598 

Yen,  71,  75,  78,  88,  92,  101,  115 
Yen,  Northern,  87 
Yen,  Western,  85 
Yen  King,  171 
Yen  Ti.     See  Siien  NnsG 
Yen  tsnng,  93,  107,  395 
Yen  Y'en,  155-158,  206,  211 


Yenissei,  157,  158,  203 

Yenissei  Ostiaks,  130,  203,  204 

Yesukai  (Yissugay),  170 

Yesun  Timnr,  97 

Yezo,  1,  2,  45,  49,  130,  213,  215 

Yi  Tsung,  84 

Yie.     See  Chang  te  fi; 

Yie  In  Ta  shi.     See  Te  Tscng 

Yima.     See  Yama 

Yin,  61.    See  also  Shang  dtnastt 

Yin  ti,  62,  93 

Ying,  81 

Ying  chang,  101 

Ying  Tsung,  93,  97,  101 

Yippen,  12 

Yo.     See  Rung  Ti 

Yodo,  sect,  12 

Y'ogini,  412 

Yoh  Fei,  94 

Yokohama,  11,  47 

Yorifusa,  44 

Yori-iye,  21,  22 

Yorinaga,  18 

Yoritomo,    11.    18,   20-22,  34,  35, 

37,  38 
Yorktown  (Tasmania),  272 
Yoshiaki,  23,  30 
Yoshimitsu,  23 
Yoshimochi,  shogun,  23 
Yoshimori,  23 
Yoshimune,  41 
Yoshinaka,  18 
Yoshiuiri.  23 
Yoshinobn,  44 
Yoshitoki,  21 
Yoshitsune,  18,  20 
Yoshu,  35,  36 
Yu,  78 
Yu  Ite,  214 
Yukio,  116 
Yu  wang,  71 
Yu,  59.  62    70,  78 
Yu  chao,  62 
Yii  wang,  64 
Yu  wen  chio,  89 
Yii  wen  Hu,  90 
Yii  wen  Tai,  89 
YU  yii  kung,  63 
Yuan  dynasty,  95,  96 
Yuan  King,  179 
Yuan  Shan  chien,  89 
Yuan  Ti,  79,  80,  84,  88 
Yudhisthira,  370 
Yue  (eh),  71,  74,. 77 
Yue  chi,  196 
Yue  Tshi  (Yueh  Ti),  79,  141, 144- 

146.  148,  151-153,  158,  169,  407 
Yukinaja.     See  Konishi 
Yumen,  211 
Ynmen  Pass,  151,  153 
Yung,  59 
Yung  cheng.     See  Chi  Tsu.vg 


042 


HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD 


■\niif.'  lo  (Tai  Tsung),  23 
Vuniuiii,  58.  60,  101,  IOC.  107,  110, 

177,  515,  516,  529,  533,  534 
Ymius  Khoja  of  Tashkent.  197 
Yiisiif  Bpp,  183 
Viisuf  of  Ka^liinir,  433 
Yusufsai,  433 

Zaoan  Ahai'TAN,  190.  193 
Za^atai.     See  Jagatai 


Zaituii,  57,  100 
2,11111)081,  611.  613 
Zaniuriii  uf  Calicut,  450 
Zanzibar,  556.  599,  607,  611 
Zarailiiirstra.     See  Zoroastrian- 

ISM 

Zayton      See  Zaiti:s 

Zeliir  ed-diii  .Muhamraed  Babur  II, 

186,  187.  429-440 
Zeidites,  575 


Zeiiiark.     See  Zimark 

Zend,  361,362 

Zimark,  159 

Zimmerman,  Alfred,  259,  268,  278 

Zinstan.  |i"po  of,  98 

Zipaiigu,  606 

Zdroastriani.-im,  165,  167,  169,  187, 
I      ,351 
I  Zulfikar,  442,  444 


\ 


I 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LLBRAfRY, 

1X>S  ANGELE^.  CALIF. 


university  o«C-'Horni. 
SOUTHERN  REG'O^'^^^hL^.es  CA  90024-1388 
»rom  whtoh  It  wa.  borrowea 


:aliforma  library 

Angdes 

ie  last  date  stampnl  below. 


'^^ 


'-rA- 


I;  ^ 


ii^ 


